2013: Fall Jeremy Wang

MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7

Page 1 of 28
MAT194H1 F Course Summary
Instructor: P. C. Stangeby | LEC 0101 | TUT 0106 | Fall 2013 | 2013-2014

1.1 Course Overview

The difference between an intellectual and the average person is that truth for the lay person
comes from authority, but an intellectual will demand rigorous proof
Prof. P. C. Stangeby

Calculus I consists of a comprehensive study of the theory and application of differential
and integral calculus. The main topics covered in the differential calculus portion of the course
are: the axioms of mathematics; a review of the number systems and types of functions;
definition of the limit; Epsilon-Delta proofs; limit and derivative theorems; and curve sketching.
As for the integral calculus component, these are the main topics: Riemann Definition of the
Integral; the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus; definite and indefinite integrals; u-substitution;
inverse functions; natural log functions; LHopitals Rule, solving differential equations.

Specific applications of this knowledge, such as finding velocity, acceleration, areas,
volumes, work, and carrying capacities of ecological systems, are presented simultaneously.

Textbook: Calculus, 7
th
Edition, James Stewart
Sections: 1; 2.1-2.8; 3; 4; 5; 6.1; 6.2*-6.4*; 6.5-6.8; 9.1; 9.3-9.5; 17.1-17.2

2.1-2.6 Evaluation Techniques, Procedural Guidelines, and Applications of Calculus

Each section below corresponds to a collection of analytic models that may assist in solving a
specific type of problem or otherwise executing a particular mathematical task encountered in
this course. Related theorems and other mathematical tools are included alongside each
systematic procedure and/or guideline. Also note that this text assumes the User understands the
theory behind the statements made herein.

The reader is also strongly encouraged to read through 3. Appendices at the end of this text.

Legend:
[START] Beginning of procedure
[END] End of procedure
<N> Step N of the present procedure
IFF If and only if
Logical implication


2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 2 of 28
2.1 Epsilon-Delta Proofs
Applications:
- Quashing frail intuitive mathematics with a rigorous o thermonuclear warhead

Epsilon-Delta Definition of a Limit:
lim
xc
(x) = I
wcrc oll x suc tot u < |x c| < o implics |(x) I| < e, or ony e > u
Note: a limit exists IFF the left- and right-handed limits exist and are equal

Systematic Procedure for proving a Limit:
1. [START] Recognise that e > u is imposed on you
2. Simplify (or re-express conveniently) the left-hand side of |(x) I| < e
3. Substitute c into u < |x c| < o
4. Get the simplified version of |(x) I| under delta control
i.e., write an inequality that relates |(x) I| to an expression involving o,
using the information from <3>
5. a) If an expression of the form: |(x) I| < Co is produced, where C is a constant:
- Assume that Co = e; o = eC. [END]
b) If an expression of the form: |(x) I| < o(x) is produced:
- Choose a random o, call it o
o
(although o
o
= 1 is usually a good choice)
- Establish an upper and lower bound (B
u
and B
I
, respectively) for the value of
(x), by expanding the expression from <5.b)>
- Assume that o(x) = e; o =
c
](x)

- Set o = min (o
o
, B
u
). [END]
Note: to disprove a limit, all that must be shown is that for the intervals of x that satisfy
u < |x c| < o, there exists at least one x that does not imply (i.e. contradicts) |(x) I| < e.

Q2.1A: Rigorously prove the following limit: lim
x2
x
2
4 = u











2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 3 of 28
Q2.1B: Rigorously prove or rigorously disprove the following limit: lim
x5
x 2S = 11







































2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 4 of 28
2.2 Continuity & Evaluating Limit Expressions
Definition of a Continuity for a Function:
A function (x) is cont. at x = o if lim
xu
(x) exists.
A function (x) is cont. on a closed interval|o, b], if for every c (o, b), lim
xc
(x) exists
A function (x) is a continuous function if it is continuous at every x in the domain.
Note: remember types of discontinuities (e.g. jump, removable, function DNE, limit DNE, etc.)

