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CHAPTER 2

AIR POWER
Air power is the most difficult of military force to measure or even to express in
precise terms. The problem is compounded by the fact that aviation tends to attract
adventurous souls, physically adept, mentally alert and pragmatically rather than
philosophically inclined.

Winston Churchill

The aim of this Chapter is to define air power and identify the key characteristics that
need to be considered if air power is to be properly exploited in the conduct of joint and
multinational operations. This Chapter covers the British definition of air power, offers
a brief overview of air power history,1 and highlights the factors that apply for the
exploitation of air power. The Chapter includes a section on air power and the
Principles of War and an introduction to the British core capabilities of air power.

Definition of Air Power

Air power has always been a difficult concept to define. From the birth of aviation to
the development of independent air forces, many have seen air power as an all-
embracing concept. For example, Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir John Slessor argued
that “air power is a compound of Air Forces and all those things on which Air Forces
directly or indirectly depend, such as a flourishing aircraft industry and civilian
aviation, a good meteorological service, secure fuel supplies and so on.” Today, the
British definition of air power, which is reflected in Joint Doctrine publications, is:

Air Power
The ability to project military force in air or space by or from a platform or
missile operating above the surface of the earth. Air platforms are defined as
any aircraft, helicopter or unmanned air vehicle.

This definition does not exclude civilian elements such as contractor support,
particularly to sustain air operations, as Chapter 10 makes clear.

1
A full history of the development of air power doctrine is at Chapter 12.

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Air Power Characteristics - Historical Perspective

By the end of the First World War, aerial operations had made an impact across all
forms of warfare. The enduring air power characteristics of height, speed and reach
had been established. Furthermore, the majority of air power roles and missions had
been tried, if not fully tested. After the war, however, the early exponents of air power
such as Douhet, Mitchell and Trenchard made claims and promises for air power that
could not be achieved using either contemporary or near term technology.2 In many
nations, air arms had developed into air forces and aircraft were employed across the
globe in a growing number of roles including reconnaissance, patrol, air policing,
bombing, transport and search and rescue. Furthermore, aerial warfare and air travel
had touched the imagination of the population, leading to many expectations about the
future of air power.

By the beginning of the Second World War, no military activity could ignore the third
dimension. When air power was properly targeted and co-ordinated it proved
influential in all theatres of war and, on occasion, decisive. Hard-earned experience
confirmed the fundamental characteristics of air power in the minds of all military
planners: speed, height, reach, and added ubiquity and flexibility.3

Since 1945, trends in the development of air power have accelerated dramatically.
During the Cold War, investment in platform, sensor and weapon technology allowed
air-to-air and air-to-ground weapon delivery accuracy to improve and space-based
systems to become a reality. Furthermore, force multipliers such as helicopters, tankers
and tactical air transport have enabled rapid manoeuvre in all environments. Now, air
power is much less distinctly focused exclusively on air forces - the exploitation of air
power is a joint and multinational business. Air warfare is now just as much a part of
land and maritime warfare as it is a separate discipline. The provision of air power:

● Is inherently joint, combined and multinational in nature.

● Encompasses forces drawn from all three Services.

● Is concerned with the effective exploitation of air power assets.

● Is supported by national civilian and commercial resources.

● Is influenced by, and in turn influences, the land, sea and space environments.

2
There is a rich historiography of this subject. Recent coverage is contained in Mason, R A, Air Power,
A Centennial Appraisal, Brassey’s 1994 and Mielinger, P, (Ed), Paths to Heaven, AU, 1997.
3
Royal Air Force Manual ‘Operations’ (AP 1300), last reprint 1964, covers the historical and, largely, descriptive
view of doctrine for air operations.

