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APES Spring 2009

Chapter 21 Water Pollution Notes


Key Terms (Terms are listed in the same font style as they appear in the text.)
advanced (tertiary) sewage treatment (p.
511)
agricultural activities (p. 9)
bacterial source tracking (BST) (p. 95)
biological pollution (p.500)
bioreactor (p. 51!)
biosolids (p. 512)
bleaching (p. 511)
chemical analysis (p. 9")
#hesapea$e %ay (p. 50")
chlorination (p. 511)
composting toilet systems (p. 512)
crude oil (p. 50&)
crude petroleum (p. 50&)
cultural eutrophication (p. 99)
degradable wastes (p. 502)
discharge trading policy (p. 510)
disinfection (p. 511)
dissolved oxygen (p. 9")
Escherichia coli (p. 95)
eutrophication (p. 99)
Exxon Valde (p. 50&)
fecal coliform bacteria (p. 95)
harmful alga blooms ('A%s) (p. 50)
indicator species (p. 9")
industrial facilities (p. 9)
integrated coastal management (p. 50()
living machines (p. 9!)
maximum contaminant levels (p. 515)
mining (p. 9)
nitrate ions (p. 50!)
nondegradable wastes (p. 502)
nonpoint sources (p. 9)
oligotrophic lake (p. 99)
oxygen sag curve (p. 9")
oxygen!depleted one (p. 50)
plume (p. 502)
point sources (p. 9)
"restige (p. 50&)
primary sewage treatment (p. 510)
refined oil (p. 50&)
refined petroleum (p. 50&)
secondary sewage treatment (p. 510)
septic tank (p. 510)
slowly degradable wastes (p. 502)
sludge (p. 512)
wastewater (sewage) treatment plants (p. 510)
water pollution (p. 9)
)ater Poll*tion 191
utline
)ater Poll*tion+ So*r,es- Types- and Effe,ts
A. )ater is poll*ted .y infe,tio*s .a,teria- inorgani, and organi, ,hemi,als- and ex,ess heat.
1. )ater poll*tion is any ,hemi,al- .iologi,al- or physi,al ,hange in /ater 0*ality that has a
harmf*l effe,t on li1ing organisms.
2. Ta.le 2121 lists the ma3or ,lasses of /ater poll*tants and their ma3or h*man so*r,es and
harmf*l effe,ts.
!. The )'4 estimates that !.2 million people die premat*rely ea,h year from /ater.orne
diseases.
%. S,ientists monitor /ater 0*ality .y *sing .a,terial ,o*nts- ,hemi,al analysis- and indi,ator
organisms.
1. 4ne method of meas*ring /ater 0*ality in1ol1es meas*ring the n*m.er of ,olonies of fe,al
,oliform .a,teria present in a /ater sample.
2. 5rin$ing /ater sho*ld not ,ontain any ,olonies6 100 milliliters and safe s/imming /ater
sho*ld not ha1e more than 200 ,olonies6100 milliliters.
!. A ne/ field of s,ien,e ,alled .a,terial so*r,e tra,$ing (%ST) *ses mole,*lar .iology
te,hni0*es to determine s*.tle differen,es in strains of E. coli .ased on their animal host.
. S,ientists meas*re .iologi,al oxygen demand (%45)- the amo*nt of dissol1ed oxygen
,ons*med .y a0*ati, de,omposers.
5. #hemi,al analysis in,l*des ,he,$ing inorgani, and organi, ,hemi,als present- sediment
,ontent and t*r.idity of /ater.
". 7ndi,tor spe,ies are li1ing organisms that are monitored to determine le1els of poll*tion.
(. 8eneti, te,hni0*es are .eing *sed to de1elop organisms that /ill glo/ in the presen,e of
spe,ifi, poll*tants s*,h as toxi, hea1y metals in the o,ean and ,ar,inogens in food.
#. )ater poll*tion ,an ,ome from a single so*r,e or from a 1ariety of dispersed so*r,es.
1. Point so*r,es dis,harge poll*tants at spe,ifi, lo,ations thro*gh drain pipes- dit,hes- or se/er
lines into .odies of s*rfa,e /ater.
2. These so*r,es are easy to identify- monitor- and reg*late.
!. 9on2point so*r,es are s,attered and diff*se and ,an:t .e tra,ed to any single site of dis,harge.
S*,h things as r*noff from ,roplands- li1esto,$ feedlots- et,.- are non2point so*r,es.
. 7t is diffi,*lt and expensi1e to identify and ,ontrol these dis,harges from diff*se so*r,es.
5. The leading so*r,es of /ater poll*tion are agri,*lt*re- ind*stries- and mining.
1. Agri,*lt*ral a,ti1ities are the leading ,a*se of /ater poll*tion from erosion- and o1ergra;ing-
fertili;ers and pesti,ides and ex,ess slat from irrigated soils.
