HORT 382

Practical manual
For 3rd year studends of B.sc (Ag)
Dr.S.Eswara Reddy

09
 HORT.382

POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY AND VALUE

ADDITION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

(As per new syllabus ,content developed by)

Dr.S.ESWARA REDDY

DEPT OF HORTICULTURE
SRI VENKATESWARA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
TIRUPATI-517502, INDIA
 Certificate

This is to certify that Mr/Ms

ID No. a student of B.Sc(Ag) 3rd
year
has successfully undergone training in the
practical exercises of Course no :382 during
1st semester of 2009-10.

Date Course-in –
charge

(Dr.S.Eswara
Reddy)
EX .NO:-01
DATE :-
HARVESTING INDICES OF VEGETABLES

Tomato:

The stage of maturity for harvesting depends on the specific need for long distance
transportation, the fruits are harvested when they are firm, mature and greenish yellow. When
they are fully ripe or nearly red fruits are ready for harvesting in 75-90 days after transplanting
Brinjal:
The fruits should be harvested when they are still tender but after they have attained a good size
and when the surface is bright and glossy. At harvesting the calyx end the stem end are kept
attached to the fruit.
Chillies:
The stage of maturity at which chillies are picked depends on the type and purpose for which
they are grown.
For pickles –picked either green or ripe
For drying –when fully red ripe
For vegetable purpose-while they are still green but full grown.
Cucumber:
The fruit maturity in cucumber is judged by the size but not age of the fruit.
Pumpkin and squashes:
The fruits are harvested at full stage of maturity that is , when fully ripe and the rind has
hardened with colour changing to yellow or orange,yellow in case of pumpkin and winter squash
where as summer squashes are picked green before seed ripens
Gourds:
Proper stage of maturity of gourds is judged
a)by fruit size
b)by puncturing with a finger nail which should easily penetrate the epidermis.
Ash gourd is harvested at full maturity when the skin is covered with waxy bloom. Ripe fruits
store well it is desirable to wax the stem end for longer storage.
Pointed gourd and coccinia:
In both pointed gourd and coccinia flowering occur in two flushes, march and june. Second
flush start with rains and fruiting continues upto October. The fully grown fruits are harvested
when they are tender on alternate days.
Musk melon and Snap melon:
The fruits when mature slips out easily from wine leaving a circular depression. This is known
as full slip stage .In netted musk melon green colour between nets yellow and nets become dirty
white.
Snapmelon :
Green rind is converted into yellow or orange.
Water melon:
On thumping the fruit with finger ripe fruit gives flat dead sound unripe gives ringing sound
.The colour of rind is white .on ripening it becomes yellow.
The tendrils near fruit dry on the ripening. By putting pressure on the fruit a ripe melon cracks
within
Cabbage:
It is harvested when the heads attain full size, firm but tender. Early varieties take 60 to 80 days
and late varieties. take 100-200 days after transplanting.
Cauliflower:
It is harvested when the curds attain a proper size , bright coloured and compactness but not
after they begin to raise or discolour,. The curds harvested along with 2-3 big leaves protect the
curd during the transport and keep longer in storage.
Knolkol:
When the knobs attain marketable size and glossy appearance.
French bean:
Green pods are harvested when they are fully grown and while the seeds are small. Usually pods
are ready for harvesting within 10-15 days of the first bloom. Dry beans are harvested when
there are large % of pod share fully ripe but before to shatter.
Cluster bean:
Tender, non fibrous pods are harvested for vegetable purpose.
Dolichos bean:
Plants come to flowering in December 3-4 weeks after flowering .The tender parts are ready for
harvest.
Cow pea:
Tender parts are harvested for marketing. Frequent harvesting should be encouraged before the
pods become fibrous.
Pea:
Peas get ready for harvesting in 60-100 days. The pod turns from dark to light green at maturity.
In processing industry the maturity of the pea is tested with the help of tenderometer, which
indicates the tenderness of the sugar content of peas for dehydration.
Onion:
Green bunch onions are harvested when they are led pencil thickness with a small bulks A well
matured bulb should be harvested cut or digging out the bulbs.
Garlic:
The garlic crop is ready for harvest after 4-5 months of planting. It is harvested when the tops
turn yellowish, brownish and begins to dry up.
Potato: Potatoes are harvested when the vines have fully ripened and the tubers are matured.
Immature potatoes shrink severely, bruise easily and will not kept well. The tubers immediately
after harvest should be properly cured in an airy and shady for 1 week before sending to cold
storage.
Sweet potato:
The indications of tubers matured are
1) The leaves turn pale and later turn slightly yellow.
2) Mature if cut and exposed to air dries up, while the immature remains most and turns dark in
co lour.
Tapioca:
The tubers are ready for harvest in 7-11 months depending on the variety. When the soil shows
cracks a trail digging is done. The plants are cut back before digging out the roots.
Raddish:
Raddish should be harvested when the roots are still tender. A few days delay in harvest
especially in temperate types made the roots pithy and quite unsuitable for market. The roots are
pulled out along with the taps after 25-40 days.
Carrot:
Same as in raddish when the edible roots at the upper end get 2.5-4.0cm of diameter are
harvested.
Beetroot:
It is harvested when the roots attain 3-5cm diameter. Usually the top is removed for marketing
the roots.
Amaranthus:
Harvesting usually starts in about 3-4weekls after sowing. About 6-9can be taken at weekly
interval .The fully grown side leaves are removed. The tops may also be cut leaving the lower
leaves to produce new shoots in their axis.
Fenu Greek:
The young shoots are nipped off in almost three weeks after sowing .Later on the whole plant is
pulled out bunched and marketed. Sometimes after taking 2-3 cuttings the plants are left to
produce seed.
Lettuce:
The leafy varieties are harvested when the leaves are immature and tender.
Celery:
At the time of harvest the plants are cut just below the surface trimmed and prepared for the
market.
Asparagus:
Harvesting is done from the third day onwards. It is harvested every day during the spring pears
may be cut 3-5 cm below the soil surface. The green spears being higher in nutritive value are
preferred for fresh market for processing.
Artichoke:
The buds are harvested before they become loose and fibrous by cutting. The stem 2.5-3cm
below the base of the bud.
Drumstick:
Cutting come to bearing within a year. The seedlings bear fruits after a year of planting.
WORK DONE REPORT:-
EX NO:-02
DATE:-

HARVESTING INDICES OF FRUITS

The factors usually measured to specially indicate harvest maturity of fruits are
flesh firmness, skin color, flesh color, sugar content, content of soluble solids, total content of
acids, chlorophyll content and carotene content. Also used are the number of days from full
bloom and heat unit accumulation during specific periods of the growing season.

HARVESTING INDICES OF TROPICAL AND SUB-TROPICAL FRUITS

1.MANGO:
All the fruits on a tree are generally harvested when a few fruits ripen naturally and fall
from the tree. Another criteria for harvesting is a slight change of color. In colored varieties like
peter,fruits become somewhat uneven. Attainment of full size is indicated by stoppage of
increase in size and flesh becomes soft and fruit sinks when dropped into water. It indicates
maturity. Usually the specific gravity of mature mango is between 1.01 and 1.02 and the
attainment of full maturity is essential for normal ripening.
2.CITRUS:
The fruit is generally harvested when it begin to change its color. However ,color is not a
good criteria for harvesting. In high rainfall areas and in areas with warm winters, the skin color
does not develop properly. Due to the moist conditions in the soil the color of some
varieties(sathgudi)generally remains green externally though it is mature. Sometimes the fruits
are harvested early to escape the attack of fruit sucking moth.
3.GRAPE:
Grape should be harvested when they are fully ripe as they do not ripen any further
harvest from the vine. The criteria for harvesting are:
• The bunches should be fully developed and every berry should attain an uniform size,
shape and color.
• The berries should develop translucent look of color peculiar to the variety.
• e.g. Anab-e-Shahi develop amber or light honey color.
• The fruits should be sweet.
• The bunches should be harvested when they are ripen on the vine as they are not
subjected to post harvest ripening process.
4.BANANA:
Banana is harvested raw and ripened artificially. The indications of maturity for
harvesting are:
• Drying up of lower leaves.
• Change of color of the fruit from dark green to light green.
• Floral ends of the fruits shed with the slightest touch.
• Fruits should be plump and their angles rounded off.
• For export purpose harvested at ¾ of its full maturity.
5.GUAVA:
Guava fruits ripen five months after flowering. Fruits attaining maturity show signs of
changing the color from dark green to yellowish green, and softening of the skin.
6.SAPOTA:
The fruits are harvested when they have developed good bloom on the surface but still
they are firm. The fruit is a stringent till it is fully ripe. Mature fruits should not be allowed to
ripen on the tree as they would either drop or may be spoiled by birds.
The stage at which they are to be harvested is:
• It presents a dull orange color if starched to the potato brown color of the immature fruit.
• Immature fruit gives a green streak if seared with fingernails, while the mature fruit gives
a yellow streak.
Fruits ripen well after harvesting, but if they are harvested, too ripen the milky latex spoils
the appearance of the fruit.
7.PAPAYA:
The papaya starts flowering about 5 or 6 months after it is transplanted. Fruit setting
commence a fortnight after flowering and the fruit makes 4-5 months to reach full maturity. The
mature papaya fruits are harvested when color changes from green to yellowish green. The fruit
is best picked by giving a careful twist with the hand taking care to avoid all possible injuries.
8.PINEAPPLE:
The fruit is harvested when it turns greenish yellow and the leaf like scales around the
eyes on the surface of fruit dry up at the ends. The crown should be retained as the removal of
the crown quickens the ripening and thus reduces the life of fruit.
9.CUSTARD APPLE:
The period of fruit development from flowering to harvesting covers about 4 months. If
the fruits are left on the plant unduly long, they split up and get damaged. Fruits are harvested
when firm and pulpy. The skin between the segment turns into light yellow color when the fruits
have fully matured. It ripens within a week after harvest. When fruits ripen, they rack and split
into segments. On the other hand, if the fruits are harvested before maturity, the segments held
together and the fruits become hard, the pulp ferments and the quality is poor.

