1

Contents
INTORDUCTION : Mankinds journey towards powered flight. .......................................................... 4
CHAPTER 1 : Reciprocating engines ................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Inline and V type engines............................................................................................................. 6
1.2 Radial engines ............................................................................................................................... 7
1.3 Carburators .................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 Fuel injection .............................................................................................................................. 10
1.5The Diesel Aero engine ............................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER2 : Jet engines ...................................................................................................................... 12
2.1The Turbojet Engine .................................................................................................................... 12
2.1.1 Development of Centrifugal and Axial turbojet engines ..................................................... 13
2.1.2Modern developments ........................................................................................................... 14
2.2Turboprop Engines ....................................................................................................................... 15
2.3 Turbofan Engines ........................................................................................................................ 16
2.3The Turboshaft Engine ................................................................................................................ 18
2.4 Pulsejet Engines ......................................................................................................................... 19
2.5 Ramjet Engines ........................................................................................................................... 20
2.5 The Scramjet ............................................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 3 : A look into the future .................................................................................................... 22
3.1 Nuclear powered aircraft ............................................................................................................. 22
3.2 Fuel cell and Hydrogen powered aircraft .................................................................................... 24
3.4 Solar powered Aircraft ................................................................................................................ 25
3.5 Diesel and bio-fuels .................................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 4 : Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 26

List of figures
Figure 1 Mesopotamian winged god Anunnaki ..2
Figure 2 Ravanas flying machine..2
Figure 3 Leonardo daVincis vision of a helicopter2
Figure4 First flight of Montgolfier brothers...3
Figure 5 First powered flight by the Wright Brothers.3
Figure 6 The Wright Flyer engine3
2

Figure7 The first powered flying machine used a steam engine3
Figure8 The Merlin and a Supermarine Spitfire4
Figure 8 The Bugatti U 16 water cooled U type engine..5
Figure 9 Napier cub X engine..5
Figure 10 a modern four cylinder opposed engine..5
Figure11 Wright J-5 whirlwind..6
Figure12 Pratt& Whitney double Wasp 18 cylinder..6
Figure 13 Lockheed c-609 Constellation6
Figure 14 Le Rhone C-9 engine.6
Figure 15 The cylinders rotate.6
Figure 16 Internal arrangement of a radial engine...7
Figure 17 Ford Trimotor..7
Figure 18 An updraft carburetor..7
Figure 19 Antoinette V11.8
Figure 20 Focke Wolf 190D.8
Figure 21 A modern Diesel aircraft.9
Figure 22 The first diesel aircraft..9
Figure23 HerosEngine.10
Figure 24 Camprini..10
Figure 25 Heinkel HE178.10
Figure 26 Messerschmitt Me 262..11
Figure 27 Gloster meteor...11
Figure 28 a centrifugal flow jet engine..11
Figure 29 Junkers Jumo 004..11
Figure 30 Sir Frank Whittle...11
Figure 31 De Havilland Comet..12
Figure 32 The CFM composite blade engine.12
Figure 33 Rolls Royce RB50 Trent13
Figure 34 An Axial flow turboprop ...13
3

Figure 35 Kuznetsov NK-12 on a TU 95 ...13
Figure 36 TP400 engines mounted on a Airbus A 400M14
Figure 37 Diagram of a turbofan engine.14
Figure 38 Afterburners operating15
Figure 39 PW1000G engine15
Figure 39 a turboshaft helicopter engine.16
Figure 40 Sikorsky CH-35...16
Figure 41 Junkers E126 Pulse jet aircraft17
Figure 42 operation of a pulse jet17
Figure 43 Boeings Light Arial Multi-purpose Vehicle (LMAV) concept17
Figure 44 Operation of a ramjet18
Figure 45 Kostikov 302...18
Figure 46 Leduc 0.118
Figure 47 A surface to air missile...19
Figure 49 X-43 being released from the underside of a B52.19
Figure 50 Pratt and Whitney HTRE-3 direct nuclear engine..20
Figure 51 Artists impression of a nuclear aircraft circa 1950s..21
Figure 52 Boeings fuel cell aircraft ..22
Figure 53 Rendering of the Proposed DLR Smartfish..22
Figure 54 NASAs Solar plane...23
Figure 55 The Sunseeker 11 solar powered manned aircraft.23
Figure 56 Airbus E-fan..23







4

INTORDUCTION : Mankinds journey towards powered flight.