Basic Limit Theorems:
If lim
xu
(x) = I and lim
xu
g(x) = H, then:
Constant Limit Theorem: lim
xu
C = C
Constant Multiple Theorem: lim
xu
c(x) = cI
Polynomial Limit Thorem: lim
xu
P
n
(x) = P
n
(o)
Additivity Limit Thorem: lim
xu
((x) +g(x)) = L +N
Product Limit Theorem: lim
xu
((x)g(x)) = LN
Rational Fcn. Limit Theorem: lim
xu
[
](x)
g(x)
=
L
M
; N u
Power Limit Theorem: lim
xu
|(x)]
n
= I
n
; n R
Composite Fcn. Limit Theorem: lim
xu
|(g(x))] = (H); i (H) cxists

Basic Continuity Theorems:
If (x) and g(x) are continuous functions on an interval |o, b], then:
The Basic Limit Theorems can be applied to every c |o, b] to yield the associated continuity
theorems (e.g. Additivity Continuity Theorem states that ((x) +g(x)) is also continuous)

Property of Direct Substitution:
If (x) is a polynomial or rational function and a is in the domain of f, then:
lim
xu
(x) = (o)

Squeeze Theorem:
If (x) g(x) (x) when x is near o (except possibly at o), and:
lim
xu
(x) = lim
(xu)
(x) = I
Then:
lim
xu
g(x) = I

LHopitals Rule:
If (x) and g(x) are two given, differentiable functions on some interval containing a, but
necessarily at a; g
i
(x) u this interval, but excluding x = o; lim
xu
(x) = lim
xu
g(x) =
u or + or ; lim
xu
]i(x)
gi(x)
= I exists and we know its value; then:
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 5 of 28
lim
xu
(x)
g(x)
= lim
xu

i
(x)
g
i
(x)
= I
Remember: if necessary, manipulate the limit expression so that LHopitals Rule can be used.
Note: an expression lim
xc
(x) may be manipulated into a form appropriate for LHopitals by
using (x) = c
In](x)
and applying the limit to ln (x) to find lim
xc
(x); however, the
conditions for Composite Function Continuity Theorem must be met.

Intermediate Value Theorem:
If a function (x) is continuous on an interval [a,b], and there is some number C such that
(o) < C < (b), then there is some number c such that (c) = C.

The Fundamental Trigonometric Limit:
lim
00
sin0
0
= 1
Note: this can be used to derive lim
00
cos 0-1
0
= u

Evaluation Techniques (rigid/explicit procedures not appropriate):
Remember: a limit exists IFF the left- and right-handed limits exist and are equal
Note: at any time, if a real number is determined as the value of the limit expression, [END]!
1. Attempt direct substitution
2. Simplify the limit expression as much as possible (factor and divide out terms, group
terms, etc.)
3. Multiply by 1 (e.g.
x-1
x-1
,
u
2
-4
u
2
-4
, ctc.)
4. Add zero (i.e. +[factor] [factor]) then factor
5. Try to apply one of the basic limit laws/theorems
6. Substitute in equivalent expressions (e.g. definitions, identities, etc.)
7. If an indeterminate form of
0
0
,

, or
-
-
is obtained and the conditions for LHopitals
Rule are present, use it (and you may repeatedly use it until a real number is produced so
long as the conditions for LHopitals Rule are present)
8. Attempt to use Squeeze Theorem
9. Split the limit into two a left-handed and right-handed limit and evaluate those
individually.
10. Integrate (no pun intended) other definitions involving limits (e.g. if the limit expression
is actually a derivative)





2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 6 of 28
Q2.2A: Evaluate the following limit:
lim
x
n
4
x
x
n
4
_ sec
4
t Jt
x
n
4





























Q2.2B: Evaluate the following limit:
lim
x0
(sinhx x)
x
3







2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 7 of 28
Q2.2C: Evaluate the following limit:
lim
x0
(1 +ox)
1
x














Q2.2D: Evaluate the following limit:
lim
xu
+
(cos x)(In(x-u))
In(c
x
-c
c
)