10.POMEGRANATE:
Tree begins fruiting from fourth year onwards. The fruits are harvested when the rind
attains the yellowish brown color and the fruit gives a metallic sound when tapped. The fruits are
ready for harvesting 5 to 7 months after flowering.
11.BER:
The maturity indices of ber fruits are attainment of full size of a particular cultivar with
softening of pulp and development of characteristic golden yellow color. Fruits are ready for
harvest in February-April(north India) and in October-november(south India).
12.FIG:
The mature fruit is of light green color and little soft to touch. The fruit is harvested by
twisting the neck at the stem end. The fig bears two crops a year in south India viz.,july-
september and February to May. The fruits produced in hot weather are sweet and good.

HARVESTING INDICES OF TEMPERATE FRUITS

1.APPLE:
Flesh firmness is not a good index for early harvest of apples because it is not closely
related to maturity. However, firmness tests have value for later harvest and during storage
particularly when they are used with other indices.
The number of days from full bloom to harvest is a fairly good index of apple maturity,
especially when used with the observed change from green to white yellow ground color and the
attainment of a minimum amount of soluble solids in the juice(about 11% for delicious).if the
average date of full bloom has been established over several seasons, one can predict maturity in
a given year by subtracting 1 year for each 3 days that bloom is earlier than average. For
example, if delicious apple on average is mature at 150 days with a bloom date of April 25, and
if full bloom for a given year is april 22, fruit will be mature in about 15 days; if full bloom is
april 28, fruit will be mature in about 149 days; and so forth.
The flesh of apples should be white or cream colored rather than greenish at harvest, and
should be somewhat sweet to the taste rather than starchy. But for long storage, apples should not
be fully eating ripe at harvest, as this various types of early physiological breakdown and loss.
2.PEAR:
Pears are harvested at firm mature stage and stored in this condition and they are ripened
before fresh consumption or processing. The pressure test for firmness at harvest is the best
single index of maturity. Optimum firmness will vary, however, in different climates and with
different root stocks. Fruit grown in a hot climate or on oriental root stocks are firmer at
optimum maturity than other fruit. Soluble solids( mostly sugars) may be used, but they are most
variable according to season, growing conditions, variety and crop load. Heat-unit accumulation
for 5-9 weeks following bloom is inversely correlated with the number of days from full bloom
to harvest maturity.
The most reliable index for pear maturity is flesh firmness, but it should be used in
conjuction with heat units during the post- bloom period.
3.PEACH:
The main indices for peach are ground color change from green to straw color, flesh
firmness, and days from full bloom. As is true of other fruits, warm weather during the post
bloom period reduces the number of days required to reach harvest maturity.
4.CHERRY:
Increase in soluble solids(sugars) and increase in fruit color have been considered the
best indices of maturity, but recent evidence indicates stem fruit removal force may be better.
They found that the attachment between stem and fruit loosens as the fruit becomes mature and
the reduced force required to remove the fruit from the stem can be quantified and used as a
maturity index. Also fruit-acid level is important in sour cherries. As indicated above, optimum
maturity varies with intended use. Cherries for brining are picked prematurely, before color and
the amount of soluble solids have developed enough for the fresh market. Cherries picked for
distant markets are harvested earlier than those intended for local markets or for canning.
5.PLUM:
Optimum maturity for plum depends upon whether they are to be eaten fresh, canned or
dried. Those to be eaten locally can be harvested more mature than those destined for distant
fresh markets. Plum to be stored for later shipment or canning are picked at a less mature stage
than those to be canned or dried directly after harvest. Fruit picked before they reach full eating
maturity must be ripened properly to be of good quality when eaten or canned. Obviously,
ultimate quality depends upon post-harvest storage and ripening conditions as well as maturity
and condition at harvest.
6.GRAPE
Grape maturity is best indicated by the balance between soluble solids and acids. Picking
too early results in levels of acids that are too high and in reduced yields. Picking too late results
in high sugars and low acids. The optimum sugar/acid index varies with the intended use of the
grapes- whether for juice, jelly, fresh or wine.
7.STRAWBERRY:
Strawberry maturity for fresh shipment occurs when the fruit just attains all-over red
color or has only a small area of white and is firm. Even one day later the fruit may be too soft to
ship. For immediate processing, however , the fruit is harvested more mature and thus attains
higher soluble solids, better overall quality , and larger size.
8.RASPBERRY:
 Raspberries and blackberries are ready to pick when they separate readily from stem.
Raspberries should be fully colored and should not crumble. Blackberries are mature when they
are fully colored, when the tips of the drupelets are entirely filled, and when the fruit is loose on
the stem. Boysen and youngberries do not develop their highest quality until they are fully ripe
and well colored.
9.GOOSEBERRY:
Gooseberries for pie are harvested at the firm green stage, at which time they are too
sour to eat fresh. They sunburn easily after harvest and so should not be left uncovered in the
field.
10.NUTS:
Filmberts are mature when they are shed from the husk in September, October, or
november. But although they are fully mature when they drop to the ground, they still must cure
by losing moisture. Walnuts mature 1-4 weeks before hull dehiscence. oils are formed in walnut
by the time the packing tissue is brown- they are mature at that time. Almonds mature when they
are loose enough to be knocked and hulled. Delaying harvest until the hulls are quite dry does
not impair almond quality, but the longer the delay, the greater the threat from the navel
orangeworm. Pecans are mature when the husks open from around the nuts. Mature nuts do not
fall at one time, so mechanical shakers are used to bring them down. The curing of mature nuts
involves the drying away of some moisture along with increase in fatty acids and changes in
flavor composition.
WORKDONE REPORT:-
ExNo:-03
Date:-

STUDY OF PACKING TRANSPORT & HANDLING OF VEGETABLES

PACKING OF VEGETABLES
Proper packing is very important for presenting the vegetables in an attractive and
saleable form and to save them from deterioration in transit.
Some vegetables are sent packed in arhat (CAJANUS CAJAN) stick baskets
locally known a jhallies or Dalias, to distant markets.
ADVANTAGES
1. Packed vegetables are delivered conveniently and cheaply, protected from mechanical
injury and drying.
2. Packing enhances salebility of vegetables.
3. Packed vegetables are convenient to transport, load and stock with security and economy
of space.
4. Consumer packing affords protection against evaporation dust dirt & handling by
customers.
5. Packing avoids much of the labour cost and waste during weighing trimming sorting
bagging and handling.
KINDS OF PACKING

PACKING FOR DISTANT MARKETS

VEGETABLES PACKING IN PACKING MATERIAL

Bhindi buar chillies Big baskets Grass &leaves
cabbage knolkhol
cauliflower
Onions gunny bags Paper cuttings

The top of the gunny bag or baskets is stitched and label is fastened
Potatoes &sweet potatoes are sent like onions
Pumpkin &bottle guard sent loose.
PACKING FOR LOCAL MARKETS
Generally no packing is done when vegetable are to be sent to local markets. They
are carried in baskets, bags and gatharies and are so arranged that good quality stuff is placed on
the top with a view to make their produce look attractive &better
CONSUMER PACKING
In India no packing is done for the consumers. But in Western countries they are
packed after washing and trimming, and prepared ready to be cooked or served raw in
1. Bags made up of transparent film.
2. Trays wrapped with transparent film.
3. Mesh bags
4. Paper bags
ADVANTAGES
1. Shelf life of the product is increased
2. Considerable waste is reduced due to less handling by the customer.
3. Sales is increased
4. Preparation work in the home is reduced.
PRE PACKAGING
Prepackaging is a specialized business usually requiring elaborate equipment and cold storage.
Vegetables or mixes of them enclosed in bags must be kept cool to prevent decay and loss of
quality.
46% fruits and vegetables were pre packed in 1967
20% in 1955
35% in 1958
40% in 1964
Most of increase in prepackaging during the last five years has been in the bagging of produce.

