Branden Keck

Period 4/5
Midterm Exam Study Guide
1. There are eleven systems of the human body. List all eleven systems and the
primary function of each system to the body.
The eleven systems are the inteumentary system! skeletal system! muscular
system! nervous system! endocrine system! cardiovascular system! lym"hatic
system! diestive system! res"iratory system! urinary system! and the re"roductive
system. The #nteumentary system is res"onsi$le %or "rotectin the tissues!
reulation o% $ody tem"erature and su""ortin sensory rece"tors. The skeletal
system su""orts the $ody and "roduces $lood cells. The muscular system allo&s
$odily movement! hel"s to maintain "osture and "roduces heat. The nervous
system detects chanes! inter"rets sensory in%ormation! and stimulates muscles
and lands. The endocrine system controls meta$olic activity. The cardiovascular
system move $lood throuh the $ody and trans"orts certain su$stances throuh the
$ody. The lym"hatic system returns tissue 'uid to the $lood and de%ends aainst
in%ection. The diestive system receives and $reaks do&n %ood! and removes
&aste. The res"iratory system reulates the intake and out"ut o% air and trans%ers
oxyen to the $lood. The urinary system removes &aste %rom the $lood and
maintains the &ater(electrolyte $alance. )nd! the re"roductive systems allo&
humans to create ne& li%e.
2. Receptors, control centers, and efectors are the three major players in a
homeostatic mechanism. Describe the role of each of these players in regulating
homeostatic conditions.
*ece"tors are res"onsi$le %or receivin and "rovidin in%ormation a$out
internal conditions. The control center is a set "oint &hich "rovides a s"eci+c value
that should $e maintained $y the $ody. The e,ector is released to alter conditions
in the internal environment.
. !hat are the t"o types of homeostatic control mechanisms# $o" do they
difer#
The t&o ty"es o% mechanisms are the neative %eed$ack mechanism and the
"ositive %eed$ack mechanism. The neative %eed$ack mechanism corrects a
"ro$lem $y reducin the action in the e,ectors in order to "revent sudden chanes
in the $ody. The "ositive %eed$ack mechanism enhances an a$normality in the
$ody.
%. Describe the position of the body in the anatomical position.
)natomical "osition is an u"riht! %or&ard %acin stance in &hich the arms are
do&n at the sides o% the $ody and the "alms are %acin %or&ard.
&. Terms of relative position describe the location of one body part "ith respect to
another. 'tate the correct terms of relative position.
)nterior means that a $ody "art is closer to the %ront o% the $ody! &here
"osterior means that it is closer to the $ack. Su"erior means that a $ody "art is
hiher on the $ody -closer to the head. and in%erior means that a $ody "art is lo&er
on the $ody. Medial means that a $ody "art is closer to the $ody/s midline and
lateral means that the "art is %urther %rom this midline. Proximal $ody "arts are
nearest to the 0oint that connects it to the $ody and distal means that it is %urther
%rom this 0oint. Su"er+cial means that a $ody "art is closer to the $ody/s sur%ace
and dee" means that it is %urther %rom the sur%ace.
(. Describe the "ay the body is sectioned in transverse cuts, sagittal cuts, and
coronal cuts.
) transverse cut is a hori1ontal cut that divides the $ody into u""er and lo&er
sections. ) saittal cut is a lenth&ise cut that divides the $ody into le%t and riht
halves. ) coronal cut divides the $ody into an anterior and a "osterior section.
). *n addition to the body as a "hole, cylindrical structures such as blood vessels
and intestines can be cut as "ell. Describe cross sections, obli+ue sections, and
longitudinal sections.
) cross section is a 23 deree cut riht throuh a cylindrical oran. )n
o$li4ue section is an anular cut throuh a cylindrical oran. )nd! a lonitudinal cut
is a lenth&ise cut throuh a cylindrical oran.
,. 'erous membranes line the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities to protect the
organs in those cavities from e-cess friction. !hat is the diference bet"een a
parietal serous membrane and visceral serous membrane#
) "arietal mem$rane is the outer section o% the serous mem$rane that lines
the cavity &all. The visceral mem$rane is the inner section that covers the oran or
orans o% a cavity.
.. !hat are the three serous membrane lined cavities of the thoracic cavity and
"hat organs do they protect#
The "ericardial cavity is the serous mem$rane lined cavity that contains the
heart. The "leural cavity is res"onsi$le %or "rotectin the luns. )nd! the "eritoneal
cavity is res"onsi$le %or "rotectin the lo&er orans in the torso.
1/. !hat is the name of the serous membrane lined cavity that protects the organs
of the abdominopelvic cavity#
The "eritoneal mem$rane is res"onsi$le %or "rotectin the orans o% the
a$domino"elvic cavity.