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Air Power Defining Characteristics

Air and space are very different environments in which to fight and operate from either
land or sea. Consequently, air forces have different characteristics from land and sea
forces. The distinguishing characteristic of air power is the exploitation of controlled
flight by air vehicles above the surface of the Earth. Air and space power offers a unique
ability to exploit the third dimension. As a result, air and space vehicles are faster and
generally have a greater reach than naval ships or land vehicles. Thus, height, speed
and reach remain the primary strengths of air power. The military advantages of
elevation include enhanced observation and perspective of the battlespace. In addition
to joint utility, air power platforms, sensors and systems are capable of independent,
distinct action to attack an opponent’s defined centre of gravity with strategic effect as
covered in Chapter 6. Furthermore, in virtually any form of modern conflict, control of
the air is a pre-condition for the successful conclusion of land and maritime operations;
details are in Chapter 5. Air power is, therefore, a key enabler in all joint and
multinational operations. Roles and missions for joint and multinational operations are
covered in Chapters 7-10. Historically, the characteristics of air power have been
described as either strengths or limitations. Recent experience of conflict as described
in Chapter 1 suggests that the relative importance of air power characteristics will vary
depending on the circumstances. A range of factors which govern the effective
employment of air power will apply to a greater or lesser extent, determined by the
strategic context, operational campaign plan and tactical scenario.

Air Power Factors

The enduring factors that underpin the effective exploitation of air power are described
below. They are listed alphabetically and not in priority order:

● Aircraft Carriers. Aircraft carriers offer the Joint Task Force Commander (JTFC) a
unique source of air power that is largely immune to the constraints of host-nation
support and national airspace overflight rights. Capable of conducting sea control and
power projection, embarked joint force aircraft can conduct air power across the full
spectrum of indirect and direct air operations. While forces in most regional conflicts
will enjoy access to airfields and host-nation support, in some cases they may not.
Additionally, crises may erupt with such rapidity that a response may be required
before agreements for basing rights and airspace use can be obtained. In these
circumstances, carrier-based aviation may afford the joint commander an enabling
package of air power from the early stages of a crisis, poised near the zone of crisis.
In joint operations involving aircraft from land and sea, the Joint Force Maritime
Component Commander (JFMCC) will normally assign sorties over and above those
he requires for sea control to the Joint Force Air Component Commander (JFACC) in
support of the joint campaign. Further maritime command and control considerations
are covered in Chapter 3 and BR 1806, British Maritime Doctrine.

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Embarked aircraft can conduct air power across the full spectrum
of indirect and direct air operations.

● Airfields. Although all forms of military power depend to a greater or lesser extent on
base support, most air vehicles depend on ground support facilities, particularly
airfields. Airfields vary in size and scale, from joint civil/military international airports
to rough grass or desert airstrips. Aircraft need base support if they are to operate at
maximum sortie rates. A network of alternative operating bases with well spaced, multi-
purpose operating surfaces provides a degree of redundancy and makes them less
vulnerable to attack depending on the scenario. Air power platforms can be launched
direct from peacetime bases, simplifying logistics, since it may be more cost-effective in
time, movement effort and money to use in-place facilities and logistics. For example,
during Operation ALLIED FORCE, RAF Tornado GR1s operated from their home base in
Germany to attack targets in the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

● Basing considerations. Planning factors that should be taken into account are:
destination, distance, demand and duration. Although air-to-air refuelling (AAR) can
extend reach and allow more distant deployment bases to be used, the extra matériel
and manpower costs generated by the need for AAR need to be taken into account.

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● Coalition Capability. Military forces employing air power systems generally share
commonality of purpose, training and outlook. This commonality has arisen because
of the nature of the environment in which air power is used. Furthermore, different
air arms employ largely similar command and control procedures. Based on this large
measure of commonality, air power can be integrated into combined forces for
multinational and coalition operations. Likely coalition partners may have similar
doctrine and may train and exercise together on a regular basis. This synergy, coupled
with the use of English as the internationally agreed language of the air, can represent
an important force multiplier for the employment of air power, thereby helping to
build unity of effort.

● Flexibility/Versatility. Air vehicles are flexible and versatile weapons systems. Air
assets can be diverted at any time in flight from one target to another or the assigned
task can be changed. Modern multi-role air platforms and systems can be
reconfigured quickly for other roles, whilst aircraft configured for multi-missions can
carry out more than one specialist task during a single sortie. Commanders and
planners need to be aware, however, of the logistic burden in terms of the variety of
weapon stocks required to perform multi-missions.