MATERIALS FOR PREPACKAGING

♦ BAGS
♦ PLASTIC FILM BAGS
♦ MESH BAGS
♦ CONSUMER TRAYS
♦ SHRINK FILM WRAPS
♦ STRETCH WRAPS
♦ BOXES , BASKETS &CUPS
PACKAGING FOR DIFFERENT FRUITS

BRINJAL
FRUITS ARE SPRINKLED with water after harvesting to keep them fresh and packed in
baskets or cartons for local or distant markets.
TOMOTO
Cracked bruised scaled and injured fruits should be culled out. The selected fruits should be
packed in baskets using paper inside and outside the baskets and the packed fruits should be kept
in a cool place before sending them to the market.
CHILLI
As soon as possible they are sent to the market in baskets or gunny bags. Green chilli in 200
guage polythene covers can be stored for 5-6 days under normal condition and up to 15 days
refrigerated.
LEAFY VEGETABLES

SPINACH
Small bundles weighing about 250-300g should be made at the tone of cutting and packed in
baskets or gunny bags before sending them to markets.
FENUGREEK
Small bundles of about 250g in weight are prepared and sent to marketing.
CORIANDER
The leaves along with stems are cut and weeds and disease affected plants are removed
from the lot. Small bundles of about 100g in weight are prepared.
For seeds dried clean seeds make standard size packing and send them for market.
AMARANTHUS
All diseased and damaged plants are removed at the time of making bundles. These
bundles can be packed in baskets or in gunny bags before them to the market.
LETTUCE
 After harvesting the leaves should be kept in shade and humid place. Damaged, diseased
and outer leaves are removed lot look attractive. They are properly kept in baskets before them to
the market.

TRANSPORTION

In vegetable marketing the transportation is very important item for successful

marketing. Timely and speedy delivery of vegetables with minimum damage and deterioration is
route at the lowest cost are essential in marketing.

TRANSPORTATION BY RAIL & HIGH WAY

Several major changes have occurred or have been accelerated since 1960 in surface
transport of fresh produce.
There is some evidence now that the ever increasing cost of fuel for transport will change the
trend from high way transport to the more fuel efficient rail carriers. The final out come will
depend on the produce industry, which must consider transport time, assurance of scheduled
delivery cost and availability of equipment.

RAIL TRANSPORT
Ice refrigeration
Mechanical refrigeration

HIGH WAY TRANSPORT

Refrigeration
Mechanical refrigeration
Cryogenic refrigeration
Liquid Nitrogen
Liquid or solid carbon dioxide
Cargo utilization
Palletization

TRANSPORTATION BY AIR & SEA

AIR
Commodities that are highly perishable and there benefits reduced from transport time are
the principal candidates for air transport.
California shipment
North west shipment
Hawaiian shipment
Export shipment

SEA TRANSPORT
Most of the history of international trade in perishable commodities is concerned with
transportation in refrigerated holds of insulated ships.

TRANSPORTATION OF VEGTABLES BY WATER

This method in employment among growers whose fields are illustrated near or the
banks of rivers &lakes etc. in India this transportation system is found only in Kashmir, kerala,
and in some parts of Andhra Pradesh and of west Bengal etc
TRANSPORTATION OF VEGTABLES
TOMOTO
A single layer of baskets should be put inside the vehicle for distant market. The green
colour tomatoes are used and for local market the ripened tomatoes are used

BRINJAL
After harvest the fruits are kept in shade and diseased and damaged fruits are sorted out. In
the early stage the quantity will be small hence the fruits can be packed in baskets and takes to
the market but during later stages or peak of the pickings, the fruits are packed in gunny bags and
taken to the market.
CHILLIES
Damaged and diseased chillies are sorted out from the harvested lot and as soon as possible
they are sent to the market in baskets or in gunny bags. In case of dried chillies they are kept in a
heap for two days to get a uniform co lour and they are spread on the floor for drying. Later they
are sent to the market.
OKRA
After harvesting the pods should be kept in the shade and damaged, diseased disusual &over
mature pods should be removed. The selected pods can be packed in baskets or gunny bags
depending upon the quantity to be sent to market.
SPINACH
Palak should be sent to the market immediately after cutting. At the time of harvesting weeds
and diseased leaves should be removed.
FENUGREEK
The picking of leaves is done by nipping at the ground level. Weeds and diseased plants
are removed.
Small bundles of about 250g in weight are prepared and sent to marketing.

CORIANDER
The leaves along with stems are cut and weeds and disease affected plants are removed
from the lot. Small bundles of about 100g in weight are prepared and sent for market. For
seeds dried clean seeds make standard size packing and send them for market.

For seeds dried clean seeds make standard size packing and send them for market.
LETTUCE
After harvesting the leaves should be kept in shade and humid place. Damaged, diseased
and outer leaves are removed lot look attractive. They are properly kept in baskets before them to
the market.

HANDLING METHODS

If fresh vegetables are evenly marketed from the places of abundance to the place of scarcity, not
only will the consumers get the produce at a reasonable price but also the producer will not be
forced to sell at throw away prices. There is a great scope of improving the system by adopting
modern methods of post harvest handling. Some of the hi-tech handling methods that could be
successfully adopted in our country are
ESTABLISHMENT OF PACKING STATION
There is absolute lack of the concept of establishing packing stations in our
country. Most of the fresh horticultural produces are packed right in the field without packaging.
Then they are washed, stored, graded and different other treatments like fungicidal dip, surface
coating, degreening, ripening, conditioning& vapour heat treatment are given.
 VAPOUR HEAT TREAT MENT (VHT)
This treatment the incidence of decay. In this machine heated air at 95% RH is
circulated through crates of freshly harvested fruits. Total of 125 minutes approach period,
10minutes holding time at 50c, 40minutes air cooling shower. The time & temperature vary from
vegetable to vegetable.

FIELD IRRADIATION
An appropriate exposure to ionizing radiation such as gamma rays enhances the
shelf life of fresh produce in addition to providing various other benefits. Irradiation of potato at
a dose of 100 GY can prevent sprouting.
PRE PACKAGING
Pre packaging is generally defined as pre packaging the produce in consumer size unit
packs. Pre packaging increases the shelf life, reduces the shopping time of the consumers and
makes the produce easy to handle. It has been reported that seal/ shrink wrap packaging of
individual citrus fruits, grape fruit, oranges, lemon, mandarins& tomato, brinjal, capsicum etc
with 10 micro meter high density.
PALLETIZATION
Loading& un loading are very important steps in the post harvest handling of
vegetables but are often neglected. Non- introduction of pallets in the trading of vegetables is one
problem in our country. Post harvest losses can be reduced considerably by using pallets.
PRE COOLING
Pre cooling is the process of rapid removing the heat from commodities. It is a separate
operation prior to storage or transportation that requires special cooling facilities. Several
controlling, methods available are room cooling, forced air cooling, hydro cooling package
iceing & vaccum cooling for pre cooling for produce. However, forced air cooling method is
quite popular.
STORAGE
Exposure to high temperature& the biggest factor in the deterioration of horticultural
produce. Prevent heat injury requires careful temperature moment & precise monitoring during
storage. The ideal condition for storage of fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers is the lowest
temperature which does not cause chilling injury to the product.
CONTROLLED/ MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE STORAGE/ PACKAGING
Modified atmosphere (MA) essentially means any deviation from the normal
atmospheric gas composition. If this deviation is strictly controlled with certain specific gaseous
concentrations of nitrogen Coron di oxide & oxygen then it is termed as controlled atmosphere
(CA). Usually modification of atmospheres for packaging & storage of fresh horticultural
commodities involve reduction in oxygen &or elevation of carbon di oxide concentrations.

