Behaviorist B.F.

Skinner 1

Running Head: BEHAVIORIST B.F. SKINNER








Behaviorist B.F. Skinner and Theory Research
Danielle Peregoy
Towson University
Professor Bonnie Maras
ISTC 663- Applied Psychology of Learning
November 20, 2012








Behaviorist B.F. Skinner 2

Behaviorist B.F. Skinner and Theory Research
Introduction
Behaviorism focuses on the belief that changes in behavior are an outcome of stimulus-
response associations made by the learner. In other words, behaviorism highlights those
behaviors and actions that can be directly observed from the learner. One key originator of the
behaviorist approach to learning is Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner (1904-1990). Skinners first
major work, The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis, was published in 1938. He
continued to research, study, and publish work into the early 1980s, just a few years up until his
death. Towards the end of his career, Skinner was presented with a presidential citation for
lifetime contributions to Psychology by the APA (Debell & Harless, 1992, p.68).
Theory
Skinner was greatly influenced by the work of behaviorist John Broadus (J.B.) Watson.
In fact, Skinner further expanded Watsons basic stimulus-response model by developing a more
comprehensive view of conditioning, referred to as Operant Conditioning. Operant
Conditioning is defined as the rewarding of part of a desired behavior or a random act that
approaches it (Standridge, 2002). Operant conditioning takes place when learning happens as a
natural consequence of an individuals actions. When discussing operant conditioning, Skinner
(1974) notes, Thus, when a hungry organism exhibits behavior that produces food, the behavior
is reinforced by that consequence and is therefore more likely to recur (p. 44). One can
determine if learning has occurred through direct observation of the learner. For example, a
circus elephant learns to stand on his hind legs and walk in a circle in order to receive a treat. An
observer will notice that the elephants behavior has been reinforced by receiving the treat. Aside
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from Watson, Skinner also gained inspiration from earlier theorists who paved the way for
behaviorism, such as Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike.
Skinner is most widely associated with his study involving hungry rats, a lever, and food
pellets. This study on operant conditioning helped to validate Skinners theory. First, Skinner
places a rat in a small box and for several days the pellets are delivered into a tray by an
automatic dispenser. Soon, the rat begins to go to the tray as soon as the sound of the dispenser
is heard. Next, Skinner raises a lever in the box so that when the hungry rat touches it, the food
dispenser is activated and delivers a pellet to the rat. The rat begins to press the lever several
times to receive more pellets. Skinner defined the bar-pressing response as operant and the
food pellet as a reinforcer (Standridge, 2002, p. 3). This study demonstrates that the rats
behavior has been positively reinforced by a single consequence. Just as the rat was reinforced
by his actions, people are also reinforced by their actions on a daily basis. Skinner (1953) writes,
While we are awake, we act upon the environment constantly, and many of the
consequences of our actions are reinforcing. Through operant conditioning the
environment builds the basic repertoire with which we keep our balance, walk, play
games, handle instruments and tools, talk, write, sail a boat, drive a car, or fly a plane. A
change in the environment a new car, a new friend, a new field of interest, a new job, a
new location may find us unprepared, but our behavior usually adjusts quickly as we
acquire new responses and discard old. (p. 66)

Aside from positive reinforcement, Skinner also helped to coin the term negative
reinforcement, which increases a response through the removal of an aversive stimulus
contingent upon that response (Driscoll, 2005, p. 39). Negative reinforcement was
demonstrated in Skinners study with rats. The rats learned that in order to stop a shock that was
being delivered to the box, there was a lever that needed to be pressed. Pressing the lever was
negatively reinforced so that the aversive stimulus, the shock, was reduced. In his book, About
Behaviorism, Skinner (1974) provides a more relatable example of negative reinforcement by
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claiming, When we take off a shoe that is pinching, the reduction of pressure is negatively
reinforcing, and we are more likely to do so again when a shoe is pinching (p. 51). Skinner also
illustrates negative reinforcement by describing how someone may act when exposed to the hot
sun. If an individual avoids the sweltering sun by finding a shaded place to rest, that individual
is more likely to seek shade the next time he or she is out in the sun. The reduction of
temperature reinforces the behavior it is contingent upon that is, the behavior that follows
(Skinner, 1971, p. 27). Through observation of positive and negative reinforcement, it is
apparent that learning has occurred by a noticeable change in behavior, either to obtain
something appealing or to avoid something unpleasant.
Brief Summary of Works by Skinner
As stated earlier, during the course of Skinners career, he wrote and co-wrote several
articles and books centered on his research, studies, and beliefs of learning. Listed below are
some insights into a few of Skinners accomplished works.
Rogers, C. & Skinner, B.F. (1956). Some issues concerning the control of human
behavior. Science, 124(3231), 1057 1066. Retrieved from:
http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Classes/31174/Documents/rodgers.pdf
In this article, Skinner (1956) discusses the impact that Science is beginning to have on
human behavior. He writes, Science is steadily increasing our power to influence, change, mold
in a word, control human behavior (p. 1057). Later in the article, Skinner notes that any
list of values is a list of reinforcers conditioned or otherwise (p. 1064). Examples of values
include food, water, sleep or sexual contact. Values create behavior that ensures the likelihood
of the values reoccurrence.
Skinner, B.F. (1948). Superstition in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology,