Since the dawn of time, man has been forever fascinated by the heavens. The skies were the
realms of the gods, for whos attributes, many cultures added the power to sore among the
birds. These divine beings had the power to come and leave as they wish, no mountain and
ocean was an obstacle (Figure 1).
Man forever dreamed of taking to the skies and soaring
among the birds. From ancient times many dreamt of
devising elaborate machines to take them to the
heavens, accounts of such fabulous creations are found
throughout ancient mythology, one famous such is the
flying machine of Ravana (Figure2).
It was not until the renaissance that the budding field
of science that we find physical records of flying
machine designs (Figure 3). Man carrying kites have
been reported in ancient China and Japan, but physical
evidence is yet to be found.
Mans first recorded flight was not in an aircraft as we
know now, but in a balloon. The Montgolfier brothers
were the first recorded human beings to take into the
skies in their hot air balloon on 19
th
October
1784.Prior their flight, a test flight was performed
successfully with a Sheep, duck and a chicken on
board in June the same year, marking the first
established account of the flight of a species who
evolution did not intend to leave solid ground (the
sheep).However, the occupants were at the mercy of
the winds. Steam engines were too heavy to be
practical in a flying machine. However the first
controlled powered flight was achieved using a small
steam engine in 1852.While lighter than air and heavier than air flying continued to develop,
the lack of a lightweight mode of propulsion to maintain flight and control direction remained
an unsolved problem.
Figure 2Mesopotamian winged god
Anunnaki
Figure 2 Ravanas flying machine.
Figure 3 Leonardo daVincis vision of
what appears to be a helicopter
5








The dawn of powered flight
The dream of powered flight did not materialize till the invention of the internal combustion
engine. By the end of the 19
th
century, internal combustion engines had reached a level of
development where the power to weight ratio was adequate enough to propel an aircraft. The
Wright brothers are the first to record a powered flight in a heavier than air machine.
Airships, preceded airplanes into service also powered by gasoline or diesel engines.
The following pages will follow the evolution of aircraft propulsion systems and future
trends.













Figure4 First flight of
Montgolfier brothers.
Figure 5 First powered flight of a heavier than
air flying machine by the Wright Brothers in
1903
Figure 6 The Wright Flyer engine
Figure7 The first powered flying machine
used a steam engine
6

CHAPTER 1 : Reciprocating engines
This Chapter covers the evolution of reciprocating internal combustion engines in aircraft
propulsion up to modern aircraft.
1.1 Inline and V type engines.
Prior to the development of gas turbine engines in the 1930s reciprocating internal
combustion engines was the sole mode of propulsion for aircraft. A wide range of
configurations existed, and today, piston engines continue to be developed, albeit in smaller
aircraft. The early aircraft engines were derivatives of automobile engines produced by
automobile manufacturers, notable among them are Rolls Royce, Alfa Romeo, Hispano Suiza
Bugatti and Packard.
Aircraft engines, in general are built to a higher level of durability than automobile engines.
Furthermore, several redundancies are built into an engine.
Early engines were inline engines which resembled automobile engines of the time. These
engines were narrow, reducing the frontal area of the aircraft. Inline engines could be
vertical, inverted (crankshaft above pistons) or horizontal according to aircraft design. As
power requirements increased the size of inline engines, crankshafts and crankcases increased
in weight to withstand increasing bending moments and stresses, thus reducing the power to
weight ratio.
Air cooled engines encountered difficulties in cooling cylinders at father away from the
propellers, thus requiring heavy liquid cooing systems. Early engine failures were mainly due
to cooling system malfunctions. It was not until the 1920s that manufacturers truly
understood air cooling.
V type engines offered the solution. V engines were produced far back as 1886 by Daimler.
These engines provided far better power to weight ratios as well as being more compact. The
wright brothers first used a V8 in 1910.By the dawn of world war 11 , vtype engines reached
mamoth proportions, powering fast combat aircraft. One of the most succesfull V type
aircraft engines is the Rolls Royce Merlin. Which was built from 1933 well into the 1950s
and is still operational in many aircraft. This 27litre V12 produced over 1000horspower.
Supercharging was the norm in aircraft by this time,which not only incresed power, but
enebled aircraft to attain higher altitudes.




Figure8 The Merlin and a Supermarine
Spitfire
7

During the first half of the 20
th
century, several piston engine configurations were built and
tested, despite not becoming commercial successes, these engines are most interesting(figures
8 &9).







The 2 cylinder Lawrence A3 was the first flat aircraft engine. Lycoming and continental were
at the forefront of flat engine technology in the 1930s and 40s.The first modern opposed
engine was the Continental A40 in1931 .Today opposed, air-cooled four- and six-cylinder
piston engines are by far the most common engines used
in small general aviation aircraft requiring up to 400
horsepower (300 kW) per engine.