2. 7nd*strial fa,ilities are another large so*r,e of /ater poll*tion and mining is a third so*r,e.
E. #ommon diseases are transmitted to h*mans thro*gh ,ontaminated drin$ing /ater (Ta.le 2122).
1. The )orld 'ealth 4rgani;ation ()'4) estimates that !.2 million people- most of /hom are
,hildren- die premat*rely e1ery year from infe,tions diseases spread .y ,ontaminated /ater or
la,$ of /ater for ade0*ate hygiene.
2. The <nited 9ations estimate that it /o*ld ,ost =2! .illion per year o1er &210 years to .ring
lo/2,ost and safe drin$ing /ater and sanitation to the 2. .illion people /ho do not ha1e it.
Poll*tion of >resh/ater Streams
A. Streams ,an re,o1er from moderate le1els of degrada.le /ater poll*tants if the flo/s are not
red*,ed
1. A ,om.ination of dil*tion and .iodegradation ,an allo/ re,o1ery of stream poll*tion if they
are not o1erloaded- or ha1e red*,ed flo/ d*e to damming- agri,*lt*ral di1ersion- or dro*ght.
2. The .rea$do/n of poll*tants .y .a,teria ,reates an oxygen sag ,*r1e. 4rganisms that ha1e a
high oxygen demand ,an:t s*r1i1e in the ,*r1e.
!. ?ol*me of the stream- 1ol*me of /astes entering- flo/ rate- temperat*re- and p' le1els all
affe,t ho/ great a sag ,*r1e is prod*,ed.
%. @ost de1eloped ha1e red*,ed point so*r,e poll*tion- .*t toxi, ,hemi,als and poll*tion from non2
point so*r,es are still pro.lems.
1. The <.S. has managed to a1oid in,rease in poll*tion from point so*r,es in most streams.
2. There ha1e .een se1eral examples of ama;ing ,lean2*p of ri1ers s*,h as the #*yahoga Ai1er
in 4hio- and the Thames Ai1er in 8reat %ritain.
!. There are still examples of large fish $ills and ,ontamination of drin$ing /ater from releases
of ,hemi,als from ind*stry and mining- and also from non2point r*noff of fertili;ers and
pesti,ides.
#. Stream poll*tion in most de1eloping ,o*ntries is a serio*s and gro/ing pro.lem. 'alf of the
/orld:s 500 ma3or ri1ers are hea1ily poll*ted and most of them r*n thro*gh de1eloping ,o*ntries
/here /aste treatment is minimal or nonexistent.
5. Aeligio*s .eliefs- ,*lt*ral traditions- po1erty- little e,onomi, de1elopment- and a large pop*lation
intera,t to ,a*se se1ere poll*tion of the 8anges Ai1er in 7ndia.
1. A.o*t !50 million people li1e in the 8anges Ai1er .asin /ith little treatment of se/age
prod*,ed .y them.
2. 'ind* .eliefs add poll*tion to the air /hen .odies are ,remated and to the /ater /hen partially
,remated or non2,remated .odies are thro/n into the ri1er in order to find their /ay to hea1en.
!. The go1ernment is /or$ing to ,lean *p the ri1er .y .*ilding /aste treatment plants in the 29
large ,ities along the 8anges and .y .*ilding ele,tri, ,rematori*ms on its .an$s. 7t has also
introd*,ed snapping t*rtles as .ody s,a1engers.
. @ost of these plans are not yet in pla,e- and religio*s and ,*lt*ral ,onditions are diffi,*lt to
,hange.
Poll*tion of >resh/ater Ba$es
A. Ba$es ha1e little flo/ and so are less effe,ti1e at dil*ting poll*tants that enter them.
1. Ba$es and reser1oirs are often stratified into layers /ith little 1erti,al mixing and they also
ha1e 1ery little flo/ o,,*rring. 7t may ta$e from 12100 years to fl*sh and ,hange /ater in
la$es and reser1oirs.
2. Ba$es and reser1oirs are m*,h more 1*lnera.le to r*noff ,ontamination of all $inds of
materials.
!. #hemi,al ,on,entrations .*ild *p as they pass thro*gh the food /e.s in la$es.
%. '*man a,ti1ities ,an o1erload la$es /ith plant n*trients that red*,e dissol1ed oxygen and $ill
some a0*ati, spe,ies.
1. 9at*ral n*trient enri,hment of la$es from r*noff is ,alled e*trophi,ation. The amo*nt of
nat*ral e*trophi,ation depends on the ,omposition of the s*rro*nding drainage .asin.
2. 9at*ral e*trophi,ation ,an enri,h the a.*ndan,e of desira.le organisms- .*t ,*lt*ral
e*trophi,ation o,,*rs near *r.an or agri,*lt*ral areas and ,an lead to serio*s poll*tion
pro.lems.
!. 5*ring hot /eather or dro*ght- C.loomsD of organisms ,an red*,e la$e prod*,ti1ity.