Behaviorist B.F. Skinner 5

38(2), 168-172. doi: 10.1037/h0055873
This journal contains a well known study of Skinners, in which learning was facilitated
by applying his theory of operant conditioning. In this study, a hungry pigeon is placed in a cage
with a fastened food hopper. The food hopper can easily sway into place for the pigeon to
retrieve food. A solenoid and timing relay keep the food hopper in place for five second
intervals during each reinforcement. When a clock is added to present the food hopper at
random intervals with no reference to the pigeons behavior, operant conditioning begins to
occur. The pigeon learns the response he is making when the reinforcement of the food hopper
emerges. This causes the pigeon to continuously peck in order to eventually receive the food.
Driscoll (2005) discusses another study in which Skinner tested rats and found similar
results. When he reinforced only some of the bar-pressing responses made by his rats, rather
than reinforcing every response, the behavior become much more resistant to extinction (p. 49).
Continual reinforcement was not essential in order to maintain the response. The rat would
continue to press the bar even though he was not rewarded with food pellets each time.
Based on these experiments, Skinner concluded that the connection between the response and
stimulus could explain superstitious behavior in humans. For example, players at a casino can sit
in front of a slot machine for hours and insert coins. Usually, a reward (tickets or money) are
seldom; however, people continue to place money in the slots with the hopes of eventually
winning.
Skinner, B.F. (1948). Walden Two. Indianapolis: Hackett.
This is a work of fiction in which Walden Two is described in terms of a utopian community.
Skinner portrays a solution to the difficulties of every day life that involves an extreme new
beginning, and a rejection of political and economic solutions. This utopian community centers
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on a scientific, technological foundation and focuses on the problems of civilization instead of
problems of the individual. In the Walden Two community, everyone works together to grow
and build what they need to survive. The workdays are shorter and no one receives a paycheck
for their work because Walden Two does not have any form of a money system. This is just a
brief insight into the ways of the community. Over the years, this book has received many
controversial reviews.
Examples of Learning Tasks
Below are five different examples that relate to Skinners behaviorist theory. The first
example describes a situation in which positive reinforcement has occurred. The kindergarten
teacher observes that one of her students, Samantha, has great difficulty interacting with other
students because she is extremely shy. Every time the kindergarten teacher notices Samantha
making an effort to interact with another student, she rewards Samantha by smiling and praising
her for her efforts. As a result, Samantha begins to open up and form relationships with other
students in the classroom.
Several of Ms. Fredericks fifth grade students were constantly calling out in class. Ms.
Frederick spoke with those students who were disrupting class and stated that if they made it
through the day without calling out, they would receive a piece of candy during dismissal at the
end of the day. As a result, the students began raising their hands when they had a comment to
make. This is another example in which positive reinforcement has occurred.
Cooper, a one year old puppy still has difficulty learning simple tricks such as sit and
give me your paw. Coopers master, Justin, gives Cooper a piece of corn muffin when Cooper
follows his command and performs the specific trick. Soon, Cooper learns that in order to
Behaviorist B.F. Skinner 7

receive a piece of corn muffin, he needs to sit or put his paw in the air. The corn muffin serves
as a positive reinforcement for Cooper.
Several students in Mrs. Hiltons Science class have not been turning in their homework
assignments. Mrs. Hilton informs the students that they will be having a quiz on Friday.
However, those students who turn in all of their homework assignments will be exempt from
taking the quiz. This causes Mrs. Hiltons class to become much more punctual in turning in the
assigned homework. Exempting students from taking a quiz if they turn in their homework in a
timely manner is an example of negative reinforcement.
John is continually caught by his teacher leaning back in his chair. The teacher takes the
chair away and John is forced to stand behind his desk. Each time John is caught leaning back in
his chair, the chair is removed and John must stand. Eventually, John begins to sit properly in
his chair so that he does not have to stand the entire class period. The teacher helped to remove
the undesirable behavior, which in this example is leaning back in the chair. This is another
example in which negative reinforcement has been used in the classroom setting.
Conclusion
The five examples of simple learning tasks do not discuss what is going on inside the
mind during learning. This is because Skinner was more concerned about the impact that
environmental cues had on behavior and learning rather than the processes of the mind.
Because of these beliefs and theories, Skinner is believed to be a radical behaviorist. Driscoll
(2005) mentions Skinners approach to understanding learning and behavior in terms of the black
box. More specifically, The learner is a black box and nothing is known about what goes on
inside. However, knowing whats inside the black box is not essential for determining how
behavior is governed by its environmental antecedents and consequences (p. 33). To Skinner,
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what is happening inside the mind is irrelevant to understanding why an individual behaves the
way he or she does. Skinner (1974) states, By attempting to move human behavior into a world
of nonphysical dimensions, mentalistic or cognitive psychologists have cast the basic issues in
insoluble forms (p. 131). Although Skinners works are seen as controversial to some, he is still
widely studied and researched today.




















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References
DeBell, C. & Harless, D. (1992). Myth and misperception. Teaching of Psychology, 19(2), 68-
74.
Driscoll, M.P. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3
rd
Ed.). Boston: Allyn and
Bacon. (ISBN: 0205375197)
Rogers, C. & Skinner, B.F. (1956). Some issues concerning the control of human
Behavior. Science, 124(3231), 1057 1066. Retrieved from:
http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Classes/31174/Documents/rodgers.pdf
Skinner, B.F. (1974). About Behaviorism. New York: Vintage Books.
Skinner, B.F. (1971). Beyond Freedom and Diginity. Indianapolis: Hackett.
Skinner, B.F. (1948). Superstition in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology,
38(2), 168-172. doi: 10.1037/h0055873
Skinner, B.F. (1948). Walden Two. Indianapolis: Hackett.
Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Macmillan Company.
Retrieved from: http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Pjjknd1HREIC&oi=fnd
&pg=PA1&dq=skinner&ots=iOphwxG2jF&sig=FDgGv1NnFQZH1B8a8qV8U6SgSZE#
v=onepage&q&f=false
Standridge, M. (2008, December). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and
technology. Retrieved from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/