1.2 Radial engines
The other major development in piston engines was the radial engine. Radial engines are
universally regarded as air cooled. However the first such engine built in 1901 was water
cooled. In 1903-4 Jacob Ellhammer constructed the first air cooled radial engine, which was
later used to power a triplane of his own design. The radial engine Bleriot IX was the first
aircraft to cross the English Channel. Radial engines posses several major advantages ,
appealing to aircraft manufacturers at the time, The radial design ensured adequate cooling of
cylinders and eliminated liquid cooling systems, which were a liability especially in combat
aircraft. Radial engines possess shorter crankshafts which reduce weight as well as vibration.
Some notable radial engines are stated below.
Figure 8 The Bugatti U 16 water cooled U
type engine
Figure 9 Napier cub X engine with 4
banks of four cylinders each
Figure 10 a modern four cylinder
opposed engine.
8




Between 1909 and 1919, radial engines, as we know today, fell out of favor and were
replaced by a novel radial engine; the Rotary or Rotating radial (Not to be confused with
Wankel engines). These engines gained wide acceptance during the short time during WW1.







The rotary engine was unique due to the cylinders rotating with crankshaft and crank case
stationary. These unorthodox engines were seen as beneficial for their smooth operation,
better cooling due to the cylinders rotating and higher power to weight ratio (due to the
absence of a heavy flywheel) .Many early air speed records were set in aircraft powered by
rotary engines. The end of WW1 saw the rotary radial fall out of favor, the engines produced
prominent gyroscopic precession, and a significant component of the engines power was used
to overcome its own aerodynamic drag. Therefore, the conventional radial engine was
preferred.
However, radial engines had several drawbacks; the large frontal area resulted in excessive
drag. The large front mounted engine hinders visibility, engine configuration makes multiple
valve designs impractical, and thus most engines have two valves per cylinder actuated by
pushrods. This limits the possible improvements. Multiple row engines suffer from cooling
Figure11 Wright J-5
whirlwind used for the first
transatlantic flight
Figure12 Pratt& Whitney double
Wasp 18 cylinder. The pinnacle of
radial engine technology 1939-
1960
Figure 13 Lockheed c-609 constellation
powered by 4 double Wasp engines
Figure 14 Le Rhone C-9 engine.
Used by the French during WW1.
Figure 15 The cylinders rotate,
driving the propeller.
9

problems. Improvements on these issues continued and radials remained the choice engine in
commercial and military applications until the advent of jet engines.







The largest radial engine produced was the 28cylinder Pratt & Whitney_R-4360which
entered service in1944.
Large piston engines are virtually nonexistent in modern aircraft. However, manufacturers
still produce small piston aero engines for light and medium applications. These engines are
reliable and easy to maintain. Major reciprocating engine manufacturers include Continental,
Lycoming and Rotax. Significant advancement has been made in the past decades in
machining processes, improving the engines reliability. Advancements in engine
management systems have eliminated the pilots interference in fuel air mixture adjusting.
Despite initial appearance remaining unchanged, modern reciprocating engines have better
reliability and fuel economy as a result of increasingly intelligent engine management
systems.
1.3 Carburators
The engines discussed in the previous pages were gasoline powered spark ignition engines
operating in the Otto cycle. Therefore delivery of proper air fuel mixture is required.
The first aircraft engine used in the Wright flyer did not have a carburetor. Fuel dripped into
the combustion chamber and was vaporized by heat from
the crankcase. Carburetors, a development form the auto
industry was then used. The major disadvantage of using
carburetors was that the aircrafts maneuverability was
significantly restricted. Steep dives, ascents, rolls or
banking in short, any maneuver causing significant G
force, would cut off or disrupt fuel delivery in a float type
conventional carburetor. Float regulation will fail under
negative G or turbulence.
Typically updraft carburetors are used so as to prevent
flooding of the engine and enable a gravity feed lest fuel
Figure 16 internal arrangement of a radial
engine
Figure 17 Ford Trimotor
Figure 18 An updraft carburetor,
common among early aircraft.
10

pumps fail as the updraft carburetor can be mounted low in the engine block.
The pressure carburetor, designed by the Bendix Corporation USA, was introduced in 1940.
This can be considered an early form of throttle body fuel injection.
After WW11 Bendix further developed this technology into its RSA multiport continuous
flow fuel injection.
1.4 Fuel injection
The 1902 Antoinette8V was the first aircraft engine to sport fuel injection. Fuel injection
eliminated fuel delivery issues previously mentioned with regard to carburetors.

While carburetors were the norm in the US and
Great Britain, almost all German aircraft of WW11
had gasoline direct fuel injection as standard.
Junkers Jumo series, BMW 801,Daimler _Benz DB-
601 are a few examples.