. Aed*,ed s*nlight- and the s*.se0*ent de,omposition of the C.loomsD in,rease pop*lations of
.a,teria and de,reases dissol1ed oxygen a1aila.le. >ish $ills ,an o,,*r and the pro.lem ,an
.e,ome so .ad that anaero.i, .a,teria ta$e o1er.
5. The EPA states the a.o*t 16!
rd
of 100-000 medi*m to large la$es and &5E of large la$es near
ma3or pop*lation ,enters in the A<.S. ha1e some amo*nt of ,*lt*ral e*trophi,ation.
". #*lt*ral e*trophi,ation also o,,*rs in ,oastal /ater- en,losed est*aries and .ays d*e to r*noff.
(. #*lt*ral e*trophi,ation ,an .e red*,ed or pre1ented .y .anning or limiting phosphates in
detergents and *sing ad1an,ed treatment methods to remo1e nitrates and phosphates from
/aste/ater- and .y *se of soil ,onser1ation to red*,e r*noff.
&. #lean *p of la$es in,l*des remo1ing ex,ess /eeds- ,ontrolling plant gro/th and p*mping air
thro*gh la$es and reser1oirs to a1oid oxygen depletion.
9. Poll*tion pre1ention is less expensi1e than ,ontrol methods.
#. An example of la$e re,o1ery is Ba$e )ashington in Seattle- )ashington.
1. Ae,o1ery o,,*rred in a.o*t years on,e se/age /as di1erted from the la$e .e,a*se the la$e
hadn:t filled /ith /eeds and sediment- and it had not .e,ome shallo/. 5i1ersion /as to P*get
So*nd /here there is rapid ex,hange of /ater to dil*te the se/age.
2. There is ,on,ern a.o*t P*get So*nd d*e to in,reased *r.an r*noff and the pop*lation of the
area gro/s rapidly.
!. The .est /ay is to pre1ent most /aste from rea,hing either .ody of /ater.
Poll*tion of 8ro*nd/ater
A. 8ro*nd/ater is 1*lnera.le to ,ontamination .e,a*se it ,an:t effe,ti1ely ,leanse itself and dil*te an
disperse poll*tants
1. Spilling gasoline- oil- paint thinners and other organi,s onto the gro*nd ,an ,ontaminate
gro*nd/ater.
2. Experts rate gro*nd/ater poll*tion as a lo/2ris$ e,ologi,al pro.lem- it is rated as a high2ris$
health pro.lem.
!. #ontaminated /ater in the a0*ifer /ill slo/ly flo/ along and ,reate a pl*me of ,ontaminated
/ater.
. #ontaminants in gro*nd/ater are not dil*ted or dispersed .e,a*se this /ater mo1es *s*ally
less than 0.! meter- or 1 foot per day.
5. >a,tors s*,h as lo/er oxygen ,ontent- ,older temperat*re of the /ater and smaller pop*lations
of de,omposing .a,teria mean that ,leansing is extremely slo/.
". 7t ,an ta$e h*ndreds of years to ,leanse degrada.le /astes- nondegrada.le /astes are there
permanently.
%. The extent of gro*nd/ater ,ontamination is generally *n$no/n sin,e there has .een little tra,$ing
and testing done on a0*ifers.
1. EPA and <.S. 8eologi,al S*r1ey fig*res state that one or more organi, ,hemi,als ,ontaminate
a.o*t 5E of m*ni,ipal gro*nd/ater s*pplies in the <.S.
2. Some 2"-000 ind*strial /aste ponds and lagoons in the <.S. do not ha1e a liner to pre1ent
toxi, /aste seepage.
!. A great many of the *ndergro*nd storage tan$s ,ontaining organi, sol1ents ha1e .een fo*nd to
ha1e lea$s.
. 5etermining the extent of a lea$ is ,ostly and the ,ost of ,lean*p is more ,ostly yet.
5. 7n #hina and 7ndia millions of people drin$ /ater ,ontaminated /ith high le1els of fl*oride
that ,a*se .a,$ and ne,$ damage and dental pro.lems.
". 9itrates ,an also ,ontaminate gro*nd/ater- espe,ially in agri,*lt*ral areas. 9itrates
,on1erting to nitrites in the .ody ,an ,a*se 1ario*s forms of ,an,er- and in .a.ies *nder "
months old ,a*ses C.l*e .a.y syndromeD .e,a*se the .lood ,an:t ,arry s*ffi,ient oxygen to
the ,ells.
(. Arseni, is released into drin$ing /ater /hen a /ell is drilled into arseni,2ri,h soils and ro,$.
)'4 estimates that more than 112 million people drin$ /ater ,ontaining 52100 times the
re,ommended le1el of 10 parts6.illion.
&. %angladesh has a serio*s pro.lem /ith arseni,- .*t the <9 and se1eral 984s ha1e started a
program to assess /ells and mar$ those that are too ,ontaminated /ith red paint.