Q2.2E: Evaluate the following limit:
lim
x
n
2
-
(tanx)
cos x










2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 8 of 28
2.3 Finding the Derivative
Applications:
- Physics (force, velocity, accelleration, etc.)
- Implicit differentiation
- Optimisation and curve sketching
- Approximating the value of non-integer numbers
- Related rates problems
- Any task requiring instantaneous rates of change

Definition of the Derivative of a Function:
The derivative of the function y = (x) is given by:
Jy
Jx
=
i
(x) =
x
y = y lim
h0
(x +) (x)

Note: the derivative is the instantaneous rate of change of y = (x) at a given x

Definition of Differentiability:
A function (x) is differentiable at a point x = o if
i
(o) exists.
A function (x) is differentiable on an interval [a,b] if for every c (o, b), (c) exists.
A function (x) is a differentiable function if it is differentiable for every x in the domain.
Note: a function is diff. at a given point IFF both the left- and right-handed derivatives exist.

Basic Derivative Theorems:
Power Derivative Theorem: (x
n
)
i
= nx
n-1
; n R
Constant Derivative Theorem: |c(x)]
i
= c
i
(x)
Polynomial Derivative Theorem: P
n
i
(x) = no
n
x
n-1
+(n 1)o
n-1
x
n-2
++2o
2
x + o
1

Additivity Derivative Theorem: ( +g)
i
(x) =
i
(x) +g
i
(x)
Product Derivative Theorem: |(x)g(x)]
i
=
i
(x)g(x) +(x)g
i
(x)
Quotient Derivative Theorem: j
](x)
g(x)
[
i
=
]
|
(x)g(x)-](x)g
|
(x)
|g(x)]
2
; g(x) u
Reciprocal Derivative Theorem: [
1
](x)

i
=
]
|
(x)
|](x)]
2
; (x) u

Composite Function Derivative Theorem (Chain Rule):
|(g(x))]
i
=
J
Jg

Jg
Jx

Note: Chain Rule is used during implicit differentiation, and always applies when differentiating.

Continuity Implication from Differentiability:
If (x) is differentiable over an interval (a,b), then it is also continuous over that interval.
Note: the converse is not always true.

2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 9 of 28
Extreme Value Theorem:
If (x) is continuous on an interval [a,b], then (x) has some absolute maximum, (c), and
some absolute minimum (J), within the interval, where c, J |o, b].

Fermats Theorem:
If (x) has a local max./min. at x = c, then:
(c) = u or (c) NE
Note: the converse is not always true.

Mean Value Theorem:
If (x) is continuous on |o, b] and (x) is differentiable on (o, b), then there is at least one
c (o, b) such that:

i
(c) =
(b) (o)
b o


Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions:
d
dx
(sinx) = cosx
d
dx
(csc x) = csc x cot x
d
dx
(cos x) = sinx
d
dx
(sec x) = sec x tanx
d
dx
(tanx) = sec
2
x
d
dx
(cot x) = csc
2
x

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions:
J
Jx
[sin
-1
x
o
=
1
o
2
x
2

J
Jx
[cos
-1
x
o
=
1
o
2
x
2

J
Jx
[tan
-1
x
o
=
o
o
2
+x
2

Note: these can be obtained by forming a right angle triangle such that x = (y), where f is the
function for which the inverse is being sought and y is an interior angle of the triangle, then
taking the derivative of that expression.

Derivative of an Inverse Function:
J
Jx

-1
(x) =
1

i
(
-1
(x))


Derivative of an Exponential Function:
J
Jx
o
x
= o
x
ln o

2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 10 of 28
Derivative of a Logarithmic Function:
J
Jx
log
a
x =
1
x ln o


Differentiation Techniques (rigid/explicit procedures not appropriate):
Note: [END] when a the desired form of the derivative is found!
1. Simplify the limit expression as much as possible (factor and divide out terms, group
terms, etc.)
2. Apply a derivative theorem/known trigonometric derivative
3. Multiply by 1 (e.g.
x-1
x-1
,
u
2
-4
u
2
-4
, ctc.)
4. Add zero (i.e. +[factor] [factor]) then factor
5. Substitute in equivalent expressions (e.g. definitions, identities, etc.)