Fuel injection became the norm in piston
driven aircraft after WW11, improved
efficiency, reliability, smooth operation, as
well as independence of G forces are only a
few advantages.
Modern aircraft are equipped with electronic
fuel injection, the first of which was
introduced during the Korean war by the
Bendix corporation. Electronic fuel injection has proven to be more efficient and than
mechanical fuel injection for spark ignition engines. Fuel delivery can be controlled
according to operating conditions to ensure optimum performance via the Electronic Control
Unit. EFI is more reliable than mechanical fuel injection. All modern aircraft make use of
EFI.






Figure 19 Antoinette V11 powered by the
fuel injected Antoinette 8V engine
Figure 20 Focke Wolf 190D powered by a BMW
801 direct injection Diesel engine
11

1.5The Diesel Aero engine
While we outlined the development of reciprocating engines, our focus was spark ignition
engines which operated on the Otto cycle. A brief overview of Diesel engines is also needed.
Diesel aero engines are nothing new. The first diesel aircraft engines appeared in the 1920s .
Diesel engines did not suffer fuel delivery issues as did gasoline engines of the day and the
Diesel cycle is more efficient than the Otto cycle. The first successful Diesel powered aircraft
took to the skies in 1928 (figure16).Interest in diesel power died after WW11. Only in the
recent past has a renewed interest in diesels
immerged. Environmental concerns as well as
increasing avgas prices have made diesel engines a
good alternative to spark ignition engines.








Today, reciprocating engines are confined to small lightweight aircraft. Radial as well as
horizontally opposed engines are used. However we cannot say that the era of reciprocating
aero engines is over, as we shall see in further chapters.









Figure 22 first diesel aircraft: A StinsonSM IDX
with a Packard diesel radial engine. Figure 21 a modern Diesel aircraft
12

CHAPTER2 : Jet engines
This chapter covers the development of jet propulsion up to the present day.
2.1The Turbojet Engine
The idea of jet propulsion was conceptualized many millennia ago, before any means of
mechanical transportation, let alone flight was devised. Hero of Alexandrias Aeolipile
engine (150B.C) in ancient Egypt is said to be the first account of the reaction engine
concept. This simple device, converted steam into a high pressure jet to rotate a sphere. It
was, however, just a toy.
However, reaction engine concepts began to emerge only in the late
19
th
and early 20
th
century. Several concepts were put forward, notable
among them, the 1913 design by Rene Lorin is noteworthy. The deisgn
while not a pure jet engine, used a conventional piston engine to
compress air, and ignite the air fuel mixture later. This provided more
thrust than propeller aircraft. But manufacture of such an engine
remained beyond the capabilities of the day. Known as motorjets,
these type of engines flew in a few aircraft during WW11. The
Caproni Camprini N1 which flew in 1940 was the first motorjet
aircraft (Figure 24) and was considered by many to be the first jet
aircraft due to the secrecy which surrounded Nazi military
development at the time. Motorjets (or pulse jets as some refer to
them), did not gain popularity and development was halted after
WW11, in favor of modern jet engines.
Sir Frank Whittle is credited with the invention of the jet engine. He
file a patent for a turbojet engine in 1930. By 1937,Whittle succeeded
in producing a working engine. Unknown to Whittle, a German team headed by Hans Von
Ohain, produced the worlds first aircraft to flu under turbojet power, the Heinkel HE 178 in
1939.Whittles jet first flew in 1941 in a Gloster Meteor.
Both Whittle and Ohain pursued the design of centrifugal flow
turbojets. They worked independently and it is established that
they were unaware of each others work. Whittle engines were
more durable due to availability of advanced materials that
could withstand high pressures and temperatures.





Figure23 HerosEngine
Figure 24 Camprini
Figure 25 Heinkel HE178
13






2.1.1 Development of Centrifugal and Axial turbojet engines
As aforementioned, the first jet engines were of centrifugal compressor design. Here a
centrifugal impeller would compress incoming air and force to the outer perimeter of the
engine where it is compressed by a divergent duct setup and ignited in a combustion
chamber. The overall construction was simple
and robust. Debris sucked into the engine, for
instance, did not result in catastrophic failure.
Manufacturers of the day were able to produce
these engines in significant numbers. The
impeller could be machined from a single billet.
The working principle of the centrifugal impeller
was well known at the time and perfected by
automotive manufacturers in the form of
supercharges. Future generations of Rolls Royce,
General electric, Allison, Pratt & Whitney and
other British and American engines followed
Whittles model. However, as manufacturing
methods advanced, the disadvantages of
centrifugal flow jet engines began to overweigh
its advantages. The impeller was large and heavy.
Prevalent material constraints limited the
operational speed of the engine, thus reducing
efficiency and requiring a larger diameter impeller. This increased frontal area and thereby
increasing drag.. The gasses had to be ducted through the
combustion chamber to the rear which also resulted in
losses.
Development of axial flow jet engines were carried out
more are less at the same time as Whittle and Ohain.
Germany was in the forefront of axial compressor jet
engines. The axial compressor is in essence a turbine in
reverse.