● Fragility - Ease of Destruction. Modern air warfare demands that air vehicles have
sophisticated performance characteristics. Modern air vehicles could be vulnerable to
enemy air defences. As air power technology has advanced, so has the technology of
air defences particularly surface-to-air missiles (SAM). Therefore, the suppression of
enemy air defences (SEAD) is a crucial role for air power and is covered in greater
detail in Chapter 5. The inherent fragility of aircraft can be ameliorated by speed,
stealth and self-protection measures. When combined, such protection can make
aircraft and weapon systems difficult targets for an enemy to engage. Furthermore,
modern techniques of battle damage repair can do much to make good damage that
has been sustained.

● Impermanence. An important element of air power is careful targeting to achieve

the effect desired for the length of time required. As for air presence, the cost of
maintaining a permanent presence or ‘air occupation’, to deny the occupation of
ground or airspace, may be theoretically possible but can be prohibitively expensive.
Air power can establish presence and monitor crisis areas through surveillance and
reconnaissance, air patrols and by calling in a rapid response to detected/reported
incidents on the surface and in the air. When acting in harmony during joint
operations with ground or maritime forces, air power can bring an added dimension
to manoeuvre warfare to allow the combination of air and surface forces to dominate
operations through complimentary action.

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● Pace and Tempo. Intelligence is only valuable if it can be exploited before it

becomes outdated. The pace at which air power operations can be generated allows
information to be exploited whilst it still has currency, thus impacting on the overall
tempo of operations. The Decision/Action cycle or Observation/Orientation/
Decision/Action ‘loop’ is described in Chapter 4. Tempo is defined as the rhythm or
rate of operations relative to the enemy. It consists of three elements: speed of
decision, speed of execution and speed of transition from one activity to the next. Air
power assets can be fuelled and armed, made ready for operations and held on alert,
operated around the clock, deployed on widely differing tasks and re-deployed to
different locations quickly.

● Payload. Design characteristics such as aerodynamic drag considerations, the space

available for weapons or cargo and the limitations of weapons stations and under-
wing hard points constrain what can be loaded on to an air vehicle. Nevertheless, a
small payload, when delivered in a timely fashion, or with great precision, can often
produce significant military effect. It is important, therefore, to concentrate air power
against decisive points. So, despite the limited payload that may be delivered, an
enemy’s centre of gravity at either the strategic or operational level, once identified,
can quickly come under threat of disruption or destruction from the air.

OPERATION ALLIED FORCE - RAF Bruggen 1999

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● Penetration. Air power systems can circumvent obstacles and penetrate deep into
enemy territory. Space-based surveillance systems are relatively invulnerable and can
monitor the entire surface of the globe virtually unhindered. Air power is part of
manoeuvre warfare, since air vehicles enjoy high levels of manoeuvre at all levels of
warfare. Manoeuvre from the air and deep penetration can be combined to enhance
the overall combat power of sea and land power.

● Perspective. The ability to offer a wide perspective of the battlespace from the air
remains one of the defining characteristics of air power. The operating altitudes of
aircraft and satellites allows military personnel to gain a general picture of an area of
interest rapidly whilst giving them a different perspective of the whole area of
operations which extends beyond the area or horizon of immediate interest.

● Poise and Stand-Off. The range of modern air systems enables them to loiter in the air
or wait on the ground near to a potential area of operations. Long range aircraft can,
therefore, have an influence from hundreds or even thousands of miles away, while the
despatch of aircraft near to an area of crisis demonstrates commitment and resolve.

● Reach. Air vehicles can project military power over great distances, unconstrained by
the physical barriers of topography. The range at which air power can be used from
bases, either ashore or afloat, can be extended by the use of AAR. AAR allows the
radius of action and/or time on task to be extended many times over. This reach allows
air power to strike at distant targets and to reach isolated locations whilst, if necessary,
avoiding potential threats or restrictions both physical and political.

● Speed of Response. Air power is highly responsive. It can be deployed or

redeployed as part of diplomatic initiatives. In war, aircraft can be redirected to
respond to sudden changes in circumstances, on widely dispersed fronts, to
synchronise firepower and complement the manoeuvre of surface forces.