Systematic Procedure to Calculate Differential Approximations for Numbers:
1. [START] Define a function (or use a given fcn.) y = (x), such that y = (x +x)
(x) is equal to the number for which the approximation is being made
2. Choose x Jx = [your chosen increment]
3. Find
d
dx
=
i
(x), which can be rearranged into Jy =
i
(x)Jx
4. Substitute values into Jy =
i
(x)Jx

|
x=c
and solve for Jy
5. Use y = |numbcr o intcrcst] Jy to approximate the number of interest. [END]

Q2.3A Evaluate the following:
J
Jx
|
1u
Inx
x
In10
]






Q2.3B Find
i
(x) where (x) = 4
t
2
Jt
sInx
x
2









2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 11 of 28
Q2.3C Find
i
(x) where:
(x) = [lim
x0
(n+x)
2
-n
2
x

sInx
-249
Jx






Q2.3D Evaluate the following:
Jy
Jx

|
x=1,=1
or x = |(Sx +4y)]
2
, gi:cn
i
(7) =
1
4

















Q2.3E Approximate the value of S1 using differentials.












2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 12 of 28
2.4 Optimisation and Curve Sketching
Applications:
- Graphical visualisations of data and models
- Maximisation/Minimisation optimisation problems

Definition of Absolute/Local Maximum/Minimum:
For a function y = (x) that is defined for an interval [o, b], and for a c |o, b]:
There is an absolute maximum at (c) if (c) (x) for all x c in the domain.
There is an absolute minimum at (c) if(c) (x) for allx c in the domain.
There is a local maximum at (c) if (c) (x) for all x c, x |o, b].
There is a local minimum at (c) if (c) (x) for all x c, x |o, b].

Derivative Analysis and Shapes of Graphs:
For a function y = (x) that is differentiable on an interval (o, b), and for a c (o, b):
Quick Test 1: is increasing if
i
> u
is decreasing if
i
< u
Quick Test 2: If
i
< u to the left of and
i
> u to the right of x = c, (c) is a local min.
If
i
> u to the left of, and
i
> u to the right of x = c (c) is a local max.
If
i
is the same on both sides of x = c, then (c) is not a local min/max.
Quick Test 3: If
ii
> u on the interval, then is concave up.
If
ii
< u on the interval, then is concave down.
Quick Test 4: If
ii
(c) < u, then (c) is a local max.
If
ii
(c) > u, then (c) is a local min.
If
ii
(c) = u, this does not suggest anything conclusive about (c).

Systematic Procedure for finding Local Maxima/Minima:
Note: [END] whenever all the local maxima/minima have been found!
1. [START] Find all c
crit
by setting = u and solving for x or find where NE.
2. If Quick Test 4 conditions are met, use it.
3. If conditions for <2> are not met, but those for Quick Test 2, use it. But, it is more work
(we must consider sign of f above/below c
crit
, as well as continuity).
4. If conditions are not met for Quick Test 2 either, use the basic definition of a local
maximum/minimum (usually, this is the most work of all).

Systematic Procedure for finding the Optimal Value of a Function:
1. [START] Find the local maxima and minima.
2. Evaluate the endpoints of the function on the interval of interest.
3. Select the critical point that optimises the function in the desired manner. [END]


2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 13 of 28
Systematic Procedure for Curve Sketching:
1. [START] Try to alter the form of the function to make it more manageable for curve
sketching, if possible (i.e. factoring)
2. Find the domain and range, endpoints, horizontal/vertical/slant/other asymptotes of the
function.
3. Find the x-intercept(s) and y-intercept(s).
4. Identify any special properties (i.e. even/odd function, periodicity).
5. Use QT1 and QT2 to identify intervals where the function is increasing/decreasing (and
from there, identify any local max./min. as well as abs. max./min.).
6. Use QT3 and QT4 to identify intervals where the function is concave up/down (and from
there, identify any points of inflection as well as confirm max./min. found in <4>).
[END]

Q2.4A Sketch the curve y = c
x
sinx , n x n.


