Figure 27 Gloster meteor

Figure 28 a centrifugal flow jet engine
Figure 30 Sir Frank Whittle with
one of his prototype jet engines.
Figure 29 Junkers Jumo 004
Figure 26 Messerschmitt Me 262
14

Unlike centrifugal compressors, axial flow compressors could not produce required pressure
in a single stage, several successive impeller sets have to be installed.
The worlds first jet fighter , the Messerschmitt Me 262, which was introduced in 1944 was
powered by the Junkers Jumo 004 axial flow turbojet engine. Junkers produced 8000
examples of this pioneering engine to wide success. After WW11, allied forces acquired
many German aircraft and studied their technology extensively.
The end of WW11 saw the emergence of jet powered aircraft into wide use. Today, axial
flow turbojets are almost universal in modern large and medium fixed wing airliners and
combat aircraft. Centrifugal engines have also improved greatly and can be found in many
small aircraft as well as helicopters, due to their compact dimensions.







2.1.2Modern developments
Although remaining similar in working principle, turbojet engines have improved vastly in
terms of efficiency, power to weight ratio, emissions and noise levels. Advancements in
material sciences has provided stronger, more lightweight materials which can withstand
higher temperatures, pressures and speeds, all contributing to more powerful and efficient
engines.
Single crystal growing of turbine blades is a well established method of manufacture. New
3D printing of parts and the use of composite ceramic matrixes has already been announced.






Figure 31 De Havilland Comet. first flown in
1949, ushered in the age of passenger jet travel.
Figure 32 The CFM composite blade
engine set to improve fuel economy
by 15% has 4500 standing orders as
of 2013

15


2.2Turboprop Engines
A turbo prop engine combines the light weight of a jet engine with the low speed efficiency
of propellers. A turbo prop engine generally weighs around half that of a similar powered
piston engine. The power of the turbine is directed to drive a propeller via a reduction gear to
maintain propeller tip speed below the speed of sound (Propellers do not efficiently operate
beyond mach 1). Little useful thrust is produced.
The first design of a turboprop was patented in 1929. by Hungarian Gyrgy Jendrassik.
Jendrassik later succeeded in constructing a working prototype in 1938.A full sized working
engine was produced in 1940. It was of axial compressor design. No further development was
carried out .
Rolls Royce produced the first British turboprop engine, the Trent. This engine had a
centrifugal flow turbojet engine which was geared to a 7 foot propeller. A retrofitted Gloster
Meteor was the first turboprop aircraft to fly, in 1945.The Rolls Royce RB53 Dart
turboprop engine, which was introduced in 1946, remains one of the most successful and
reliable turboprop engines to date, was continuously produced until 1987.
Despite the first turboprop engine being an advanced
axial flow turbojet, production engines remained
centrifugal flow, as we observed in section 2.1 the reason
behind this was that the British and Americans who
pioneered turboprop technology did not have knowledge
of axial flow engines.
The next development in turboprop technology was the
Soviet built Kuznetsov NK-12 the most powerful
turboprop engine to date. The NK-12 is attached to an 8 bladed counter rotating rotor 18 feet
in diameter. The most famous application being the Tupolev TU 95 nuclear bomber, capable
of speeds over 575mph (figure 28 ).


Figure 33 Rolls Royce RB50 Trent
Figure 34 An Axial flow turboprop
Figure 35 Kuznetsov NK-12 on a TU 95
16

Turbopor engines continue to be developed, especially in small civilian aircraft as well as
large cargo aircraft such as the C-130 Hercules. The latest development is the Europrop
TP400 D6 an 11,000horsepower turboprop engine. The design consists of three coaxial
shafts, two of which drive several stages of low, intermediate and high pressure turbines to
generate a high pressure ratio.

Figure 36 TP400 engines mounted on a Airbus A 400M

2.3 Turbofan Engines
Turbofans were developed to combine some of the best features of the turbojet and the
turboprop. Turbofan engines are designed to create additional thrust by diverting a secondary
airflow around the combustion chamber. The turbofan bypass air generates increased thrust,
cools the engine, and aids in exhaust noise suppression. This provides turbojet-type cruise
speed and lower fuel consumption. Most modern airliners use turbofan engines.