11. 0re the organs found "ithin the serous membrane lined cavities#
Some orans re4uire a mesentery &hich is a dou$le layered mem$rane that
anchors an oran to the $ody &all. 5o&ever! other orans are retro"eritoneal!
meanin they don/t need a mesentery.
12. 1ells are held together by intercellular junctions to ma2e tissues. !hich type
of intercellular junction forms a permeability barrier due to the fusion of cells#
Tiht 0unctions %orm this "ermea$ility $arrier. Tiht 0unctions occur as
mem$ranes o% ad0acent cells convere and %use! creatin sheets o% cells that a""ear
to $e stitched toether.
1. !hich type of tissue is avascular, has an apical surface and basement
membrane, and composes glands#
These are all characteristics o% e"ithelium.
1%. !hat are the three "ays that epithelial tissue can be layered in the body#
E"ithelial tissue can $e layered in a sim"le! strati+ed! or "seudostrati+ed
%ashion.
1&. !hat are the four shapes of epithelial cells#
E"ithelial cells can $e s4uamous! cu$oidal! columnar! or transitional
1(. Distinguish bet"een e-ocrine and endocrine glands.
Exocrine lands are com"osed o% e"ithelial tissue and release su$stances
riht onto the skin -outside o% the $ody.. These are "art o% the inteumentary
system. Endocrine lands %orm their o&n system and they secrete su$stances
directly into the $lood stream.
1). Describe the various shapes of e-ocrine glands.
Exocrine lands can $e either sim"le or com"ound. Sim"le lands contain a
sinle duct and com"ound lands contain multi"le ducts. )lso! these lands can $e
either tu$ular or alveolar. Tu$ular lands have the same diameter as the duct! $ut
alveolar lands have sac(like dilations.
1,. !hich type of tissue contains an e-tracellular matri-# !hat types of protein
3bers ma2e up the e-tracellular matri-#
6onnective tissue contains the extracellular matrix. There are three ty"es o%
"rotein +$ers that make u" an extracellular matrix. They are elastic +$ers!
collaenous +$ers! and reticular +$ers.
1.. Describe the various types of connective tissue.
7ense connective tissue consists o% closely "acked! thick collaenous +$ers
that make u" tendons and liaments. Elastic tissue is com"osed o% yello&! elastic
+$ers and is %ound $et&een $ones o% the s"inal column. )reolar tissue consists o%
delicate! thin mem$ranes and underlies all e"ithelial tissue. )di"ose tissue is
com"osed o% %at(storin cells. 5yaline cartilae is made o% +ne collaenous +$ers
and makes u" the ends o% $ones. Elastic cartilae is more 'exi$le and it com"oses
the ears and "arts o% the larynx. 8i$rocartilae is a rouh tissue that %orms the
cushion %or $ones o% the knees and "elvic irdle. 9sseous tissue makes u" $ones.
)nd! $lood is in a 'uid matrix that is "um"ed throuh the $ody
2/. 4or s2eletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle, describe the appearance of each and
if the muscle "or2s voluntary or involuntary.
Skeletal muscle looks very lon and cylindrical &ith multi"le nuclei "er cell. #t
contracts voluntarily. Smooth muscle has no striations and it has short! ta"ered
cells. #t contracts involuntarily. 6ardiac muscle looks striated and $ranched. #t
contracts involuntarily.
21. During tissue repair, "hat t"o "ays do the mediators of in5ammation change
the blood vessels# $o" does this afect the body#
Mediators dilate the $lood vessels and increase their "ermea$ility durin
in'ammation. This allo&s $lood to et to the in0ured site %aster and cause and
edema.
22. Tissue repair can occur by either regeneration or replacement. $o" are these
t"o methods diferent#
*eeneration uses the same ty"e o% cells to re"lace the damaed cells.
*e"lacement has do use other cells $ecause the damae is too severe. This leads
to scarrin and irreular healin.
2. Remember the s2in is actually only composed of t"o layers6 the epidermis and
the dermis. !hat then is the role of the hypodermis#
The hy"odermis is a layer o% underlyin connective tissue. #ts "rimary
%unction is to connect skin to $one and muscle and to di,use $lood to the
e"ithelium.
2%. !hat type of tissue composes the epidermis# The dermis#
The e"idermis is com"osed o% strati+ed s4uamous e"ithelium. The dermis is
made u" o% dense irreular connective tissue.
2&. *t is the deepest layers of the epidermis that produce ne" cells. The oldest
cells are pushed to the surface, often being 2eratini7ed in the process, and are shed
3rst. !hat is the order of the layers of the epidermis, starting "ith the deepest
layer and "or2ing your "ay to the most super3cial layer#
There are %our layers o% the e"idermis. They are the stratum $asale! the
stratum ranulosum! the stratum lucidum! and the stratum corneum.