9. The 12pp. le1el is ,onsidered to still .e too high a le1el for safe drin$ing /ater.
#. Pre1ention is the most effe,ti1e and afforda.le /ay to prote,t gro*nd/ater from poll*tants.
1. >ig*re 22210 lists /ays to pre1ent and ,lean *p gro*nd/ater ,ontamination- not an easy tas$
nor ,heap.
2. <ndergro*nd tan$s in the <.S. and some other de1eloped ,o*ntries are no/ stri,tly reg*lated.
4ld- lea$y tan$s are .eing remo1ed and the s*rro*nding soils are .eing treated.
4,ean Poll*tion
A. 4,eans ,an disperse and .rea$ do/n large 0*antities of degrada.le poll*tants if they are not
o1erloaded.
1. Aa/ se/age- sl*dge- oil and some degrada.le ind*strial /astes ,an .e degraded- espe,ially in
deep2/ater areas.
2. Some marine animals ha1e .een less affe,ted .y poll*tants than expe,ted.
!. There is ,ontro1ersy as to /hether this is a 1ia.le sol*tion to the pro.lem.
%. Poll*tion of ,oastal /ater near hea1ily pop*lated areas is a serio*s pro.lem.
1. A.o*t 0E of the /orld:s pop*lation li1es on or /ithin "2 miles of the ,oast and this p*ts a
tremendo*s .*rden on the /etlands- est*aries- ,oral reefs and mangro1e s/amps fo*nd along
the ,oast.
2. 7n most ,oastal de1eloping ,o*ntries and some de1eloped ,o*ntries se/age is d*mped into the
sea /itho*t treatment. This ,a*ses .ea,h poll*tion and shellfish ,ontamination.
!. '*man 1ir*ses (not remo1ed .y /aste treatment) ha1e .een fo*nd in ,oastal /aters.
. 9*trient enri,hment from nitrate and phosphate r*noffs ha1e ,a*sed harmf*l algal .looms-
,alled red- .ro/n and green toxi, tides. Toxins from these algae $ill fish- fish2eating .irds and
poison seafood.
5. Extensi1e non2point r*noffs ha1e ,a*sed seasonal- large oxygen2depleted ;ones in temperate
,oastal /aters d*e to oxygen depletion. The se,ond largest of these ;ones forms ea,h s*mmer
at the mo*th of the @ississippi Ai1er in the 8*lf of @exi,o.
". Experiments /ith 1ery fine ,lay parti,les are .eing done to determine if this /ill p*ll the algae
o*t of the /ater and red*,e the poll*tion.
(. Pre1enti1e meas*res to red*,e the n*m.er and si;e of these oxygen2depleted ;ones in,l*de
red*,tion of nitrogen inp*ts from 1ario*s so*r,es- planting forest and grasslands to soa$ *p
ex,ess nitrogen- restore ,oastal /etlands- impro1e se/age treatment- and re0*ire f*rther
red*,tion of 94x emissions and phase in forms of rene/a.le energy to repla,e fossil f*els.
#. Poll*tants from six states ,ontaminate the shallo/ #hesapea$e %ay est*ary- .*t ,ooperati1e efforts
ha1e red*,ed some of the poll*tion inp*ts.
1. '*man a,ti1ities and in,rease in the h*man pop*lation in the %ay area has ,ontri.*ted to
poll*tion of the %ay.
2. A h*ge drainage .asin adds .oth point and non2point poll*tants to the /aters. The .ay is
shallo/ and so only 1E of the /aste that enters is fl*shed into the Atlanti, 4,ean.
!. #ommer,ial har1est of oysters- ,ra.s- and fish ha1e fallen sharply sin,e 19"0 .e,a*se of
o1erfishing- poll*tion and disease.
. Point so*r,es a,,o*nt for a.o*t "0E of the phosphates. 9onpoint so*r,es a,,o*nt for a.o*t
"0E of the nitrates.
5. 7n 19&!- the <.S. started an integrated ,oastal management plan that /or$s /ith ,iti;en gro*ps-
state legislat*res- and the federal go1ernment to red*,e poll*tion *sing a n*m.er of strategies
s*,h as red*,tion of r*noff- *pgrading /aste treatment plants- .etter monitoring of ind*strial
dis,harges and .anning phosphates from detergents.
". %et/een 19&5 and 2000 there has .een a 2(E de,line in phosphor*s le1els- 1"E drop in
nitrogen le1els and a re,o1ery of grasses gro/ing on the .ottom of the .ay.
(. Aed*,tion in f*nding has slo/ed the progress of ,lean*p in the .ay- .*t it demonstrates /hat
,an .e done /ith ,ooperation of di1erse gro*ps.
5. 7ntrod*,tion of disease2resistant oysters into the #hesapea$e %ay ,o*ld greatly red*,e /ater
poll*tion .e,a*se oysters filter algae and silt from /ater.