Figure 37 Diagram of a turbofan engine

The turbofan is a derivative of the axial flow turbojet engine. The first operational turbofan
was the Daimler-Benz DB 670 in 1943. Low bypass engines were developed, to reduce the
speed of the exhaust gas exiting the engine to a value closer to the aircrafts forward speed, the
first among these engines was the Rolls Royce Conway. By the 1970s afterburners were
installed in turbofan powered jet fighter aircraft. Afterburners injected a prodigious amount
17

fuel upstream of the turbine blades, thereby bypassing the temperature constraints which are
imposed to protect turbine blades. These are used to provide a quick boost of power.
The mid 1960s saw the entry of the high bypass turbofan
engine. These engines produce less noise and have better
fuel economy. The first high bypass turbofan was the
General electric TF39, which powered the Lockheed C-5
Galaxy.
The latest development is the geared turbofan, which
connects the fan and low pressure turbine via a reduction
gearbox (in conventional designs this is a single shaft). This
enables the compressor shafts to be rotated at a higher speed
than the turbo fan shafts. This will reduce the number of stages in both the LP turbine and
compressor. However the gearbox is an added complexity. Pratt and Whitney first ran their
PW1000G geared turbofan engine in 2008.This new engine is set to power several
commercial jet aircraft in the near future.


Figure 39 PW1000G engine








Figure 38 Afterburners operating
18

2.3The Turboshaft Engine
The main difference between a turbojet and turboshaft engine, is that unlike a turbojet where
the exhaust gas is used to produce thrust, the turbo shaft engine uses a free turbine to extract
energy from the exhaust gas and rotate a shaft. Many turboprop engines can be purchased in
turbo shaft configuration as well.
First developed in Germany during WW11
as a power plant for Panzer tanks, turboshaft
engines gained popularity as the choice
engine for helicopters.
Today, larger helicopters use multiple
turboshaft engines.

Figure 40 Sikorsky CH-35 is powered by three turboshaft engines











Figure 39 a turboshaft helicopter engine
19

2.4 Pulsejet Engines
Pulse jets, as their namesake suggest are a type of engine where combustion take place in
pulses. The engine itself is extremely simple with little or no moving parts. The pulsing
action results in high noise levels and vibration, which have prevented their use in manned
aircraft. Today, pulsejets are mainly used in model aircraft and unmanned drones.
Pulsejets are extremely simple .The absence of an external compressor stage reduces the
engines pre combustion pressure ratio to 1.2 or 1.1.

Figure 41 Junkers E126 Pulse jet aircraft
Apart from their simplicity, pulse jets do not apply torque on the airframe as do other jet
engines and reciprocating engines. Several studies are underway to develop a pulse jet
suitable for manned aircraft. One such design is
the pulse ejector thrust augmenter or PETA
developed by Boeing. The augmenter channels
surrounding air to the pulse jet exhaust to
improve cooling and propulsion. One application
is on vertical takeoff aircraft. The jets can be
assembled in series according to the size of the
aircraft.







Figure 42 operation of a pulse jet
Figure 43 Boeings Light Arial Multi-
purpose Vehicle (LMAV) concept,
powered by pulsejets
20

2.5 Ramjet Engines
The ramjet, in principle is similar to the pulse jet, but is a continuously operating engine. The
major drawback being that it requires high airspeed to operate (above 900kmh). A ramjet
engine operates efficiently above mach3 and can attain speeds upto mach6. A ramjet powered
aircraft requires assistance from another engine or rocket to attain a speed where the ram jet
will begin operating.
French inventor Rene Lorin first presented the concept in 1913, (as mentioned in 2.1), but
such phenomenal airspeeds were not attainable at the time, to test the concept in practice. It
was in 1933 that the first operational ramjet engine, the GRD-04 fueled by hydrogen was
tested. The engine was stationary, and air compressed to 200atm was blown into the engine to
simulate forward speed. Later, the phosphorous fueled GRD-08 was launched using a cannon
to attain operational airspeed. This was the first projectile to reach the speed of sound.
During WW11, two ramjet engines were attached to a YAK-7 aircraft for testing. In 1940, the
Kostikov-302 experimental aircraft was constructed. It was launched by a liquid fueled rocket
booster.
Germany also tested ramjet designs during WW11. Shortages of gasoline towards the end of
the war prompted German scientists to use compressed coal dust, which was not successful.
The US navy in collaboration with the University of Southern California produced the
Gorgon series of air to air missiles, beginning in 1948.
The Leduc 0.1 designed by Frenchman Rene Leduc was the worlds first aircraft solely
powered by ramjets. It was carried by a larger aircraft and released at high altitude (figure39).