2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 14 of 28
















Q2.4B Find an equation for the line through (3,5) that cuts off the least area from the first
quadrant (the first quadrant is defined byx u, y u).






















2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 15 of 28
2.5 Integral Operations
Applications:
- Physics (e.g. finding change in position from velocity, work done by a force, etc.)
- Areas between curves
- Volumes of revolution
- Differential equations (see 2.6 Solving Differential Equations)
- Any tasks involving calculation of: areas; change in a function using its derivative

Riemann Definition of the Definite Integral:
For a function (x) that is continuous, or is continuous except for a finite number of jump
discontinuities, on an interval [a,b], the net area under the curve (the definite integral) is:
_ (x)Jx
b
u
= lim
n
R
n
= (x

)x

=1

where R
n
is called the Riemann Sum, x

is some point in the each subinterval of width x,

and x =
b-u
n
.
Note: many integral properties (such as the sign change due to interchanging the limits of
integration, or the properties of integrals of odd/even functions from u to x) can be relatively
easily deduced via conceptual manipulation of the Riemann definition.
See 3.2 Additive Series of Powers to find equivalent expressions for some sums of powers.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part I:
For a function (x) that is continuous, then the function g(x), defined as:
g(x) = _ (x)Jx
x
u

is continuous and differentiable on (a,b) and g
i
(x) = (x)
d
dx
(x)Jx
x
u
= (x)

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II:
For a function (x) that is continuous on an interval [a,b], then:
_ (x)Jx
b
u
= F(b) F(o)
where F(x) is any anti-derivative of f(x).
Note: this demonstrates that the integral of a rate of change of a function is the net change of the
value of that function.

Definition of the Indefinite Integral:
For a function (x) that is continuous on an interval [a,b], then the indefinite integral is:
F(x) = _(x)Jx = |somc unction] + C
where C is a constant produced during integration.
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 16 of 28
Note: the indefinite integral represents a family of functions that differ by constant values.
Note: the indefinite integral is also dubbed the general anti-derivative.
Note: the definite integral is a number while the indefinite integral is a function.

Substitution Rule:
For a function u = g(x) that is differentiable on an interval I, such that a function (x) is
continuous on the interval I, then:
_(g(x))g
i
(x)Jx = _(u)Ju
Note: Substitution Rule tells us that it is acceptable to operate with Ju and Jx found in the
integrand as though they were differentials.

Mean Value Theorem for Integrals:
For a function (x) that is continuous at |o, b], there exists at least one c |o, b] such that:
(b o)(c) = _ (x)Jx
b
u


Systematic Procedure for finding the Area between Curves:
Note: [START] by considering <1.a)> or <1.b)> simultaneously.
1. a) Divide the interval of interest into subintervals, if necessary.
Note: each subinterval must have a function that is always greater in value (say,
(x)) relative to a function that is always lesser in value (say, g(x)).
b) If you do not have functions, but relations, then rearrange the equations into x in terms
of y, if it eases the task at hand.
2. Find ((x) g(x))Jx
b
u
for each subinterval |o, b].
3. Add the definite integrals together to find the total area between the curves. [END]

Systematic Procedure for finding a Volume of Revolution using Disc Method:
1. [START] Formulate an expression for JI in terms of a variable whose axis is orthogonal
to the plane of the flat bottom of the discs; should be in the form of:
JIolumc = :olumc o on ininitcsimolly lot cylinJcr
2. Sum all the JIterms that comprise the volume by calculating a definite integral of JI
over the interval of interest. [END]

Systematic Procedure for finding a Volume of Revolution using Shell Method:
1. [START] Formulate an expression for JIin terms of a variable whose axis is parallel to
the plane of the flat bottom of the shells (hollow cylinders); should be in the form of:
JIolumc = :olumc o o rcctongulor prism ormcJ by unrolling tc cylinJcr
2. Sum all the dV terms that comprise the volume by calculating a definite integral of JI
over the interval of interest. [END]
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 17 of 28
Q2.5A For o > u, let I be the volume created by revolving the region bounded by y = bx and
x = o around the axis x = o. The units of x, y and o are [m]. The units of b are [m
1/2
]. The value
of b remains fixed. Find I(o).