1. 4ysters /ere on,e a nat*ral filtration system for the .ay and re,y,led the entire 1ol*me of the
.ay in !2 days.
2. 41er2har1esting- ,o*pled /ith t/o parasiti, oyster diseases red*,ed the oyster pop*lation to
a.o*t 1E of its pop*lation. 7t no/ ta$es the oyster pop*lation a.o*t a year to filter the .ay:s
/ater.
!. Se1eral /ays to reintrod*,e oysters into the .ay are .eing ,onsidered.
E. Parts of the /orld:s o,eans are d*mp sites for a 1ariety of toxi, materials- se/age- and gar.age
from ships.
1. 5*mping ind*strial /astes off <.S. ,oasts has stopped- .*t large 0*antities of dredge spoils are
still legally d*mped at 110 sites in the Atlanti,- Pa,ifi,- and 8*lf #oasts of the <.S.
2. @any ,o*ntries also d*mp se/age sl*dge into the o,ean.
!. Sin,e 1992- the <.S. has .anned this pra,ti,e.
. >ifty ,o*ntries /ith at least &0E of the /orld:s mer,hant fleet ha1e agreed not to d*mp
se/age and gar.age at sea.
5. The Bondon 5*mping #on1ention of 19(2 stated that 100 ,o*ntries agreed not to d*mp highly
toxi, poll*tants and high2le1el radioa,ti1e /astes in the open sea. 7n 199 it .e,ame a
permanent .an.
>. @ost o,ean poll*tion ,omes from h*man a,ti1ities on land s*,h as ,hanging and d*mping motor
oil.
1. #r*de petrole*m and refined petrole*m rea,h the o,ean from a n*m.er of so*r,es.
2. @ore oil is a,t*ally released from day2to2day a,ti1ities s*,h as oil /ells off2shore- lea$s from
pipelines- tan$ers .eing /ashed o*t- loading and *nloading of tan$ers and lea$s from pipelines
and storage tan$s.
!. St*dies sho/ that most o,ean oil poll*tion ,omes from a,ti1ities on land.
8. 4il poll*tion ,an ha1e a n*m.er of harmf*l e,ologi,al and e,onomi, effe,ts- .*t most disappear
/ithin !215 years.
1. A n*m.er of fa,tors are important /hen determining the effe,ts of oil on o,ean e,osystems.
2. ?olatile organi, hydro,ar.ons in oil $ill some a0*ati, organisms- espe,ially the lar1al forms.
!. Tarli$e glo.s ,oat .ird feathers and f*r of marine mammals and these organisms then either
dro/n or die from loss of .ody heat.
. %ottom2d/elling organisms are $illed /hen hea1y ,omponents sin$ to the sea floor.
5. Ae,o1ery from ,r*de oil expos*re may only ta$e ! years for most organisms- .*t re,o1ery
from refined oil prod*,ts ta$es 10215 years. Ae,o1ery in ,old /aters ta$es longer.
". 4il sli,$s on shore also negati1ely impa,t the lo,al e,onomy.
'. 4nly a.o*t 15E of the oil spilled ,an .e re,o1ered /ith ,*rrent te,hni0*es- so pre1ention is the
.est strategy.
1. @ethods a1aila.le in,l*de me,hani,al methods s*,h as floating .ooms- s$immers and
a.sor.ent de1i,es.
2. #hemi,al methods *se ,oag*lating agents for ,l*mping oil and dispersing agents to .rea$ *p
sli,$s. >ire ,an also .*rn off floating oil.
!. %iologi,al methods are .eing de1eloped to *tili;e .a,teria that are a.le to degrade oil. 7t is
less expensi1e and more effe,ti1e than other methods.
. The 4il Poll*tion A,t of 1990 set *p a tr*st f*nd of =1million per spill for ,lean*p. %y 2015
all oil tan$ers operating in <.S. /aters m*st .e do*.le h*lled.
7. Pre1enting or red*,ing poll*tion from the land and from streams is the $ey to prote,ting the
o,eans.
1. >ig*re 2221 lists /ays s*ggested to pre1ent and red*,e ex,essi1e poll*tion of ,oastal /aters.
2. 4,ean poll*tion ,ontrol m*st .e lin$ed /ith land2*se and air poll*tion poli,ies to .e effe,ti1e.
Pre1enting and Aed*,ing S*rfa,e )ater Poll*tion
A. Aed*,e non2point poll*tion .y pre1enting it from rea,hing .odies of s*rfa,e /ater.
1. Agri,*lt*ral non2point poll*tion ,an .e red*,ed .y red*,ing soil erosion- reforestation of
/atersheds- $eep ,o1er ,rops on farmland- red*,e fertili;er *se or *se slo/2release fertili;er
and plant .*ffer ;ones .et/een farmland and s*rfa,e /ater near.y.