The Nord 1500-Griffon, built by the then state owned Nord Aviation , was the next step in
ramjet technology. This aircraft was powered by a turbojet and ramjet combined power plant.
Figure 45 Kostikov 302

Figure 44 Operation of a ramjet
Figure 46 Leduc 0.1
21







While, the aircraft proved to be a success, its added complexity and lack of material suitable
to withstand kinetic heating. First flown in 1955, the project was ended. Today, ramjets are
used to power long distance missiles.

2.5 The Scramjet
A variation of the ramjet, the Supersonic Combusting Ramjet , enables combustion of airflow
at supersonic speeds whereas , in a ramjet, the air is decelerated to subsonic speeds before
acceleration.
The first scramjet to fly was produced in Russia in 1991.The hydrogen fueled engine was
mounted on a SA-5 surface to air missile.
In 2004 the NASA X-43A was the first scramjet powered aircraft. This unmanned carft was
released at high altitude form a B52 Stratofotress. In 2013 another unmanned scramjet
aircraft the Boeing X-51 Waverider successfully reached mach 5.1 (4828km/h) .On
January 9
th
2014 the Chinese government tested its first scramjet propelled aircraft ,the WU-
14 marking Chinas entry into hypersonic technology. The design appears to be mainly
focused on carrying warheads and not passenger transport.








Figure 47 A surface to air missile Figure 49 X-43 being released from the
underside of a B52
22

CHAPTER 3 : A look into the future
This chapter covers the future of aircraft propulsion.
3.1 Nuclear powered aircraft
The idea of propelling an aircraft using nuclear power is not novel. During the 1950s and
60s the United Sates and Soviet Union were locked in a race to develop the first nuclear
powered aircraft.
The idea of nuclear propulsion in quite appealing; Aircraft consume vast quantities of fuel
and have to compromise between speed, altitude and range. A nuclear powered aircraft, like
modern nuclear submarines and ships, will be limited in range only by the need for supplies
to sustain its crew. A nuclear aircraft has the ability to be air born for an indefinite period of
time.
Two approaches to nuclear propulsion were initially proposed;
Direct propulsion: Here atmospheric air is channeled through the reactor to be heated.
The heated air is then used to propel a jet engine.
Indirect propulsion: Molten metal (Sodium in most cases) is used to convey heat
from the reactor core. Atmospheric air is heated in an external heat exchanger.
Working models of both designs were constructed, as well as a small lightweight reactor
which was installed in a large aircraft. (Convair NB36 US, and Tupolev TU 95 USSR)
These were the first airborn nuclear reactors. However neither were actually propelled by
nuclear power.
Several obstacles hindered progress;
Direct propulsion resulted in severe radiation being expelled from the exhaust gas.
Indirect propulsion was more heavy and complex.
Neither engine had sufficient power to weight ration to propel an aircraft.
Shielding the aircrafts occupants form nuclear radiation proved to be impractical
at the time due to excessive weight of insulating material.
Possibility of catastrophic damage if such an aircraft would crash in a populated
area.





Figure 50 Pratt and Whitney HTRE-3
direct nuclear engine
23









The programs were cancelled in the 1960s before any flying aircraft were produced.
However, the future might make nuclear aircraft a reality. Modern advancements in
lightweight alloys and composite materials as well as manufacturing techniques will continue
to progress.
As of now, research of nuclear powered aircraft is at a standstill. NASA continues to develop
small nuclear reactors for deep space operation.
Thorium powered reactors have been proposed by researches as an alternative to uranium.
General motors unveiled a Thorium powered concept car in2012 to mark the 100
th

anniversary of Cadillac. However, it did not possess a working power plant. Thorium still
requires a fissile material to irradiate and does produce radioactive isotopes albeit in lesser
numbers than conventional reactors. But the issue of safety during a crash remains
unresolved. Future developments might lead to nuclear aircraft in the next 100 years. These
aircraft could be stationed in the sky indefinitely as reconnaissance or even flying hotels and
military bases