2(. $o" "ould the order of the layers of the epidermis be altered if you "ere
e-amining the palm of a hand#
The "alm o% the hand contains a +%th layer that is riht $eneath the stratum
$asale. #t is called the stratum s"inosum.
2). !hat is the role of melanin#
Melanin is res"onsi$le %or skin! hair! and eye color. #t also a$sor$s :;
radiation.
2,. !hat are melanocytes and in "hich layer of the epidermis are they found#
Melanocytes are the structures that "roduce melanin and they are located in
the stratum $asale
2.. !hat are dermal papillae#
7ermal "a"illae are extensions o% the dermis &hich extend into the
e"idermis.
/. !hat factors can account for the fact that some hairs on the body naturally
gro" longer than others#
5air lenth is determined $y the cells that are "roduced in the hair $ul$ at
the $ase o% the hair %ollicle. )lso! the restin stae has a hue role in hair ro&th.
1. There are t"o major groups of s2in glands called sebaceous glands and
sudoriferous glands. !hat type of e-cretion do the sebaceous glands produce#
Se$aceous lands are res"onsi$le %or "roducin se$um &hich is an oily! &hite
su$stance that makes the hair so%t! "lia$le! and &ater"roo%
2. 'udoriferous glands can be bro2en do"n into t"o groups6 eccrine and apocrine
s"eat glands. !hat is the diference in the secretions from each of these glands#
Eccrine lands are extremely numerous and "roduce an averae s&eat.
)"ocrine lands "roduce a s&eat that is much more viscous that is meta$oli1ed $y
$acteria! creatin $ody odor.
. !hat is the relation bet"een vitamin d and the s2in#
;itamin 7 cannot $e "roduced unless the skin is ex"osed to ultra violet liht.
%. $o" are 3rst, second, and third degree burns diferent#
8irst deree $urns only cause damae to the e"idermis and are there%ore the
least severe. Second deree $urns damae the entire e"idermis and "arts o% the
dermis. These result in redness! $listerin and s&ellin. Third deree $urns cause
damae to the entire e"idermis! the entire dermis! and their accessory structures.
These $urns and "ainless $ecause o% severe damae to the nervous tissue.
&. 8ones come in 3ve diferent shapes. 9ive an e-ample :or t"o; of bones that
are long bones, short bones, 5at bones, irregular bones, and sesamoid bones.
Some exam"les o% lon $ones are the humorous and the %emur. Exam"les o%
short $ones are the car"als and the tarsals. Exam"les o% 'at $ones are the ri$s and
the sca"ula. Exam"les o% irreular $ones are the %acial $ones. )nd! exam"les o%
sesamoid $ones include the "atella.
(. !hat is the shaft of a lone bone called# The ends of a long bone#
The sha%t o% a lon $one is called the dia"hysis. The ends o% a lon $one is
called the e"i"hysis.
). !hat tissue is found on the articulating portion of each bone#
)rticular cartilae -hyaline cartilae. is %ound on the articulatin "ortion o%
each $one.
,. !hat is the periosteum#
The "eriosteum is a touh! +$rous vascular coverin that encloses the $one.
.. !hat is an osteon# !hat structures ma2e up an osteon#
)n osteon is the haversian system &hich is the %undamental %unctional unit o%
com"act $one. The haversian system is com"osed o% the haversian canal! lacunae!
and cannaliculi.
%/. !hat is the diference bet"een the primary and secondary ossi3cation centers#
The "rimary ossi+cation centers are in the dia"hysis and develo" the $one
%rom the center out. The secondary ossi+cation centers develo" later in each
e"i"hysis and are res"onsi$le mostly %or the creation o% s"ony $one.
%1. !hat are osteoblasts#
9steo$lasts are the structures &hich create osteocytes -$one cells..
%2. !hat structure divides the epiphysis from the diaphysis#
The e"i"hyseal "late -ro&th "late. divides these sections o% the $ones.
%. $o" are endochondral bones diferent from intramembranous bones#
Endochondral $ones com"rise most o% the $ones in the $ody and they
develo" out o% hyaline cartilae. #ntramem$ranous $ones are $one that develo"s
into the "rimary $ones o% the skull.
%%. !hat is the diference bet"een a compound and a simple fracture#
6om"ound %ractures occur &hen the $one "enetrates the skin a%ter $reakin.
#n a sim"le %racture! the $one does not "enetrate the skin.
%&. !hat is the "orst<most severe type of fracture# Describe "hat happens to the
bone in this type of fracture.
6om"lete %ractures are the &orst $ecause they occur &hen the $one $reaks
into several "ieces.