● Sustainability. Sustainability is more than logistics. It includes manpower, equipment

and logistics. Logistics is the function which ensures or denies the effectiveness of air
power; it influences the tempo, duration and intensity of an operation and is the
principal determinant of the ability of a force to achieve and maintain the necessary
level of air power required to meet objectives. In its broadest sense it encompasses all
activities necessary for the employment of air power embracing production logistics,
consumer logistics and movement. Success in logistics is measured by the extent to
which the right quantity of the right item is found at the right time and in the right
condition. Sustainability and the importance of logistics to the delivery of air power is
discussed in detail in Chapter 10.

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The range at which air power can be used from bases, either ashore or afloat,
can be extended by the use of air-to-air refuelling.

● Tasking. If air power is to be concentrated in time and space to allow concentration of

force, it follows that air assets should normally be controlled centrally at the appropriate
level in the command chain. This concept is explained in Chapter 3. In order to
prioritise distribution of the available assets to the various arms conducting the battle,
the air tasking order (ATO) system has been devised. This process begins before
missions are assigned to individual assets, but tasking may permit flexibility to attack
targets of opportunity. Should targets be detected which are not reflected in the ATO,
assets may need to be rapidly switched to new targets. Therefore, as Chapter 3 makes
clear, timings within the tasking cycle should be viewed as guidance and not dogma; a
mission command challenge for air planners is to continually balance and be prepared
to switch priorities as circumstances change - particularly when assets are scarce.

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● Ubiquity of Space. Space-based satellite sensors are now pervasive in support of

modern warfare. Modern technology allows space-based surveillance and
reconnaissance sensors to see through bad weather, camouflage and decoy measures.
Selective use of satellite orbits can minimise the difficulties caused by terrain screening.
It may be possible to change orbits so that sensors look at the area on which a
commander seeks information. Space operations are discussed in more detail in
Chapter 4.

Air Power and the Principles of War

The air power considerations which apply to a particular set of operational
circumstances will also need to be factored into a campaign plan in accordance with the
Principles of War. The Principles of War have endured since the eighteenth century.
Various amendments have been made in accordance with historical experience, and the
Principles require continual examination in the light of new technical and scientific
developments. This is a dynamic process which may shift the relative importance of one
more than another. The desired outcome of applying Principles of War is the most
effective employment of military force anywhere within the spectrum of conflict. The
ten Principles of War recognised by the UK are covered in detail in British Defence
Doctrine and reflect the particular history, circumstances and experience of the UK.
They are:

● Selection and maintenance of the aim.

● Maintenance of morale.

● Security.

● Surprise.

● Offensive action.

● Concentration of force.

● Economy of effort.

● Flexibility.

● Cooperation.

● Sustainability.

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The value of the Principles of War as a guide to commanders will depend on the
understanding of the individual commander, his knowledge of operational art and his
skill in applying the principles within a particular operational context. While the relative
importance of each principle will depend on circumstances, successful application of
the Principles of War requires sound military judgement. Failure to take account of these
hard-won lessons can lead to mission failure.

There are slight differences in the interpretation of these principles within the maritime,
land and air environments. History shows how the Principles of War apply to air power:4

● Selection and Maintenance of the Aim. In the conduct of war and all military
operations, it is essential to select and define the aim with absolute clarity before joint
or multinational air operations begin. Once the military aim is decided, all efforts must
be directed at achieving the aim unless the situation changes and re-appreciation
requires the commander to adopt a new or modified aim. Every plan of action at
every level for the exploitation of air power must be tested by the extent to which it
contributes to the achievement of the military aim at the next highest level of
command. This leads ultimately to the accomplishment of the overall military aim and
hence to the fulfilment of the political aim and the desired end-state. It follows
therefore that:

● The military objectives, which should be attainable, must be directed to achieving

the political aim and the intended strategic end-state.

● Commanders at all levels must know exactly what they are required to achieve and
must make that quite clear to their appropriate subordinates. They should not
waste effort on courses of action which do not directly, or indirectly, contribute to
the attainment of their aim.

● Air tasks, roles and missions must be consistent and coherent with the overall
strategy and campaign plan. This process is known as strategy-to-task. Further
details are in Chapter 3.