2. Aely more on .iologi,al ,ontrol methods rather than pesti,ides.
!. 7n 2002 a federal ,o*rt for,ed EPA to *phold the intent of the #lean )ater A,t and re0*ire
15-500 of the largest feedlots to apply for EPA permits. This means that these Cfa,toriesD /ill
ha1e to o.ey the same poll*tion ,ontrols that are *sed .y other ind*stries sin,e 19(2.
. Aesear,h on ho/ to *se animal /astes more effe,ti1ely is *nder/ay.
%. @ost de1eloping ,o*ntries do not ha1e la/s to set /ater poll*tion standards.
1. The #lean )ater A,t sets standards for allo/ed le1els of $ey /ater poll*tants and re0*ires
poll*ters to o.tain permits that spe,ify the amo*nts of poll*tants they ,an dis,harge into
a0*ati, systems.
2. EPA is experimenting /ith a dis,harge trading poli,y that /o*ld allo/ a permit holder to
p*r,hase *n*sed ,redits from another permit holder.
!. There are good and .ad point to ,redit trading- s*,h as a possi.le .*ild*p of poll*tants in areas
/here ,redits are .o*ght.
. @ost ,ities in de1eloping ,o*ntries dis,harge &0290E of *ntreated se/age into ri1ers- la$es
and streams *sed for drin$ing /ater- .athing- and /ashing ,lothes.
#. Septi, tan$s and 1ario*s le1els of se/age treatment ,an red*,e point2so*r,e /ater poll*tion.
1. A.o*t 16
th
of homes in the <.S. are ser1ed .y septi, tan$s.
2. @ost *r.an areas are ser1ed .y se/age treatment plants.
!. Some 1-200 ,ities ha1e ,om.ined storm r*noff and se/er lines .e,a*se it is ,heaper. These
systems ,an o1erflo/ and dis,harge *ntreated se/age dire,tly into s*rfa,e /ater /ith too
many *sers or /hen there is a hea1y storm.
. Aging se/er systems- and ,om.ined se/er systems in the <.S. are estimated to ,ost =10
.illion a year for 10 years to install d*al systems- add ,apa,ity- and repair the aging se/er
net/or$.
5. Aa/ se/age generally *ndergoes one or t/o le1els of treatment.
". Primary se/age treatment is a physi,al pro,ess that remo1es grit- floating o.3e,ts and
s*spended solids. A settling tan$ allo/s s*spended solids to settle o*t as sl*dge.
(. Primary treatment remo1es a.o*t "0E of s*spended solids and !022E of organi, /astes- .*t
no phosphates- nitrates- salts- radioisotopes- or pesti,ides.
&. Se,ondary se/age treatment is a .iologi,al pro,ess /here aero.i, .a,teria remo1e *p to 90E
of dissol1ed and .iodegrada.le- oxygen2demanding organi, /astes.
9. A ,om.ination of primary and se,ondary treatment remo1es 9529(E of the s*spended solids
and oxygen2demanding organi, /astes- (0E of most toxi, metal ,ompo*nds- (0E of
phosphor*s- 50E of nitrogen and 5E of dissol1ed salts.
10. @ost <.S. ,ities ha1e ,om.ined primary and se,ondary se/age treatment plants. A n*m.er of
,ities ha1e .een in 1iolation at times- and ! East #oast ,ities s,reen o*t large floating o.3e,ts
and dis,harge se/age into ,oastal /aters.
11. Tertiary se/age treatments is a third le1el of ,lean*p. 'ere a ,om.ination of ,hemi,al and
physi,al pro,esses remo1e spe,ifi, poll*tants left .y the other methods. This is expensi1e and
*sed to treat only 5E of the /aste/ater in the <.S.
12. )ater is .lea,hed to remo1e ,olors and then disinfe,ted to $ill disease2,a*sing .a,teria and
some 1ir*ses. #hlorination is the *s*al method of disinfe,tion.
1!. 4;onation and *se of *ltra1iolet light is in,reasing as the method of disinfe,tion.
5. Se/age sl*dge ,an .e *sed as a soil ,onditioner- .*t may ,a*se health pro.lems if it ,ontains
infe,tio*s .a,teria or toxi, ,hemi,als.
1. Sl*dge is a thi,$- gooey mixt*re of .a,teria- solids and ,hemi,als and metals /hen ind*strial
and ho*sehold /astes are ,om.ined.
2. Some sl*dge *ndergoes anaero.i, digestion to de,ompose the organi, materials and prod*,e
,ompost.
!. A.o*t !"E of these .iosolids are *sed to fertili;e farmland- forests- golf ,o*rses- ,emeteries-
et,. The rest is added to landfills or in,inerated.
. #omposting sl*dge to re,y,le the plant n*trients ma$es good e,ologi,al sense- .*t remo1ing
infe,tio*s .a,teria- toxi, ,hemi,als and metals is expensi1e and seldom done in the <.S.
5. 7t is tho*ght that a n*m.er of health pro.lems may .e d*e to *sing sl*dge to fertili;e ,rops in
the <.S.