CONTAINERIZATION :
Through containers have been introduced recently in our country in a big way, these
are not as present used for carrying fresh horticultural produce for internal distribution.
One of the greatest advantages of the containers is that it can be placed on truck or
rail. Palletization & containerization will go a long way in establishing both internal &inter
national trade of horticultural produce on firm footing.
COLD CHAIN
One of the important reasons for advancement in the trade of vegetables in developed
countries is adoption of cold chain during handling of these commodities. Theoretically 1% post
harvest loss reduction of horticultural produce will save Rs. 230 crores annually in India.

HANDLING OF LEAFY VEGETABLES

Crisp head lettuce should be harvested when the heads are full and firm. Immature
heads are spongy & will not with stand shipping and handling. Some times the home gardener
harvest heads are fully mature. Butter head and cos types can be picked as full heads or in the
semi heading stage. Leaf lettuce is harvested as soon as the leaves are large enough, but before
they become tough and bitter.
Most commercial fields are hand- harvested only once, normally when most of the
plants have reached the desired stage. Lettuce is cut with a knife at or slightly below the soil
surface- soiled & diseased leaves are removed before the lettuce is packed. Practically all the
crop is now field packed and vaccum.
Lettuce shipped in atmosphere with excessive carbon dioxide concentrations
may develop dark, water soaked lesions near the leaf base and mid rib. This is known as brown
strain & is usually intensified when oxygen levels are reduced to around 3%. Pink rib, a pink
discoloration along the most severe under high transit temperatures & low oxygen atmospheres.
Although tip burn is usually of field origin, occasionally its severity may increase after harvest.

PACKING, TRANSPORT AND HANDLING OF FRUITS

Packing
Packaging of fresh fruit has a great significance in Reducing the wastage. Packaging also
provides protection from mechanical damage, undesirable physiological changes and
pathological deterioration during storage, transportation and marketing. A wide variety of
containes such as wooden boxes , baskets, covers from bamboo or --. Al the packages must have
some amount of ventilation in order to prevent physiological break down.
Wooden boxes has disadvantages like heaviness which add weight costs, however it has
positive advantages like good stacking strength. Wooden boxes consume 2 to 3 times as much
wood as required a similar size corrugated fibre board box.
Corrugated fibre board box have mostly substituted the wooden box in advanced
countries.
PACKING IN FRUITS
1. Mango
Proper packing is an essential prerequisite for maintaining good appearance and quality
of the produce on reaching the marketing centres.
Most common practice in west India is to pack the fruits in bamboo baskets of 50-100
fruits capacity. Some times straw is also utilized as cushioning material to avoid bruising injury
to the fruit but this has not been found to be satisfactory. Quite often a small packet of calcium
carbide is also placed in the box which packing the fruits.
2. Grapes
The economics of handling and the retention of quality depend mainly upon the place of
packing (field or shed). The type of containers and the arrangement of clusters in the container.
Table grapes should be packed at a place that makes possible minimum handling.
Grapes are harvested in baskets and brought to packing sheds after trimming and finely
packed into market containers i.e. wooden boxes (4kg) and more recently in corrugated fibre
board for cartons (4 and 2kg). Corrugated F.B.C. have substituted other containers such as
wooden boxes and baskets.

3. Pineapple
Pinapples are normally suggested that the stalk remaining attached to fruit should be
trimmed to 10-30mm & the cut surface is treated with suitable fungicide.
The fruits are graded on the basis of size, shape, and color and packed into fibre board or
wood containers for distant transport. A fixed no. of fruits are either placed horizontally or
vertically in the boxes and the mechanical injury during transport is avoided. The uninjured fruits
were found to remain fresh upto 4 weeks refrigerators, shipping or storage.

4. Papaya
 Papaya fruits are usually packed in single layer fibre board containers with packing
material between fruits. After harvesting the fruits to be consumed locally should be stored in a
single layer of straw until they become yellow.
For distant transport they should be packed in bamboo basket with rice straw to avoid
bussing.

5. Cashew
For export purpose cashew kernels are usually packed in cases of 25 pounds net weight
and 2 such cases are put in a wooden case. The kernels for interval market are also packed in tins
of 9-11 kg capacity. For retail selling smaller packing varying from 0.5- 6.5 kgs are also adopted.
Instead of tins, many firms used polythene bags as the containers for packing smaller quantities
of kernels.

6. Litchi
In India litchi fruits are packed in shallow baskets or crates. Most litchi of Australia are
currently packed in vol. filled bulk packs Table of Australia.

7. Citrus
It is suggested that citrus fruits are polished lightly with a piece of cloth and indually
wrapped in tissue paper. Excessive moisture loss aggrevates the problem of distortion in long
distance shipments which can be reduced by placing fruits in individual cells. Ventellation in
imp criterion in carton stacked in register developing a forced air system.
The ventilation holes must be at the bottom and top of the containers not at the sides.
Now a days shrink films for moisture loss control are of use with more advantages. The
technique consists of wrapping of fruits individually in a polymerin films 0.5 -1 mills in
thickness and then shrinking the film to the shape of fruit with heat.
The standard citrus boxes
California - 12.5 x 12.5 x 24 inches
Florida - 12x12x12 inches
Australia - 18x10.5x11.5 inches
8. Banana
Banana ripes in 3 to 5 days after harvest. Ripening during the long distance transported
export results in huge post harvest bases. To develop ripening of fruits vaccum packing de by to
one of the method. Were the matured banana hands are packaged and prevented form contact
with air O2 using a simple gadget for vaccum packaging bananas can be stored vaccum. This
delays opening upto 21 days and fruit ripening is completed within – opening the package.

TRANSPORTATION
In order to maintain fruit quality and avoid heating the fruit should be harvested and
removed from the field as rapidly as possible. The fruits once harvested should be protected
from adverse, weather conditions, fast transport of fruit with minimum damage during shipment
is very imp in successful marketing of perishables.
In India, the road transport is 3-4 times more expensive than the rail, moreover, rail
shipment in 8-10 times more efficient in the use of energy then road haulage for the movement
of the same tonnage, yet in India road transport is preferred for shipment of fresh fruits simply
because of the faster movement of perishable commodities and advantage of door to door
service.

Both road and railway wagons should have a special system of ventilation and
arrangement to reduce the imp. And maintain proper relative humidity.
Efficient transport system can go a long ways not only in reducing the post harvest loss of
horticultural produce but also in stabilizing the price fluctuations of the same commodity
available in different Corners of the country. Apart from modifying the transport vehicle it is
necessary to improve the existing loading and unloading system by using pallets and introducing
mechanical handling which will go a long way in solving some of the existing problems of
transportation.

Transportation in different fruits

Mango :
Fruits of some hardy cultivars like Bangalore are often loaded directly into the railway
wagon with out any sort of packaging and these reach far off places in good condition for Japan
etc.

Pineapple :
In ivory coast, the crown of fruit is reduced during growth in the field while in south
Africa, crowns are partially removed after harvesting to reduce the volume for sea fright.
Pineapple are normally transported by sea to fruit weight, however, selected fruits at advance
stages are sometimes transported by air.

Papaya :
Commercial trade of papaya between Hawaii and the main land of the USA is
significant. The fruits from Africa are transported to Europe by air and sea.
For sea shipment papayas are held at 80C and storage for upto four weeks.

Citrus :
In India, citrus fruits are still transported by rail or by road as ordinary cargo and without
refrigeration which often leads to heavy loss due to decay and fungal infections. Refrigerated
vans or continuous airflow arrangement should be used for distant transportation of citrus fruits.
Post – harvest handling

In agriculture, post harvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately

following harvest, including coding, cleaning, sorting and packing.
The most important goals of post – harvest handling are keeping the product cool, to
avoid moisture loss and slow down undesirable chemical changes and avoiding physical damage
such as brushing to delay spoilage.
Sanitation is also an important factor, to reduce the possibility of pathogens that could be
carried by fresh produce. For example, a residue from contaminated washing water.
Initial post harvest storage conditions are critical to maintaining quality. Each crop has an
optimum range for storage temperature and humidity.
Also certain crop cannot be effectively stored together, as unwanted chemical interactions
can result. Regardless of the scale of harvest, from home garden to industrialized for most crops
are the same.

Handle with care to avoid damage (cutting, crushing, bruising)

Cool immediately and maintain in cool conditions
Cool (remove damaged items)

1. Handling in citrus :
Handling :
Temperature
45-480F, 7.2-8.90C (Orange and lemons)
50-600, 10-15.80C (Grape fruits)
Relative humidity : 85-90%
Mist :
No (oranges and grape fruits

2. Handling in passion fruits :

Choose large, heavy, firm fruit when ripe, it has wrinkled, dimpled, deep purple skin.
Leave at room temperature to ripen. Once ripen, stored in the refrigerator upto 1 week.
3. Handling in cashew nut :
Cashew nut is hand picked and manually handled in various stages of operation – right
from picking at farm level to processing at factory level and upto storage and transportation.
Improper post harvest handling and storage of nuts such as high moisture, unsuitable
temperature and insect or mechanical damage can influence of fungus that produces toxins like
afflatoxin. By following proper drying, fungal infection can be avoided.