● Maintenance of Morale. Success in all forms of war depends more on morale than
on material conditions. Morale is a mental state but is very sensitive to material
conditions. It is based on a clear understanding of the aim, on training and on
discipline and is immediately responsive to effective leadership. It is adversely
affected by inferior or inefficient equipment and depends to a large degree on sound
administration. Outstanding leadership will sustain high morale when all other factors
are against it and success in battle is the best stimulant of morale.

4
See Chapter 14 - Further Reading - for more details.

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● Security. A degree of security by physical protection and information denial is

essential to all operations. Security should enable friendly forces to achieve their
objective despite the enemy’s interference. Active measures include the defence of
airfields, aircraft carriers, forward operating strips and entry points. Further details are
contained in Chapter 9.

● Surprise. Surprise action can achieve results out of all proportion to the effort
expended. In air operations, when other factors are unfavourable to friendly forces,
surprise might be essential to achieve mission success. Air power can achieve
surprise strategically, operationally, tactically, or by exploiting new technologies,
material or techniques. The elements of surprise are secrecy, concealment, deception,
originality, audacity and speed. All apply to the exploitation of air power at all levels
of military activity.

● Offensive Action. Offensive action is the chief means open to a commander to

influence the outcome of a campaign or operation. Air power remains geared to
undertake offensive operations. It would be virtually impossible to achieve a military
aim without taking the offensive. Although defensive actions may have to be fought,
ultimate success will probably depend on the offensive use of available forces.
Offensive air action embodies a state of mind that brings the determination to gain
and maintain the initiative and withhold it from the enemy.

● Concentration of Force. To achieve success in war it is essential to concentrate

superior force against the enemy at the decisive time and place - another enduring
quality of air power. Concentration does not mean that forces must be massed at one
place, but rather that they should be deployed in such a way that an enemy threat
could be countered or a decisive blow could be delivered. Concentration of sufficient
forces to achieve the decisive or most important task at the time is the cardinal
principle in the employment of air power in war and conflict. This principle may
entail the employment of all available forces.

● Economy of Effort. The corollary of concentration of force is economy of effort. It

is impossible to be strong everywhere and if decisive strength is to be concentrated at
the most critical time and place, there must be no wasteful expenditure of effort where
it cannot have a significant impact on the issue at hand. Economy of effort implies
that the correct air power weapons systems need to be matched to the task (in what
is termed matching strategy to task) and that forces allocated to a task need to be
carefully balanced.

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● Flexibility. Flexibility is one of the prime advantages of air power. Although the aim
might not alter, a commander might be required to exercise judgement and flexibility
by modifying plans to meet changing circumstances, take advantage of fleeting
opportunities or shift the main effort of the joint campaign or air operations.
Flexibility demands trust, good training, organisation, discipline, staff work and rapid
decision-making when time is of the essence. To be flexible requires sustainability
and a degree of mobility, which ensures that redeployments can take place both
rapidly and economically, so that the weight of effort can be altered as required.

● Cooperation. Cooperation entails the co-ordination of all activities to achieve the

maximum combined effort from the whole. It is the means by which concentration of
force with economy of effort can be achieved. Joint action is best achieved by the
goodwill and desire to cooperate at all levels, not only within any one service but also
among national services and allied forces. Only by full cooperation among services
can the right balance of forces be achieved, and plans devised by the nominated joint
force commander be effectively implemented.

● Sustainability. Sustainability encompasses all aspects of the physical, moral and

spiritual maintenance of a force. Sustainability is more than logistics; it encompasses
all equipment, personnel and industrial support. As a Principle of War, sustainability
develops force generation, deployment, operations in theatre, recovery to home base,
recuperation and training. Sustainability is also the ability of a force to maintain the
necessary fighting power, in this case combat air power, for the time needed to achieve
military objectives. The physical and moral sustenance of personnel, the maintenance
and repair of equipment and aircraft, the provision of combat supplies and expendable
commodities and the treatment, evacuation and replacement of casualties are all
aspects of sustainability. Without due regard for all aspects of sustainability, combat
power could be reduced and mission success placed in jeopardy.