E. Pre1enting toxi, ,hemi,als from rea,hing se/age treatment plants /o*ld eliminate these from
sl*dge and /ater that is dis,harged.
1. Ae0*ire ind*stries and .*sinesses to remo1e toxi, and ha;ardo*s /astes from /ater sent to
se/age treatment plants- en,o*rage red*,tion or elimination of toxi, ,hemi,al *se and /aste.
2. 'a1e ho*seholds s/it,h to /aterless ,omposting toilet systems maintained .y professionals.
These systems /o*ld .e ,heaper to install and maintain sin,e they do not need *ndergro*nd
pipes.
>. 9at*ral and artifi,ial /etlands and other e,ologi,al systems ,an .e *sed to treat se/age.
1. These systems are a lo/2te,h- lo/2,ost alternati1e to expensi1e /aste treatment plants.
2. Se/age goes to sedimentation tan$s /here solids settle as sl*dge that is remo1ed. The li0*id
is p*mped to oxidation ponds- .a,teria .rea$ do/n remaining /astes. After a month- /ater is
released to an artifi,ial marsh /here plants and .a,teria filter and ,leanse.
!. @ar$ 9elson de1eloped a small- lo/2te,h- inexpensi1e artifi,ial /etland system for *se in
de1eloping ,o*ntries at hotels- resta*rants- and homes. 7t remo1es 99.9E of fe,al ,oliform
.a,teria and o1er &0E of the nitrates and phosphates from se/age. The /ater th*s ,leaned
,o*ld .e *sed for garden irrigation- fl*sh toilets and sa1e /ater.
. 8eneti, engineering is de1eloping a .iorea,tor /here modified .a,teria /ill ,ons*me
pesti,ides.
5. )itho*t large in1estments in .*ilding ade0*ate sanitation fa,ilities more people /ill ha1e
inade0*ate sanitation.
8. )ater poll*tion la/s ha1e signifi,antly impro1ed /ater 0*ality in many <.S. streams and la$es-
.*t more needs to .e done.
1. %et/een 1992 and 2002 Ameri,an ,omm*nities ser1ed .y /ater systems meeting federal
g*idelines in,reased from (9E to 9E.
2. >isha.le and s/imma.le streams in,reased from !"E to "0E of those tested.
!. Topsoil loss thro*gh r*noff /as ,*t .y 1l1 .illion metri, tons ann*ally.
. Ann*al /etland losses de,reased .y &0E.
5. 7n 2000- 0E of streams and 5E of la$es s*r1eyed /ere too poll*ted for s/imming or
fishing. This fig*re ,o*ld .e m*,h higher sin,e only 19E of stream lengths- !E of la$e and
reser1oir areas- and !"E of est*aries ha1e .een tested for /ater 0*ality.
". Animal /aste and /aste lagoons ,ontin*e to .e a pro.lem.
(. 4ften fish ,a*ght in streams and la$es are *nsafe to eat .e,a*se of high le1els of pesti,ides-
mer,*ry and other toxi, s*.stan,es.
&. 7n 200! the EPA fo*nd that at least half of the "-000 largest ind*strial fa,ilities ha1e .een
illegally dis,harging toxi, and .iologi,al /astes into /ater/ays for years /ith imp*nity.
'. There is ,ontro1ersy of strengthening the #lean )ater A,t.
1. A 2001 report .y EPA:s inspe,tor general ,alls for strengthening the #lean /ater A,t.
2. S*ggestions in,l*de in,reased f*nding- in,reased a*thority to ,ontrol nonpoint poll*tion-
moderni;e monitoring system- in,rease ,omplian,e /ith the la/ and strengthen programs.
!. )or$ on integrating /atershed and airshed planning to prote,t gro*nd and s*rfa,e /ater
so*r,es.
. 'alt the loss of /etlands- in,rease standards for /etland restoration and ,reate ne/ /etlands
.efore filling existing ones.
5. >armers feel they sho*ld .e ,ompensated for property 1al*e losses that res*lt from federal
reg*lations prote,ting /etlands.
5rin$ing )ater F*ality
A. #entrali;ed /ater treatment plants ,an pro1ide safe drin$ing /ater for ,ity d/ellers. )ater is
settled- filtered and ,hlorinated to meet go1ernment drin$ing standards.
%. The <.S. is *pgrading on /ater p*rifi,ation and deli1ery systems. This is s*,h a 1ast system that
it is hard to se,*re- .*t also diffi,*lt to ade0*ately poison. %oth ,hemi,al and .iologi,al
indi,ators are .eing de1eloped to indi,ate a ,ontamination pro.lem.
#. Se1eral simple- inexpensi1e /ays for indi1id*als and 1illages to p*rify drin$ing /ater ha1e .een
de1eloped.