%(. !hich bones of the s2ull are joined at the coronal suture, sagittal suture,
s+uamous suture, and lamdboidal suture#
The coronal suture is &here the %rontal $one meets the "arietal $ones. The
"arietal $ones meet each other alon the saittal suture. The tem"oral $ones meet
the "arietal $ones at the s4uamous suture. The lamd$oidal suture is &here the
occi"ital $one meets the "arietal $ones.
%). $o" does the vertebral column curve#
#t is concave at the cervical and lum$ar sections. #t is convex at the thoracic
and sacral reions.
%,. !hat is the role of the body in the vertebral bones#
The $ody o% these $ones "rimarily su""orts the &eiht o% the u""er $ody.
%.. !hat is the =atlas> in the vertebral column#
The atlas is the very +rst $one o% the verte$ral column! located at the to" o%
the cervical curve.
&/. There are a total of 12 pairs of ribs :2% ribs;. $o" are the 3rst seven pairs
diferent from the last 3ve pairs of ribs#
The +rst seven "airs are considered to $e the <true ri$s/ iven that they
connect directly to some "ortion o% the sternum.
&1. !hat are the three parts of the sternum#
The three "arts o% the sternum are the manu$rium! the $ody! and the xi"hoid
"rocess.
&2. !hat bones ma2e up the pectoral girdle#
The sca"ulae and the clavicles make u" this irdle.
&. !hat is a synovial joint# 9ive a fe" e-amples of them.
) synovial 0oint is a 0oint that is %ree movin like the $all(and(socket 0oint o%
the shoulder.
&%. Diferentiate bet"een a synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic, and diarthrotic joint.
) synarthrotic 0oint means that a 0oint doesn/t move. )n am"hiarthrotic 0oint
has very little movement. )nd! a diartrotic 0oint is %ree(movin.
&&. Remember that muscles are made of bundles of fascuculi, "hich are made of
bundles of muscle 3bers, "hich are made of myo3brils, "hich are made of actin and
myosin. !hat are the protective coverings for the muscle, fasciculi and muscle
3ber#
The e"imysium is the coverin %or the muscle. The "erimysium is the
"rotective coverin %or the %asciculi. The muscle +$ers are covered $y the
endomysium.
&(. The muscle 3ber is really just a cylindrical muscle cell. !hat is the name of the
plasma membrane that surrounds it#
The sarcolemma is the "lasma mem$rane that surrounds the muscle +$er.
&). Diferentiate bet"een the t"o myo3brils ? actin and myosin.
)ctin is thin! lihter! and looks like it is com"osed o% t&o stands o% "earls that
are intert&ined. The myosin is thick! darker! and looks like $undles o% tiny ol%
clu$s.
&,. !hat banding patterns ma2e up a sarcomere#
The #(Bands are the liht sections that contain only actin. They are divided in
hal% at the =(line. The )(Band is the section that is com"osed o% overla""in actin
and myosin. )t the center o% a sarcomere is the 5(=one &hich is extremely dark
$ecause it is com"osed o% only myosin. This 1one is divided in hal% at the M(>ine.
&.. !hat is the role of acetylcholine in muscle contractions#
This chemical is the neurotransmitter that di,uses across the syna"tic cle%t.
(/. !hat is the role of calcium in muscle contractions#
6alcium is the ion that is released durin contractions. #t $inds to the
tro"onin o% actin and ex"osed the necessary myosin $indin sites.
(1. !hen a muscle contracts, ho", speci3cally, does the sarcomere change#
7urin contraction! the sarcomere a""ears to shorted due to an increased
overla" o% the actin and myosin myo+liments.
(2. 0s long as o-ygen is available, a muscle "ill use cellular respiration :aerobic
respiration; to generate its energy supply :0T@;. !hen o-ygen levels are very lo",
a muscle resorts to using lactic acid fermentation :anaerobic respiration; to ma2e
its 0T@. *s there another method that the body can use to 2eep up 0T@ production
before resorting to anaerobic respiration# *f so, "hat is it and ho" does it "or2#
?es. The "rocess that occurs $e%ore lactic acid %ermentation involves the use
o% creatine("hos"hate to re"lace the de"leted )TP su""ly.
(. $o" is an isometric contraction diferent from an isotonic contraction# 9ive an
e-ample of a type of e-ercise that "ould represent each contraction.
#sometric contractions occur &hen the muscles increase in tension! $ut the
lenth o% the muscle does not increase or decrease. )n exercise that &ould
incor"orate this &ould $e invisi$le chairs. #sotonic contractions occur &hen the
muscles increase in tension! and the muscles increase or decrease in lenth. )n
exam"le o% an exercise that re4uires this ty"e o% movement is curls or "ush(u"s.