Manoeuvre and Attrition Warfare

Building on the Principles of War, the fundamental approach to warfare adopted by the
British Armed Forces is the manoeuvrist approach to operations. Manoeuvre warfare is
the employment of forces on the battlefield through movement combined with firepower
to gain advantage over an opponent. Attritional warfare is conducted to reduce the
effectiveness of enemy forces by destroying or reducing the personnel and the matériel
which form part of that force. During the Cold War, plans for the conduct of joint and
combined operations were based upon an attritional model. Whenever possible
manoeuvre warfare will be the preferred approach, but the operational scenario may
dictate an attritional strategy or a combination of both to achieve mission success.

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Key Functions of the Manoeuvrist Approach

At the operational level, the key functions of the manoeuvrist approach are:

● Shape the theatre of operations.

● Attack the enemy’s cohesion.

● Protect the cohesion of the force.

They are covered in greater detail in UK Doctrine for Joint and Multinational Operations
(JWP 0-10). All apply to the effective exploitation of air power.

Air Power and the Manoeuvrist Approach

When the features of manoeuvre warfare are compared to the factors which need to be
applied to the exploitation of air power, it is axiomatic that any exploitation of air power
is inherently manoeuvrist. The air power characteristics of reach, ubiquity, speed of
response and flexibility are relevant to manoeuvre at all levels of warfare. A
manoeuvrist approach to air operations allows the employment of air power to achieve
a position of decisive advantage. Air power can undertake manoeuvre operations
alone, with land and maritime forces in support or in support of joint manoeuvre. Air
power can bring a concentrated application of firepower to bear rapidly anywhere in the
battlespace. With careful, joint, planning the speed and precision provided by fixed and
rotary-wing air systems can be linked with surface manoeuvre and indirect fire,
increasing the available combat power which might be applied to an enemy’s weak
point. For manoeuvre to be successful at any level of warfare, there must be a culture
among those involved which actively promotes initiative by encouraging freedom and
speed of action.

Combat Air Power

British Defence Doctrine describes military capability in terms of a conceptual
component, a moral component and a physical component. This provides a suitable
model by which the concept of combat air power can be expressed. This concept is
illustrated in the following diagram:

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Figure 2.1: The Concept of Air Power

The Conceptual Component

The conceptual component is the thought process and teaching that underpin air power.
The conceptual sources of air power are the history of air campaigns and operations and
the lessons learned or identified from them, the Principles of War, air power doctrine, air
strategy and campaign planning techniques which are all derived from experience and
doctrine. This knowledge acts as a guide in the process of training and educating
airmen, staff officers and current and future commanders at all levels. This volume is
part of that process.

The Moral Component

The ability to get people to fight penetrates to the very core of air power. Armed Forces
reflect the society they serve, but require a much greater degree of sacrifice and
commitment than comparable professions. Volunteer air forces of mature democracies

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must rely on the support and contribution of regular, full and part time reserve forces,
civilians and contractors to achieve mission success. There are three elements that merit
consideration within the moral component:

● Leadership.
● The nature of leadership has been a source of debate throughout history, but there
has never been any doubt about its importance as a war-winning factor.
Inspirational leadership is one of the foremost elements in raising and sustaining
morale, which has often proved to be a decisive ingredient in determining the
outcome of military operations, even against the most overwhelming odds. Born
leaders tend to be few, but a good proportion of the art of leadership can be
learned, particularly from the example of others. Successful leadership can take
many forms and styles both in the air and on the ground, but invariably includes
professional mastery and moral courage. Study of history is seldom wasted if one
wants to understand what makes a good leader.

● Historically, air forces have tended to foster an ethos which is different from those
at sea or on land. Although all personnel on an airfield, aircraft carrier or forward
operating strip may share the same dangers if attacked, only a small minority -
aircrew - directly and regularly engage in direct combat. Leadership in the air
similarly takes many forms. At more senior levels of command, air leaders are
isolated from the immediate air action by the centralisation of control that the
efficient use of air power demands, fostering what can be perceived as a remote
style of leadership.5 At all levels, air commanders must recognise that the largest
proportion of their personnel provide support on the ground and that this generates
additional but equally important demands on them as commanders.