4. Handling in papayas :
Its easy to select delicious papayas to eat right away look for fruit that’s mostly yellow
and slightly significant to touch. Papayas that are mostly green with a bit of yellow elder and
firm will be ready to eat in a few days. Most papayas at the supermarket need to be ripened at
home. When choosing papayas, simply look for ones green to yellow in color to take have, ripen
and enjoy.
5. Handling in grapes :
Growers, packers and distributors of table grapes face a significant challenge in
simultaneously inhibiting fungal growth while preventing water loss during the post – harvest
handling of their product. SO4 treatments are the most practical method for achieving microbial
control and preserving freshness, but are precluded by the use of impermeable moisture barriers
(eg.plastic bags) designed to seal moisture.
The slotted plastic bags in current use represent an inadequate compromise, though they
permit SO4 treatment, they let too much water escape. Researchers at the university of California
have invented a plastic bag for table grapes which have a different size and perforations pattern
to achieve design goals without significantly raising the costs of bag manufacture are handling.
Thus, the table grape bags will likely become a new standard for the industry.

6. Handling in Banana :
Technological changes have allowed for the development and growth in the international
banana trade. One of the major developments of banana handling techniques was the packing of
bananas in cardboard boxes. At present, bananas for exports are mainly of the Cavendish variety
upto the sixties, the major variety was gross michel, but it was then substituted for the cavendish
one, which was more resistant to the panama disease, although more susceptible to damage
when handling. It was at this moment when bananas started to be packed in boxes. The
mechanization of handling techniques in charging and discharging areas, though cranes in parts
and the use of fork lights or even robots, are also very positive advances for the movement of
such a delicate fruit as bananas .
WORK DONE REPORT:-
 Ex no:-04
Date:-

ANALYSIS OF TOTAL SUGARS –REDUCING AND

NON REDUCIN SUGARS

Any carbohydrate which is capable of being oxidized and causes the reduction of other
substances without having to be hydrolysed first is known as Reducing sugar, but those which
are unable to be oxidized and do not reduce other substances are known as Non reducing sugars.

Example:

1 .Reducing sugars: Generally all monosacharides like glucose, fructose etc., and some
oligosaccharides like maltose, lactose etc.,
2 .Non reducing sugars: some oligosaccharides like sucrose, raffinose and all polysaccharides
like starch and cellulose.

REDUCING SUGARS

Generally to test the presence of reducing sugars we use the test like Fehling’s test and
Benedict’s test.

1.FEHLING’S TEST: for this test we use fehling’s reagent that is

Fehling reagent –A: dissolve 34.65 gms copper sulphate in distilled water and make
upto 500 ml.
Fehling reagent –B: dissolve 125 gms potassium hydroxide and 173 gms Rochelle salt
(potassium sodium tartrate) in distilled water and make upto 500 ml.
TEST: To 1ml of Fehling solution A add 1 ml of fehling solution B and a few drops of the test
solution. Boil for a few minutes.
OBSERVATION: Formation of yellow or brownish red precipitate.

RESULT : The blue alkaline cupric hydroxide present in fehling solution , when heated in the
presence of reducing sugars, gets reduced to yellow or red cuprous oxide and it gets
precipitated. Hence formation of the coloured precipitate indicate the presence of reducing
sugars in the test solution.

2.BENEDICT’S TEST:

For benedict’s test we will use benedict’s quantitative reagent. For this dissolve 173 gms of
sodium citrate and 100 gms of sodium carbonate in about 800ml water. Heat to dissolve the salts
and filter if necessary. Dissolve 17.3 gms of copper sulphate in about 100ml water and add it
to the above solution with stirring and make up the volume to 1 litre with water.

TEST: To 2ml of benedict’s reagent add 5 drops of test solution. Boil for 5 minutes in a water
bath, cool the solution.
OBSERVATION: formation of red , yellow or green coloured precipitate.

RESULT: As fehling’s test the reducing sugars because of having potentially free aldehydes or
keto group reduce cupric hydroxide in alkaline solution to red coloured cuprous oxide.
Depending on the sugar concentration yellow to green coloured is developed.

DETERMINATION OF REDUCING SUGARS BY NELSON –

SOMOGYI METHOD

PRINCIPLE:

The reducing sugars when heated with alkaline copper tartrate reduce the copper from the
cupric to cuprous state and thus cuprous oxide is formed. When cuprous oxide is treated with
arsenomolybdic acid, the reduction of molybdic acid to molybdenum blue takes place. The blue
colour developed is compared with a set of standards in a calorimeter at 620nm.

MATERIALS;

Alkaline copper tartrate:

A)Dissolve 2.5 gms anhydrous sodium carbonate, 2gms sodium bi carbonate,

2.5 gms of potassium sodium tartrate, and 20gms of anhydrous sodium sulphate, in 80ml of
water and make upto 100ml.
B)Dissolve 15gms copper sulphate in small volume of distilled water, add 1 drop of
sulphuric acid and make upto 100ml.
Mix 4ml of B and 96ml of A before use.

Arsenomolybdate reagent:

Dissolve 2.5gms ammonium molybdate in 45ml of water. Add 2.5ml of sulphuric acid and
mix well. Then add 0.3gms disodium hydrogen arsenate dissolved in 25ml of water. Mix well
incubate at 37’c for 24 to 48 hours.

Standard glucose solution:

Stock: 100mg in 100ml distilled water.
Working standard: 10ml of stock diluted to 100ml with distilled water(100ug/ml).
PROCEDURE:
1.weigh 100mg of sample and extract the sugars with hot 80% ethanol twice(5ml each time).
2. collect the supernatant and evaporate it by keeping it on a water bath at 80’c.
3.add 100ml of water and dissolved sugars.
4.pippet out aliquots of 0.1 or 0.2ml to separate test tubes.
5.pippet out 0.2,0.4,0.6,0.8 and 1ml of the working standards solutions into a series of test tubes.
6.make up the volume in both the samples and standard tubes to 2ml with distilled water.
7.pippet out 2ml distilled water in a separate tube to set a blank.
8.add 1ml of alkaline copper tartrate reagent to each tube.
9. place the tubes in a boiling water for 10 minutes.
10.cool the tubes and add 1ml of arsenomolybdic acid reagent to all the tubes.
11. make up the volume in each tube to 10ml with water.
12. read the absorbence of blue colour at 620nm after 10 minutes.
13. from the graph drawn,calculate the amount of reducing sugars present in the sample.
CALCULATIONS:

Absorbance corresponds to 0.1ml of test = x mg of glucose

10ml contains = X x 10mg of glucose

0.1

= % of reducing sugars.

NON REDUCING SUGARS

• If no characteristic colour is formed when test with Benedict’s solution indicates the
absence of reducing sugars in the given solution.
• After adding 5 drops of conc. HCL to 5ml test solution in another test tube. Heat for 5
minutes on boiling water bath, add 10 % sodium hydroxide solution to give a slightly
alkaline solution(test with red litmus paper),now perform benedict’s test with this
hydrolysed solution.if it gives red or yellow colour indicates the formation of reducing
sugars from non reducing sugars, after hydrolysis with acid.
• After that conduct the OSAZONE TEST for Non reducing sugars.

TEST:

TO 0.5gms of phenyl hydrazine chloride add 0.1gm of sodium acetate and

10 drops of glacial acetic acid, to this mixture add 5ml of test solution and heat on a
boiling water bath for about half an hour. Allow the tube to cool slowly and examine the
crystals under a microscope.

OBSERVATION:

Glucose, fructose and mannose produce needle shaped yellow osazone crystals,
where as lactosazone is mushroom shaped. Different osazones show crystals of different
shapes. Maltose produce flower shaped crystals.

RESULT:

The ketoses and aldoses react with phenyl hydrazine to produce a phenylhydrazone
which in turn reacts with another two molecules of phenyl hydrazine to form osazone.

NOTE:

For osazone test the reaction mixture should be between pH of 5 to 6.

WORK DONE REPORT:-
 Ex no:-05
Date:-

ANALYSIS OF ACIDITY AND ASCORBIC ACID IN FRUITS

Acid Fruit :

oranges - pineapples - sour apples - sour plums - lemons - grapefruits - sour peaches - limes
- tangerines - sour grapes - tomatoes

These are the most detoxifying fruits and excellent foods. They should be avoided when you
have the flu because the body could overreact detoxifying and make you even more sick.