1. Expos*re of ,ontaminated /ater to intense s*nlight in a ,lear plasti, .ottle is one method. 7t
ta$es as little as ! ho*rs to $ill .a,teria in the s*n and heat.
2. #holera in,iden,es ha1e .een ,*t in half in %angladesh .y filtering /ater thro*gh strips of
,loth.
!. A third method is to add a small amo*nt of ,hlorine to a plasti, or ,lay storage 1essel /ith a
small mo*th- ,ap- and a spigot. This has ,*t the rate of diarrheal disease in half in ,o*ntries
/here it is *sed.
5. A.o*t 5 ,o*ntries ha1e standards for safe drin$ing /ater.
1. Be1els ha1e .een esta.lished ,alled maxim*m ,ontaminant le1els- for any poll*tants that may
ad1ersely affe,t h*man health.
2. Pri1ately o/ned /ells don:t ha1e to meet these standards.
!. 'ealth s,ientists /ant the standards to .e strengthened.
. #ertain ind*stries /ant to /ea$en the Safe 5rin$ing )ater A,t.
E. Some .ottled /ater is not as p*re as tap /ater and ,osts m*,h more.
1. %ottled /ater is 1astly more expensi1e than tap /ater and a.o*t 16
th
of it is tap /ater- 16!
rd
of
it is ,ontaminated /ith .a,teria- and 1ario*s harmf*l organi, ,hemi,als ,ontaminate a.o*t
165
th
of it.
2. <se of .ottled /ater also ,an ,a*se en1ironmental pro.lems from all the thro/ a/ay plasti,
.ottles.
!. @an*fa,t*re of the .ottles releases toxi, gases and li0*ids.
. %efore .*ying ,ostly home p*rifi,ation systems- ha1e /ater tested .y an independent
,ompany.
5. %e s*re to ,he,$ o*t ,laims .y a ,ompany that they are EPA appro1ed .e,a*se the EPA
registers de1i,es- .*t neither tests nor appro1es them.
>. )e need to shift priorities from ,ontrolling to pre1enting and red*,ing /ater poll*tion and /ill
re0*ire .ottom2*p politi,al a,tion .y indi1id*als and gro*ps.
1. %ottom2*p politi,al press*re on ele,ted offi,ials has red*,ed point2so*r,e /ater poll*tion.
2. A shift needs to .e made to ho/ /e ,an pre1ent /ater poll*tion in the first pla,e. See fig*re
22219.
!. Pre1ention of /ater poll*tion /ill ta$e a,tion from indi1id*als and gro*ps to press*re ele,ted
offi,ials.
!ummary
1. )ater poll*tants in,l*de infe,tio*s agents from h*man or animal /astes- oxygen2demanding /astes
from se/age- paper mills- and food pro,essing- inorgani, ,hemi,als from s*rfa,e r*noff- ind*strial
effl*ents- and ho*sehold ,leaners- organi, ,hemi,als from oil- plasti,s- pesti,ides- and detergents-
sediment from erosion- and thermal poll*tion from po/er plant ,ooling.
2. )ater poll*tion pro.lems in streams and la$es relate to ,hemi,al and .iologi,al poll*tants /ith the
greater pro.lems .eing ,*lt*ral e*trophi,ation.
!. 8ro*nd/ater poll*tion is ,a*sed .y lea$s from /aste ponds and *ndergro*nd storage tan$s- ,hemi,al
d*mping or spilling- s*rfa,e r*noff- and fertili;ers. 7t ,an .e pre1ented .y finding s*.stit*tes for toxi,
,hemi,als- installing monitoring /ells near landfills and *ndergro*nd tan$s- re0*iring lea$ dete,tors
on *ndergro*nd tan$s- .anning ha;ardo*s /aste disposal in landfills and in3e,tion /ells- and storing
harmf*l li0*ids in a.o1egro*nd tan$s.
. )ater poll*tion of o,eans relates to nitrogen oxide from ind*stry and ,ars- hea1y metals from
effl*ents- toxi, sediment- se/age- r*noff of pesti,ides- man*re- fertili;ers- and red tides from ex,ess
nitrogen.
5. Aed*,tion or pre1ention of /ater poll*tion ,an .e a,hie1ed thro*gh red*,tion of *se of toxi,
poll*tants- .anning of o,ean d*mping of sl*dge- prote,tion of sensiti1e areas from oil drilling and oil
transport- reg*lation of ,oastal de1elopment- and reg*lation of se/age treatment.
". The <.S. Safe 5rin$ing )ater A,t of 19( re0*ires that drin$ing /ater ,ontain less than the
maxim*m ,ontaminant le1els for any poll*tants that may ha1e ad1erse effe,ts on h*man health.
Aestr*,t*ring of /ater treatment systems- enfor,ing ,*rrent reg*lations- .anning the *se of lead in
ne/ str*,t*res- and ,hemi,al tests and .iologi,al indi,ators ,an .e *sed to ma$e drin$ing /ater safer.

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