Q2.5B How much work is done when:
a) a weightless cable is used to life 200kg of water in weightless bucket up from well that is
60m deep?
b) a bucket that weighs 50kg and a weightless cable are used to lift water up from a well
60m deep. The bucket is initially filled with 200kg of water and is pulled up at a rate of
2m/s but the water leaks out of the bucket from a hole at a rate of 2kg/s.
















2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 18 of 28
Q2.5C Suppose is a continuous function on (, ). Calculate the following in terms of :
o) lim
x0
1
x
_ (t)Jt
x+n
n

b) lim
x0
(_ (t)Jt
]()d
x
0
0
















Q2.5D Calculate the following integral:
_
sin2x
cos
4
x +sin
4
x
Jx

















2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 19 of 28
Q2.5D (Continued)







































2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 20 of 28
2.6 Solving Differential Equations
Applications:
- Mixing problems
- Logistic growth (e.g. for biological systems)
- Compound interest
- Half-life
- Any calculations for which the n
th
derivative of a function is related to the value of
lower-order derivatives and/or the value of the function itself.

Note: while Initial Value Problems will always yield a solution, Boundary Value Problems may
not do so if the given information incurs inconsistencies.

Differential Equation for Exponential Growth:
If P is the dependent variable and t is the independent variable, then:
JP
Jt
= kP
where k is some proportionality constant, and the corresponding solution is:
P(t) = Cc
kx

where C is an unknown constant of integration.

Differential Equation for Saturable (Logistic) Growth:
If P is the dependent variable and t is the independent variable, then:
JP
Jt
= kP _1
P
K
]
where k, K are given constant parameters and K is the saturation level of the population, and:
_
K P(t)
P(t)
_ = Ac
-kt

Note: P(t) approaches K asymptotically, whether from above or from below.

Definition of Separable Differential Equation:
A differential equation is separable if it takes the form:
Jy
Jx
= (x)g(y)
so that it may be rearranged into such a form suitable for solving the equation itself:
Jy
g(y)
= (x)Jx





2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 21 of 28
Compound Interest Formula:
The amount of money, A(t
b
), in a bank account undergoing compound interest is:
A(t
b
) = A
0
[1 +
r
n

nt
b

where t
b
is the amount of time elapsed in units of b (b is a unit of time, e.g. month, year, etc.), n
is the number of compounds per b, and r is the interest rate per b.

1OLDE: First-Order Linear Differential Equation:
y
i
+P(x)y = (x)
where P(x), (x) are given, continuous functions. If we define an integration factor, I, to be:
I(x) = c
P(x)dx

Then the solution to the differential equation is:
y(x) =
1
I
_I
Note: alternatively, multiply both sides of the 1OLDE by I and then integrate.

2OLDE: Second-Order Linear Differential Equation:
P(x)y
ii
+(x)y
i
+R(x)y = 0(x)
where P(x), (x), R(x), 0(x)are given, continuous functions.

H2OLDE: Homogenous Second-Order Linear Differential Equation:
P(x)y
ii
+(x)y
i
+R(x)y = u
where P(x), (x), R(x) are given, continuous functions.

H2OLDE Theorem for Specific Solutions:
If y
1
(x), y
2
(x) are two possible solutions to the H2OLDE, then:
y(x) = c
1
y
1
(x) +c
2
y
2
(x)
is also a solution, for any constants c
1
, c
2
.

H2OLDE Theorem for General Solutions:
If y
1
(x), y
2
(x) are two linearly independent solutions of the H2OLDE, then:
y
gcn
(x) = c
1
y
1
(x) +c
2
y
2
(x)
is the general, complete solution to the H2OLDE, for constants c
1
, c
2
determined by the
boundary conditions.

Eulers Relation:
c
x
cos x +i sinx
Note: this is true by definition.