Some people may have problems with these fruits because of their acid content. The acid though
is a healthy and organic nutritional element (for instance: ascorbic acid is vitamin c, found
especially in citrus fruits and vegetables).

Sometimes one type of fruit from this category can irritate a particular part of the body. This can
be caused by an allergic reaction caused by cow milk. There is a good chance that after staying
away from dairy this reaction disappears.

Low-acid Fruit :

apricots - blueberries - huckleberries - strawberries - nectarines - raspberries -

blackberries - gooseberries - mangos - elderberries - olives - fresh figs - sweet apples -
cherries- sweet peaches - sweet plums - persimmons

These fruits are less detoxifying than acid fruits and can be handled well in any amount.
There are two methods specified for the determination of the titratable acidity of fruits:

- Method using a coloured indicator;

- Potentiometric method, using a pH meter, which should be used for very coloured
juices.

Sampling:

To evaluate the lot selected for inspection, take a sample of at least 10 fruits of each size at
random from the reduced sample. However, fruits should be free from defects such as sun scorch
and pest or disease damage, which may have affected the normal ripening process.

Sample preparation:

Depending upon the type of produce, either cut the fruit in half and squeeze out the juice with an
extractor or a juice-press e.g. citrus fruits, or homogenise the flesh into a pulp. The juice of all
squeezed fruits is mixed. The skin and solids should not be included; the solids being filtered out
through muslin cloth or fine filter extracting as much juice as possible. Use a clean and dry
safety 10ml pipette. Draw up 10ml of juice and discharge it into a 250ml beaker. Using another
clean and dry pipette draw up 50ml of distilled water and add to the juice in the beaker.
Measurement:

Method using a coloured indicator:

Add 3 drops of phenolphthalein to the juice/water solution in each beaker from a dropping
pipette which is specifically kept for that purpose.

Ensure the tap on the burette is shut and using a funnel pour the 0.1M solution of NaOH into the
burette until it reaches the zero mark. Do not spill the solution onto the skin.

Slowly titrate the NaOH into the juice/water solution (with a 25ml burette or an automatic

burette). Care must be taken that the NaOH is dropped directly into the solution and does not
adhere to the glass, otherwise the reading may be false. While titrating care must be taken to
continually swirl the solution in the beaker to keep it thoroughly mixed. This is essential,
particularly when the solution nears neutrality. It is important to determine the point of neutrality
or the end point of titration very exactly. The phenolphthalein indicator changes very rapidly
from colourless to pink and the end point

can easily be missed, which will give an inaccurate reading for the test. It is important therefore
that towards the end of the titration the NaOH is added a drop at a time.

Using phenolphthalein as an indicator, the point of neutrality is reached when the indicator
changes from colourless to pink. The indicator colour must remain stable (persisting for 30
seconds) and be light pink when viewed over a white background. However, the shade can vary
depending on the type of juice being tested. If the point of neutrality is missed, i.e. the colour of
the indicator is too dark, the test is not acceptable and must be repeated. An indicator stripe
should be used to avoid the neutral point of pH 8.1.

- Read off the amount of the amount of NaOH used (titre) on the burette and record this figure.

- Re-fill the burette for each subsequent test.

Method using a pH meter:

The point of neutrality i.e. the end point of titration may also be determined using a pH meter.
The precise method used will depend on the manufacturer instructions, but the following will
provide a general guide.

Measurement:

Ensure the tap on the burette is shut and using a funnel pour the 0.1M solution of NaOH into the
burette until it reaches the zero mark. Do not spill the solution onto the skin.

Slowly titrate the NaOH into the juice/water solution. Care must be taken that the NaOH is
dropped directly into the solution and does not adhere to the glass, otherwise the reading may be
false. While titrating care must be taken to continually swirl the solution in the beaker to keep it
thoroughly mixed. This is essential, particularly when the solution nears neutrality. It is
important to determine the point of neutrality or the end point of titration very exactly. The end
point can easily be missed, which

will give an inaccurate reading for the test. It is important therefore that towards the end of the
titration the NaOH is added a drop at a time.

Using a pH meter, while titrating the digital readout will be seen to climb from around 4 or 5.
When the reading reaches 7 proceed carefully. The point of neutrality or the end point of titration
is reached at pH 8.1. If this figure is exceeded the test is not acceptable and must be repeated.

- When the pH meter reads 8.1 read off the amount of NaOH used on the burette and record.

- Re-fill the burette for each subsequent test.

Calculation of the Sugar/Acid Ratio:

The °Brix value of the fruit concerned must also be obtained before calculation of the sugar/acid
ratio is possible.

. A list of these acids and multiplication factors are found below.

Factor for: - citric acid : 0.0064 (Citrus fruit)

- malic acid : 0.0067 (Apples)

- tartaric acid : 0.0075 (Grapes)

Using citric acid as an example, 1ml 0.1M NaOH is equivalent to 0.0064g citric acid.

Results expressed as percentage acid:

Percentage acid = Titre x acid factor x 100

10 (ml juice)

The sugar acid ratio = ___°Brix value___

Percentage acid

. METHODS OF DETERMINATION OF ASCORBIC ACID IN FRUITS:-

Ascorbic acid is a sugar acid with antioxidant properties. Its appearance is white to light-yellow
crystals or powder. It is water-soluble.

Determination of ascorbic acid in fruits and vegetables by different methods:

1. pulse polarography :

A method for the determination of ascorbic acid in vegetables and fruits using differential
pulse polarography has been developed. The extraction medium recommended is a mixture of
oxalic acid (1%), trichloroacetic acid (2%) and sodium sulphate (1%), and simple filtration is
used to remove the residue. An acetate buffer (2M) is recommended to keep the pH at 4.5. The
polarograms were recorded using a modulation amplitude of 50mV, a scan rate of 2mVs-1, and a
drop time of 1 s. The precision of the procedure was found to be 1.4% at the 1 mg litre-1 level of
ascorbic acid. The calibration graph was linear in the range of 0-20 mg litre -1 of ascorbic acid
with a slope of 0.48 A mg litre-1. Most common anions and cations did not interfere, however,
Fe3+ and EDTA interfered, and Br- and I- seriously interfered with the determination. The method
was applied to determine the ascorbic acid content of a number of vegetables and fruits using the
standard-addition calibration.

2. Acid-base extraction is a procedure using sequential liquid-liquid extractions to purify acids

and bases from mixtures based on their chemical properties. Acid-base extraction is routinely
performed during the work-up after chemical synthesis and for the isolation of compounds and
natural products like alkaloids from crude extracts. The product is largely free of neutral and
acidic or basic impurities. It is not possible to separate chemically similar acids or bases using
this simple method.

Technique:

Usually, the mixture is dissolved in a suitable solvent such as dichloromethane or ether, and
poured into a separating funnel. An aqueous solution of the acid or base is added, and the pH of
the aqueous phase is adjusted to bring the compound of interest into its required form. After
shaking and allowing for phase separation, the phase containing the compound of interest is
collected. The procedure is then repeated with this phase at the opposite pH range. The order of
the step is not important and the process can be repeated to increase the separation. However, it
is often convenient to have the compound dissolved the organic phase after the last step, so that
evaporation of the solvent yields the product.
Workdone report:-
Ex no:-06
Date:-

STUDY OF DIFFERENT PACKING MATERIALS USED IN HANDLING

OF FRESH FRUITS
Packing
Packaging of fresh fruit has a great significance in Reducing the wastage. Packaging also
provides protection from mechanical damage, undesirable physiological changes and
pathological deterioration during storage, transportation and marketing. A wide variety of
containers such as wooden boxes , baskets, covers from bamboo or --. Al the packages must have
some amount of ventilation in order to prevent physiological break down.
Wooden boxes has disadvantages like heavy ness which add weight costs, however it has
positive advantages like good stacking strength. Wooden boxes consume 2 to 3 times as much
wood as required a similar size corrugated fibre board box.
Corrugated fibre board box have mostly substituted the wooden box in advanced
countries.
PACKING IN FRUITS
1. Mango
Prope4r packing is an essential prerequisite for maintaining good appearance and quality
of the produce on reaching the marketing centres.
Most common practice in west India is to pack the fruits in bamboo baskets of 50-100
fruits capacity. Some times straw is also utilized as cushioning material to avoid bruising injury
to the fruit but this has not been found to be satisfactory. Quite often a small packet of calcium
carbide is also placed in the box which packing the fruits.
2. Grapes
The economics of handling and the retention of quality depend mainly upon the place of
packing (field or shed). The type of contains and the arrangement of clusters in the container.
Table grapes should be packed at a place that makes possible minimum handling.
Grapes are harvested in baskets and brought to packing sheds after trimming and finely
packed into market containers i.e. wooden boxes (4kg) and more recently in corrugated fibre
board for cartons (4 and 2kg). Corrugated F.B.C. have substituted other containers such as
wooden boxes and baskets.