● A fighting force in peacetime must provide the encouragement and the conditions
in which leaders of different styles can thrive and develop.

● Core Values. Core values are the permanent foundations on which the identity and
purpose of the British Armed Forces are built and are a small number of ethically
based principles which serve, in all circumstances, to guide the behaviour of members
of the Service in a way which both furthers its purpose and is ethically sound. Just as
the nature of warfare does not change, so the core values necessary for its successful
and ethical prosecution have remained constant. Core values can be expressed in
many ways, but will always include such recognisably military virtues as physical
courage, total commitment and service before self. In addition, virtues such as
integrity and moral courage are no less important to the armed forces of a nation
which is pledged to uphold international laws and conventions relating to the use of
military force. Core values capture the very essence of what is important to the

5
Vallance, A G B, The Air Weapon, (Macmillan Press and St Martin’s Press inc. 1996), p. 31-32.

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Service and those who serve within it, thereby engendering justifiable pride.
Although important at all times, they are most valuable at times of extreme personal
commitment, when together with leadership and training, they sustain and inspire
personnel in circumstances which might otherwise overwhelm them.

● Education. Military education and personal development remain key requirements

for the development of successful commanders. The study of military history is a
fundamental element of professional education and should continue throughout an
individual’s service. Education can be guided by doctrine and training, but must be
underpinned by personal commitment to professional development to develop an
understanding of the considerations which apply to the exploitation of air power.
Training and education do not stop with appointment to senior rank. This volume is
part of the education process.

The Physical Component

The physical component represents the means to fight and is bounded by the resources
available to defence. The successful exploitation of British air power depends upon
superior and timely information exploitation, a quicker decision/action cycle than that
of the opponent and flexible and capable forces that can offer the rapid and precise
application of air power across the spectrum of conflict. Combat air power must be
supported by robust and sustainable logistics. It is the combination of civil, military and
industrial resources to procure combat effective platforms and weapons systems in
sufficient numbers which underpins the national means to exploit air power. If the
potential of air power is not to be wasted, command and control considerations are
extremely important. Command and control considerations are covered in Chapter 3.

Utility of Air Power

The challenges posed by the contemporary strategic environment and the factors and
considerations which apply to air power shape the United Kingdom’s core capabilities
for the efficient and effective exploitation of air power. They are:

● Information Exploitation. Air and space vehicles can provide information through
the gathering, collection, fusion and flow of data to inform joint and multinational
operations around the spectrum of conflict.

● Control of the Air. Air power platforms and weapon systems provide the degree of
control of the air required to ensure sufficient freedom of action for military
operations. The degree of control required will depend on the context and the scale
of the operation and may be limited in time and space. Control of the air may be
achieved by denying an opponent access to his own airspace, or by denying the
freedom of own airspace to an opponent.

AP 3000 1.2.16 Air Power

Chapter 02 12/07/2000 14:29 Page 17

● Strategic Effect. Air power can be employed for strategic effect on targets at all levels
of warfare and all scales of conflict. Missions for strategic effect may be tasked distinct
from theatre operations. Air power roles for strategic effect are not limited to
bombardment or attack missions, but may encompass several role and mission types.

● Joint Force Employment. Air power has great utility in indirect and direct air
operations to enable joint or combined military operations. Indirect air operations can
shape and prepare the battlespace for surface forces, while direct air operations can
prove decisive in concentrating force and allowing manoeuvre from the air to
complement rotary-air and surface force manoeuvre.

● Combat Support Air Operations. Combat support air operations are pervasive in
the support of all joint and multinational operations. Air power can be used to
enhance many forms of combat power by undertaking a wide range of combat
support missions.

● Force Protection. Force protection has air and ground elements and is an essential
element of all air operations.

● Sustainability. The ability to exploit air power effectively depends on sustainability.

Sustainability is an all-embracing concept which includes manpower, equipment and
logistics.

Part Two examines the core capabilities of air power in detail to provide a greater
understanding of how to exploit air power in a wide variety of roles and missions across
the spectrum of conflict.

AP 3000 1.2.17 Air Power