2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 22 of 28
H2OLDE w/ CCs: Homogeneous Second-Order Linear Differential Equation with Constant
Coefficients:
oy
ii
+by
i
+cy = u
where o, b, c are constants. Then the associated characteristic or auxiliary equation is:
or
2
+br +c = u
wic yiclJs:
r =
b _b
2
4oc
2o


Now, we assume a solution is y(x) = c
x
because it satisfies the differential equation:
Case 1: b
2
4oc > u r
1
, r
2
are real and distinct (so, y
1
(x) and y
2
(x) are linearly
independent). By the H2OLDE Theorem for General Solutions:
y
gcn
(x) = C
1
c

1
x
+C
2
c

2
x


Case 2: b
2
4oc = u r
1
= r
2
and we need an alternative method to find two linearly
independent solutions. y(x) = xc
x
is an appropriate candidate, hence:
y
gcn
(x) = C
1
c

1
x
+C
2
xc

2
x


Case 3: b
2
4oc < u r
1
= o +i anu r
2
= o iB, where o =
b
2u
, =
4uc-b
2
2u
. Then, we
use y
gcn
(x) = C
1
c

1
x
+C
2
c

2
x
along with Eulers Relation to arrive at:
y
gcn
(x) = c
ux
(C
1
cos x +C
2
sin x)

Non-H2OLDE w/ CCs: Non-Homogeneous Second-Order Linear Differential Equation with
Constant Coefficients:
oy
ii
+by
i
+cy = 0(x)
where the associated complementary equation (an H2OLDE w/ CCs) is:
oy
ii
+by
i
+cy = u

The general, complete solution to the Non-H2OLDE w/ CCs is given by:
y
gcn
(x) = y
put
(x) +y
comp
(x)
where y
put
(x) is a particular solution to the Non-H2OLDE w/ CCS, and y
comp
(x) is the
general, complete solution to the complementary equation.

Systematic Procedure for solving Separable Differential Equations:
1. [START] Collect the terms with only x on one side, and collect the terms with only y on
the other side.
2. Integrate both sides (dont forget about constants!)
3. Simplify and isolate for y in terms of x (or vice-versa, depending on the task at hand).
[END]
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 23 of 28
Method of Undetermined Coefficients:
1. [START]Find the general, complete solution to the complementary equation (these can
always be found).
2. Attempt to solve the coefficients of a y
put
(x) in the form of 0(x) by substituting your
chosen y
put
(x) into the differential equation.
Note: In order for the left-hand side to be equal to the right-hand side, the
coefficients for each power of x must be the same (otherwise, the polynomials are
linearly independent and no solution can be found).
[END]

Method of Variation of Parameters:
1. [START] Find two solutions, y
1
and y
2
, to the complementary equation (these can
always be found).
2. Find y
put
(x) by setting y
put
(x) = u
1
y
1
+u
2
y
2
, where u
1
, u
2
are unknown functions
to be found in <3>.
3. Solve the following system of equations:
u
1
i
y
1
+u
2
i
y
2
= u
u
1
i
y
1
i
+u
2
i
y
2
i
=
0(x)
o

Note: if we cannot integrate u
1
i
, u
2
i
, we cannot solve the differential equation.
[END]

Systematic Procedure for solving Linear Differential Equations:
1. [START] Identify the type of linear differential equation (1OLDE, H2OLDE, H2OLDE
w/ CCs, non-H2OLDE w/ CCs).
2. Use one of the known theorems and/or methods associated with the particular situation
and solve for the differential equation. [END]













2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 24 of 28
Q2.6A Solve the differential equation y
ii
2y
i
Sy = x +2, with the boundary conditions
y(u) = y
ii
(u) = u using Method of Undetermined Coefficients.






