3. Pine apple
Pine apples are normally suggested that the stalk remaining attached to fruit should be
trimmed to 10-30mm & the cut surface is treated with suitable fungicide.
The fruits are graded on the basis of size, shape, and color and packed into fibre board or
wood containers for distant transport. A fixed no. of fruits are either placed horizontally or
vertically in the boxes and the mechanical injury during transport is avoided. The uninjured fruits
were found to remain fresh upto 4 weeks refrigerators, shipping or storage.

4. Papaya
Papaya fruits are usually packed in single layer fibre board containers with packing
material between fruits. After harvesting the fruits to be consumed locally should be stored in a
single layer of straw until they become mellow.
 For distant transport they should be packed in bamboo basket with rice straw to avoid
bussing.

5. Cashew
For export purpose cashew kernels are usually packed in cases of 25 pounds net weight
and 2 such cases are put in a wooden case. The kernels for interval market are also packed in tins
of 9-11 kg capacity. For retail selling smeller packing varying from 0.5- 6.5 kgs are also adopted.
Instead of tins, many firms used polythene bags as the containers for packing smaller quantities
of kernels.

6. Litchi
In India litchi fruits are packed in shallow baskets or crates. Most litchi of Australia are
currently packed in vol. filled bulk packs Table of Australia.

7. Citrus
It is suggested that citrus fruits are polished lightly with a piece of cloth and indually
wrapped in tissue paper. Excessive moisture loss aggrevates the problem of distortion in long
distance shipments which can be reduced by placing fruits in individual cells. Ventilation in imp
criterion in carton stacked in register developing a forced air system.
The ventilation holes must be at the bottom and top of the containers not at the sides.
Now a days shrink films for moisture loss control are of use with more advantages. The
technique consists of wrapping of fruits individually in a polymerin films 0.5 -1 miles in
thickness and then shrinking the film to the shape of fruit with heat.
The standard citrus boxes
California - 12.5 x 12.5 x 24 inches
Florida - 12x12x12 inches
Australia - 18x10.5x11.5 inches
8. Banana
Banana ripes in 3 to 5 days after harvest. Ripening during the long distance transported
export results in huge post harvest bases. To develop ripening of fruits vaccum packing de by to
one of the method. Were the matured banana hands are packaged and prevented form contact
with air O2 using a simple gadget for vaccum packaging bananas can be stored vaccum. This
delays opening upto 21 days and fruit ripening is completed within – opening the package.

TRANSPORTATION
In order to maintain fruit quality and avoid heating the fruit should be harvested and
removed from the field as rapidly as possible. The fruits once harvested should be protected
from adverse, weather conditions, fast transport of fruit with minimum damage during shipment
is very imp in successful marketing of perishables.
In India, the road transport is 3-4 times more expensive than the rail, moreover, rail
shipment in 8-10 times more efficient in the use of energy then road haulage for the movement
of the same tonnage, yet in India road transport is preferred for shipment of fresh fruits simply
because of the faster movement of perishable commodities and advantage of door to door
service.

Both road trans and railway wagons should have a special system of ventilation and
arrangement to reduce the imp. And maintain proper relative humidity.
Efficient transport system can go a long ways not only in reducing the post harvest loss of
horticultural produce but also in stabilizing the price fluctuations of the same commodity
available in different Corners of the country. Apart from modifying the transport vehicle it is
necessary to improve the existing loading and unloading system by using pallets and introducing
mechanical handling which will go a long way in solving some of the existing problems of
transportation.

Transportation in different fruits :

Mango
Fruits of some hardy cultivars like Bangalore are often loaded directly into the railway
wagon with out any sort of packaging and these reach far off places in good condition for Japan
etc.
Pineapple
In ivory coast, the crown of fruit is reduced during growth in the field while in south
Africa, crowns are partially removed after harvesting to reduce the volume for sea fright.
Pineapple are normally transported by sea ouring to fruit weight, however, selected fruits at
advance stages are sometimes transported by air.

Papaya
Commercial trade of papaya between Hawaii and the main land of the USA is
significant. The fruits from Africa are transported to Europe by air and sea.
For sea shipment papayas are held at 80C and storage for upto four weeks.

Citrus
In India, citrus fruits are still transported by rail or by road as ordinary cargo and without
refrigeration which often leads to heavy loss due to decay and fungal infections. Refrigerated
vans or continuous airflow arrangement should be used for distant transportation of citrus fruits.
Post – harvest handling

In agriculture, post harvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately

following harvest, including coding, cleaning, sorting and packing.
The most important goals of post – harvest handling are keeping the product cool, to
avoid moisture loss and slow down undesirable chemical changes and avoiding physical damage
such as brushing to delay spoilage.
Sanitation is also an important factor, to reduce the possibility of pathogens that could be
carried by fresh produce. For example, a residue from contaminated washing water.
Initial post harvest storage conditions are critical to maintaining quality. Each crop has an
optimum range for storage temperature and humidity.
Also certain crop cannot be effectively stored together, as unwanted chemical interactions
can result. Regardless of the scale of harvest, from home garden to industrialized for most crops
are the same.
Handle with care to avoid damage (cutting, crushing, bruising)
• Cool immediately and maintain in cool conditions
• Cool (remove damaged items)
• Cool immediately and maintain in cool conditions.
• Cool (remove damaged items)

1. Handling in citrus
Handling : Temperature
45-48 F, 7.2-8.90C (Orange and lemons)
0

50-600, 10-15.80C (Grape fruits)

Relative humidity : 85-90%
Mist :
 No (oranges and grape fruits
Light (lemons)

2. Handling in passion fruits

Choose large, heavy, firm fruit when ripe, it has wrinkled, dimpled, deep purple skin.
Leave at room temperature to ripen. Once ripen, stare in the refrigerator upto 1 week.
3. Handling in cashew nut
Cashew nut is hand picked and manually handled in various stages of operation – right
from picking at form level to processing at factory level and upto storage and transportation.
Improper post harvest handling and storage of nuts such as high moisture, unsuitable
temperature and insect or mechanical damage can influence of fungus that produces toxins like
afflatoxin. By following proper drying, fungal infection can be avoided.

4. Handling in papayas
Its easy to select delicious papayas to eat right away look for fruit that’s mostly yellow in
– and slightly significant to touch. Papayas that are mostly green with a bit of yellow elder and
firm will be ready to eat in a few days. Most papayas at the supermarket need to be ripened at
home. When choosing papayas, simply look for ones green to yellow in color to take have, ripen
and enjoy.
5. Handling in grapes
Grawers, packers and distributors of table grapes face a significant challenge in
simultaneously inhibiting fungal growth while preventing water loss during the post – harvest
handling of their product. SO4 treatments are the most practical method for achieving microbial
control and preserving freshness, but are precluded by the use of impermeable moisture barriers
(eg.plastic bags) designed to seal in moisture.
The slatted plastic bags in current use represent an inadequate compromise, though they
permit SO4 treatment, they let too much water escape. Researchers at the university of California
have invented a plastic bag for table grapes which have a different size and perforations pattern
to achieve design goals without significantly raising the costs of bag manufacture are handling.
Thus, the uc table grape bags will likely become a new standard for the industry.

6. Handling in Banana
Technological changes have allowed for the development and growth in the international
banana trade. One of the major developments of banana handling techniques was the packing of
bananas in cardboard boxes. At present, bananas for exports are mainly of the Cavendish variety
upto the sixties, the major variety was gross michel, but it was then substituted for the covendish
one, which was more resistant for the convendish one, which was more resistant to the panama
disease, although more susceptible to damage when handling. It was at this moment when
bananas started to be packed in boxes. The mechanization of handling techniques in charging
and discharging areas, though cranes in parts and the use of fork lights or even robots, are also
very positive advances for the movement of such a delicate fruit as bananas are.
WORK DONE REPORT:-
EX NO:-07
DATE:-

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PACKING MATERIALS ,TRANSPORT USED IN

HANDLING OF VEGETABLES

Introduction

Packaging fresh fruits and vegetables is one of the more important steps in the long and
complicated journey from grower to consumer. Bags, crates, hampers, baskets, cartons, bulk
bins, and palletized containers are convenient containers for handling, transporting, and
marketing fresh produce

Types of Packaging Materials

WOOD:-

Pallet Bins.