Figure 51 Artists impression of a nuclear aircraft circa 1950s
24

3.2 Fuel cell and Hydrogen powered aircraft
With increasing environmental concerns as well as the cost of fossil fuels, researches are
focusing on alternative means of propelling aircraft. Hydrogen, has been used to fuel aero
engines since the turn of the century. However, the scarcity of hydrogen discouraged its
use.There are two main approaches of hydrogen powered aircraft that we will be seeing in the
future;
Aircrafts which burn hydrogen in a similar manner to burning fossil fuels
Fuel cell powered aircraft.
Future advancements in material sciences shall enable hydrogen to be stored at high pressure
onboard aircraft. Today, carbon fiber tanks are being tested, however high pressure storage is
not possible. Hydrogen has high energy density per mass, but low energy density per volume.
Therefore high pressure storage tanks are required to store sufficient amounts of hydrogen.
The first liquid hydrogen powered aircraft was a modified Russian TU-154 in 1989.
Fuel cell technology, unlike nuclear power is being developed for automotive use in the
present day. Several working examples of fuel cell vehicles exist. An experimental light
aircraft has been already made by the Boeing research division. Launched in 2008, the fuel
cell powered an electric motor supplemented by a Li ion battery.
Leading manufacturers such as Airbus and
Boeing are already planning for hydrogen
fueled aircraft of the future. While fuel cell
technology might not be sufficient to power
large aircraft, hydrogen burning engines will
become the norm in air travel of the future.










Figure 52 Boeings fuel cell aircraft
Figure 53 Rendering of a the Proposed DLR
Smartfish a two passenger fuel cell aircraft
25

3.4 Solar powered Aircraft
The enthusiasm regarding solar powered vehicles has diminished lately, as solar panels still
fail to provide adequate energy per square meter to warrant practical human and cargo
applications. Even so, solar power, coupled with advancements in battery technology, might
prove to be a viable solution in the future.
Aircrafts in the future shall probably have a combination, of Fuel cell, battery, as well as
solar power combined with other jet engines or internal combustion engines. A solar powered
aircraft could remain in the air indefinitely .







In march 2014, Airbus unveiled its E-Fan fully
electric aircraft. Although not solar powered and
with a 1hour flight time, it is a significant leap in
aircraft technology. Agusta Westland have also
unveiled a vertical take off electric aircraft
concept.
3.5 Diesel and bio-fuels
Diesel engine development was mentioned in section 1.3. We shall see an increasing number
of diesel light aircraft in the near future. Bio fuels are already beginning to take hold in the
aircraft industry.Gas turbine engines have the ability to burn a variety of different fuels. In
short any volatile liquid can be used to power a jet airliner. Aviation biofuels were approved
for commercial use in July 2011. Sustainable bio fuels are seen as a major means to reduce
the carbon footprint of aircraft in the near future. Bio fuels can be used in existing engines;
therefore bio fuels are a stepping stone towards more eco friendly aircraft in the future. On
June, 2011 KLM flew a Boeing 737 fueled by used cooking oil. A study by Yale University
suggests the use of bio fuel will reduce 85%of green house gas emissions if agricultural land
were used for bio fuel cultivation and by 60% if natural woodland were to be used.

Figure 54 NASAs Solar plane Figure 55 The Sunseeker 11 solar powered
manned aircraft
Figure 56 Airbus E-fan
26

CHAPTER 4 : Conclusion
Aircrafts have advance in an exponential manner during the past century. We observed that
many concepts of propulsion were first formulated during the industrys infancy. However,
material and manufacturing constraints needed to be overcome in order to make these
concepts a reality.
As technology progressed, we observed more emphasis on speed, range, altitude, reliability
and power. Little attention was paid towards the environmental impact of aircraft. However,
as the 20
th
century came to a close, more and more emphasis was on making aircraft more
environmentally friendly.
We saw that the basic designs of aero engines had changed little since WW11, but what has
improved are materials and manufacturing techniques, which have made aero engines,
lighter, more durable and more efficient.
We also observed some interesting research in the past such as nuclear aircraft. These
concepts were ahead of their time, but the future might bring new discoveries that will make
these concepts a reality.
Finally we saw that the aircraft industry and major aircraft manufacturers have already
established that alternative energy sources are a must to ensure the industrys survival in a
world where fossil fuels are a diminishing resource.
We can conclude that the future of aircraft propulsion shall bring exiting new technologies
that will border on the realms of science fiction and bring flight even closer to the masses.







27


Refereneces
1. Rolls Royce :The Jet Engine 5
th
edition ISBN 0 902121 2 35.
2. www.Airbus .com/ innovation/eco efficiency/design/fuel-cells
3. MIT Technology review ; www.technologyreview.com/news/516576/once-a-joke-
battery-powered-airplanes-are-nearing-reality/
4. Airbus unveils plans to fly battery-powered PLANES within the next 20 years
www.dailymail.uk (25/04/2014)
5. www.frankwhittle.com
6. Smithsonian Air and space magazine : www.airandspace.com
7. Future Aero Engine Designs: An Evolving Vision Konstantinos G. Kyprianidis
Chalmers University of Technology ,Sweden
8. Centrifugal and Axial compressors General electric corporation 2005