2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 25 of 28
Q2.6B Find the solution of the differential equation y
i
Sx
2
y = 6x
2
.







































2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 26 of 28
3. Appendices

3.1 Trigonometric Identities
sin
2
x +cos
2
x = 1
sin(o _b) = sino cos b _cos o sinb (also yields double-angle, product identities)
cos(o _b) = cos o cos b sino sinb (also yields double-angle, half-angle, product identities)
tan(o _b) =
tano _tanb
1 tano tanb


cosh
2
x sinh
2
x = 1
sinh(o +b) = sinh o cosh b +cosh o sinhb

3.2 Numerical Methods to find the Roots of an Equation
3.2.1 Method of Successive Bisections
1. [START] Choose two values, o
1
, b
1
in the domain, such that (o) > u and (b) < u
2. Find midpoint between o and b, call it x
m

3. a) If (x
m
) > u, then for next step, o = x
m

b) If (x
m
) < u, then for next step, b = x
m

4. Repeat Steps <2> and <3> as many times as desired [END]

3.2.2 Newtons Method
1. [START] Guess x
1
as the x co-ordinate of a root.
2. Find (x
1
), (x
1
); find the eqn of the tangent line
a. y
tungcnt
(x) = (x
1
) + (x
1
)(x x
1
)
3. Find x
2
such that y
tungcnt
(x
2
) = u
4. Set u = (x
1
) + (x
1
)(x
2
x
1
) x
2
= x
1

](x
1
)
]
|
(x
1
)

5. Repeat x
n+1
= x
n

](x
n
)
]
|
(x
n
)
as many times as desired [END]
Note: with Newtons Method it is possible to produce a series of approximations for the x of the
root that do not converge. In this case, choose a new x that is offset from the present set, or
proceed to use Method of Successive Bisections.









2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 27 of 28
3.3 Additive Series of Powers
i
n
=1
=
n(n +1)
2

i
2
n
=1
=
n(n +1)(2n +6)
6

i
3
n
=1
= _
n(n +1)
2
_
2


3.4 Inverse Function Relationships
Definition of the Inverse Function
For a function (x), the inverse of (x), denoted as
-1
(x) is defined as the function such that:
(
-1
(x)) =
-1
((x)) = x
where omoin
](x)
= Rongc
]
-1
(x)
and Rongc
](x)
= omoin
]
-1
(x)

Note: an inverse function may be geometrically interpreted as the reflection of the original
function across the line y = x.

Definition of the One-to-One (1-1) Function
A function (x) is said to be one-to-one IFF:
(x
1
) = (x
2
) implics x
1
must bc cquol to x
2

Note: a function is 1-1 on an interval IFF its inverse exists
Note: if function is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing on interval, then it is 1-1 on that
interval and the inverse function exists.

Systematic Procedure to find
-1
(x):
1. [START] Establish that (x) is one-to-one on the interval of interest
2. a) If you can guess via trial and error the value of
-1
(x), then test it:
does (
-1
(x)) = x? [END]
b) Start with y = (x) and try algebraic manipulation to yield x = g(y) and
set
-1
(x) = g(x). [END]

3.5 ln x and c
x
Relationships
Definition of ln x:
lnx = _
1
t
Jt
t
1
, wcrc x > u
c
Inx
= exp(lnx) = x
Note: ln x is the inverse function of c
x

Note: ln x = log
c
x, however this course focuses on calculus and so only the former is used.
Note: by FTC Part I, ln x is continuous and differentiable for x > u
2013: Fall Jeremy Wang
MAT194H1 F Stangeby, P. C. Engineering Science 1T7
Page 28 of 28
Properties of ln x:
Operational Properties:
ln u = 1 c
0
= 1
ln ob = lno +lnb
ln _
1
b
] = ln b
ln
o
b
= ln o ln b
ln x

= r ln x; basis of logarithmic differentiation

Limit Properties:
lim
x
ln x =
lim
x0
+
ln x =

_
u
i
(x)
u(x)
= ln |u(x)| +C
J
Jx
ln|u(x)| =
u
i
(x)
u(x)


_u
i
(x)c
u(x)
= c
u(x)
+C

3.6 Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions
sinhx =
c
x
c
-x
2

cos =
c
x
+c
-x
2

tanhx =
sinhx
cosh x
=
c
x
c
-x
c
x
+c
-x