Short Answer Concepts

1. Analogies (pg. 89):

a. Elements:
i. Analogue
1. That person, thing, or event to which the
subject is claimed to be analogous
ii.Subject
1. That person, thing , or event about which a
conclusion is drawn
iii.Common Features
1. Those features, possessed by both the
analogue and subject, that are the basis for the
analogy
iv.Inferred Feature
1. That feature present with the analogue and
concluded as belonging with the subject as well
b. Assessment Criteria:
i. Whether the common feature(s) are relevantly
similar to the inferred feature(s)
ii.Whether the similarities are extensive
1. The subject and the analogue have some
number of features in common
iii.Whether there is a relevant disanalogy
1. When a difference between the subject and
analogue bears negatively on the possession of
the inferred feature, a disanalogy exists

2. Causal Arguments (pg. 78):

a. Kinds:
i. Causal Prediction
1. An argument consisting of a causal
generalization, an instance of a causal
circumstance, and concluding that a specific
effect occurs
ii.Causal Explanation
1. An argument consisting of a causal
generalization, an instance of an effect, and
concluding that an instance of a specific effect
explains the occurrence of the effect
iii.Causal Prescription
1. An argument consisting of a causal
generalization and concluding a prescription of
recommendation for producing or preventing
some effect
iv.Causal Conclusion
 1. An argument consisting of premises in support
of a causal statement
b. Compare and Contrast:
i. There’s really no reason for me to write anything
you. You can easily see the similarities and
differences between these on your own.

3. Causal Statements (pg. 78):

a. Specific vs. Generalizations
i. Specific
1. Asserts that some specific thing caused or is
caused by some other specific thing
a. Example: The pesticide I used killed my
neighbor’s roses.
ii.Generalization
1. Asserts or denies a causal relationship between
types of things or events
a. Example: Some kinds of pesticides harm
flowering roses.

4. Causation:
a. Necessary and Sufficient
i. Necessary
1. The cause is a necessary condition for the
effect
a. The presence of oxygen caused the
combustion.
ii.Sufficient
1. The cause is a sufficient but not a necessary
condition for the effect
a. Power failures cause a loss of data in a
computer’s memory.

5. Empirical Data (in Inductive Arguments):

a. Data derived from reliable measurement, experimentation
and/or observation rather than from theory

6. Fallacies:
a. Explanation of Kinds
i. Fallacy of Relevance
1. Premises are logically immaterial to the
conclusion
2. Attention is drawn away from supporting
evidence (the fallacy of accident and the
fallacy of missing the point do not necessarily
have this feature)
 a. Appeal to some irrelevant concern
b. Often intentionally deceptive
i. Premises appear relevant
ii.Fallacy of Weak Induction
1. Premises are relevant to the conclusion
2. Insufficient evidence to warrant conclusion
iii.Fallacy of Presumption
1. Something is presumed that should not be
2. What is presumed is different depending on
which fallacy of presumption is committed
a. Begging the Question
i. Premises reiterate or presuppose
conclusion
b. Complex Question
i. Two or more questions are asked
as if they were a single question
c. False Dichotomy and Suppressed
Evidence
i. Evidence that would support a
different conclusion is suppressed,
often deliberately
iv.Fallacy of Ambiguity
1. The conclusion is based on an ambiguity in the
words or grammar of the argument
v.Fallacy of Whole/Part
1. The conclusion is based on an erroneous
transference of an attribute from part to whole
(Fallacy of Composition) or from whole to parts
(Fallacy of Division)
b. Compare and Contrast
i. No need to type this one out either.

7. Generalizations:
a. Elements
i. Sample
1. A premise or premises describing a subset of
the population
ii.Population
1. A conclusion describing what is inferred about
all or many members of a larger group
iii.Target Characteristic
1. That characteristic observed in the sample and
believed to be true of the population
b. Assessment Criteria
i. Representativeness of the Sample
1. Sample Size
 2. Biased Sample
a. The sample is constructed in such a way
that it does not reflect the diversity of
the population
i. Is the sample a simple random
sample?
1. Selection is random in the
mathematical sense that
every person, thing, etc. has
the same chance of being
selected
ii.Is the sample a stratified random
sample?
1. A sample that draws from
groups based on the
proportion in which that
occur in the population
3. Biased Survey
a. Did the survey questions skew the
results?

8. Induction vs. Deduction:

a. Induction
i. Arguments are analyzed based on the actual
arguments themselves. This means that there are
varying degrees of inductive strength or inductive
weakness.
b. Deduction
i. Arguments are analyzed based on their form and
their structure. An argument either is or isn’t
deductively valid. The arguments themselves have
no bearing on deductive validity.
c. Compare and Contrast
i. Induction
1. Can be said to have “shades of grey”; that is, it
has many different variations on strength and
weakness.
2. Based on the actual argument- the words that
comprise it.
ii.Deduction
1. Is kind of a yes or no question. It either is or it
isn’t.
2. Based on the form/structure of the argument
and not the argument itself.

9. Inferential Connection:
 a. Proceeding from general, already established premises to a
specific conclusion

10.Mill’s Methods
a. Agreement
i. If two or more instances of a phenomenon have only
one antecedent circumstance in common, then
probably that antecedent circumstance is the cause
or a partial cause of the phenomenon.
b. Difference
i. If an instance of phenomenon and an instance in
which the phenomenon does not occur differ only in
the presence of one antecedent circumstance with
the instance of the phenomenon, then that
antecedent circumstance is probably the cause or
partial cause of the phenomenon.
c. Concomitant Variation
i. If variations in the phenomenon coincide with
variations in another phenomenon, then it is
probable that the two phenomena are causally
related.
d. Residue
i. Subtract from any phenomenon such part as is
known by previous inductions to be the effect of
certain antecedents, and the residue of the
phenomenon is the effect of the remaining
antecedents.

11.Representativeness:
a. See above under 7-b-i.

12.Sampling Methodologies:
a. Kinds
i. Simple Random Sample
1. Selection is random in the mathematical sense
that every person, thing, etc. has the same
chance of being selected
ii.Stratified Random Sample
1. A sample that draws from groups based on the
proportion in which that occur in the population
b. Why Choose One Over the Other?
i. Use Simple Random Sample if:
1. Each possible member has an equal chance of
appearing in the sample
2. The characteristic sought is evenly distributed
throughout the population
 ii.Use Stratified Random Sample if:
1. If the population is not a homogenous group
but one with several overlapping subgroups
(called strata)

13.Probability:
a.

14.Strength/Weakness:
a. Strength and Weakness
i. Strength and weakness, inductively, are based on
the representativeness of the sample, which is based
on the sample size, if the sample is biased, and if the
survey is biased.