Substantial wooden pallet bins of milled lumber or plywood are primarily used to move
produce from the field or orchard to the packing house. Depending on the application, capacities
may range from 12 to more than 50 bushels. Although the height may vary, the length and width
is generally the same as a standard pallet (48 inches by 40 inches). More efficient double-wide
pallet bins (48 inches by 80 inches) are becoming more common.

Wire-Bound Crates.

Although alternatives are available, wooden wire-bound crates

are used extensively for snap beans, sweet corn and several other
commodities that require hydrocooling. Wire-bound crates are sturdy,
rigid and have very high stacking strength that is essentially unaffected
by water. Wire-bound crates come in many different sizes from half-
bushel to pallet-bin size and have a great deal of open space to facilitate
cooling and ventilation. Although few are re-used, wire-bound crates
may be dissembled after use and shipped back to the packer (flat). In
some areas, used containers may pose a significant disposal problem.
Wirebound crates are not generally acceptable for consumer packaging because of the difficulty
in affixing suitable labels.

Wooden Crates and Lugs.

Wooden crates, once extensively used for apples, stone fruit, and potatoes have been
almost totally replaced by other types of containers. The relative expense of the container, a
greater concern for tare weight, and advances in material handling have reduced their use to a
few speciality items, such as expensive tropical fruit. The 15-, 20-, and 25-pound wooden lugs
still used for bunch grapes and some specialty crops are being gradually replaced with less costly
alternatives.

Wooden Baskets and Hampers.

Wire-reinforced wood veneer baskets and hampers of different sizes

were once used for a wide variety of crops from strawberries to sweetpotatoes.
They are durable and may be nested for efficient transport when empty.
However, cost, disposal problems, and difficulty in efficient palletization have
severely limited their use to mostly local grower markets where they may be
re-used many times.

Paper and Mesh Bags.

Consumer packs of potatoes and onions are about the only produce
items now packed in paper bags. The more sturdy mesh bag has much wider
use. In addition to potatoes and onions, cabbage, turnips, citrus, and some
specialty items are packed in mesh bags. Sweet corn may still be packaged in
mesh bags in some markets. In addition to its low cost, mesh has the advantage
of uninhibited air flow. Good ventilation is particularly beneficial to onions.
Supermarket produce managers like small mesh bags because they make
attractive displays that stimulate purchases.

However, bags of any type have several serious disadvantages. Large bags do not
palletize well and small bags do not efficiently fill the space inside corrugated fiberboard
containers. Bags do not offer protection from rough handling. Mesh bags provide little protection
from light or contaminants. In addition, produce packed in bags is correctly perceived by the
consumer to be less than the best grade. Few consumers are willing to pay premium price for
bagged produce.

Plastic Bags.

Plastic bags (polyethylene film) are the predominant material for fruit and vegetable
consumer packaging. Besides the very low material costs, automated bagging machines further
reduce packing costs. Film bags are clear, allowing for easy inspection of the contents, and
readily accept high quality graphics. Plastic films are available in a wide range of thicknesses
and grades and may be engineered to control the environmental gases inside the bag. The film
material "breathes" at a rate necessary to maintain the correct mix of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
water vapor inside the bag. Since each produce item has its own unique requirement for
environmental gases, modified atmosphere packaging material must be specially engineered for
each item. Research has shown that the shelf life of fresh produce is extended considerably by
this packaging. The explosive growth of precut produce is due in part to the availability of
modified atmosphere packaging.

In addition to engineered plastic films, various patches and valves have been developed
that affix to low-cost ordinary plastic film bags. These devices respond to temperature and
control the mix of environmental gases.

Shrink Wrap.
 One of the newest trends in produce packaging is the shrink wrapping of individual
produce items. Shrink wrapping has been used successfully to package potatoes, sweetpotatoes,
apples, onions, sweet corn, cucumbers and a variety of tropical fruit. Shrink wrapping with an
engineered plastic wrap can reduce shrinkage, protect the produce from disease, reduce
mechanical damage and provide a good surface for stick-on labels.

Rigid Plastic Packages.

packages with a top and bottom that are heat formed from one or
two pieces of plastic are known as clamshells. Clamshells are gaining in
popularity because they are inexpensive, versatile, provide excellent
protection to the produce, and present a very pleasing consumer package.
Clamshells are most often used with consumer packs of high value
produce items like small fruit, berries, mushrooms, etc., or items that are
easily damaged by crushing. Clamshells are used extensively with precut
produce and prepared salads. Molded polystyrene and corrugated
polystyrene containers have been test marketed as a substitute for waxed corrugated fiberboard.
At present they are not generally cost competitive, but as environmental pressures grow, they
may be more common. Heavy-molded polystyrene pallet bins have been adopted by a number of
growers as a substitute for wooden pallet bins. Although at present their cost is over double that
of wooden bins, they have a longer service life, are easier to clean, are recyclable, do not decay
when wet, do not harbour disease, and may be nested and made collapsible.

As environmental pressures continue to grow, the disposal and recyclability of packaging

material of all kinds will become a very important issue. Common polyethylene may take from
200 to 400 years to breakdown in a landfill. The addition of 6 percent starch will reduce the time
to 20 years or less. packaging material companies are developing starch-based polyethylene
substitutes that will break down in a landfill as fast as ordinary paper.

The move to biodegradable or recyclable plastic packaging materials may be driven by

cost in the long term, but by legislation in the near term. Some authorities have proposed a total
ban on plastics. In this case, the supermarket of the early 21st century may resemble the grocery
markets of the early 20th century.
WORKDONE REPORT:-
Ex no:-
Date:-

STUDIES ON IMPORTANCE OF VENTILATION IN STORAGE OF

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
STORAGE:
Most fruit & Vegetable production in temperate areas is seasonal. In contrast,
cultivation & harvest periods are much longer in tropical & subtropical areas. Demand is year
round and it is normal practice to use storage in order to ensure continuity of supply, moreover,
storage is a strategy for achieving higher returns. Produce can be held temporarily to overcome
gluts thus limiting price of all or to address shortage periods when prices are high storage time
depends on intrinsic characteristics and perish ability of the product.

Different Ways of Storage:

As a rule, there are many ways of storing a product. The length of storage time
can be longer in specifically designed structures. With refrigeration and controlled atmospheres,
storage periods can be even longer. The technology utilized depends on whether the benefits
(higher prices) out weigh the costs.
VENTILATION :
There was a time when ventilation of storage rooms with fresh air was thought to
be necessary & elaborate systems for accomplishing this were developed. This is no longer
practiced for it increases the refrigeration load & is not necessary except for certain applications.
Lemon storage rooms are ventilated to remove ethylene at the 14.50 to 15.50C (580f to 600f)
commonly used when grapes in storage are fumigated with SO2 for decay control it is necessary
to remove the gas at the end of the fumigation period. Exhausting the air from the room &
replacing it with fresh air is a common practice. Absorbing the SO2 in a water or brine spray,
neutralized with an alkaline material, is a better practice.
Natural Ventilation:
Amongst the wide range of storage systems, this is the most simple. It takes
advantage of the natural air flow around the product to remove heat and humidity generated by
respiration. Buildings providing some form of protection can be used. Produce can be placed in
bulk, bags, boxes, bins, pallets etc. although simple, some key concepts need to be taken into
account for the efficient operation of this system.
Differences in internal temperature & relative humidity conditions compared to conditions
externally, need to be minimal. What this means is that this system can only be used with crops
that store well under natural conditions such as potato, onions, sweet potato, garlic, pumpkins
etc.
For adequate ventilation, openings need to be wide. This means they need to be fitted with
screens to keep animals, rodents, and pests out.
As with any other type of fluid, air follows the path of least resistance. This means that if product
is stored in a compact mass, air will circulate to remove heat & gases which have accumulated as
a result of respiration. Efficient ventilation requires adequate space. However, this reduces
storage capacity.
Hot& Humid air rises within the storage facility. If no ventilation gaps exist, this leads to the
build up of hot & humid areas which inturn affects the quality of stored goods. This present the
ideal conditions for the development of disease.
Within certain limits, it is possible to take advantage of natural changes in
temperature &relative humidity. This can be achieved by selectively opening & closing the
storage ventilation. At noon, ambient temperature & RH are higher & lower respectively.
However, at night the opposite happens. To reduce temperature of stored products, buildings
should be left open when external air temperatures are lower. Internal relative humidity can also
be managed in a similar way.
External conditions constantly change, even during the same day. However,
in comparison to air, stored mass in slower to gain & release that. In order to handle this
efficiently, internal & external electronic sensors for temperature and relative humidity are
required. In addition to this, although crops suitable for this type of storage have low respiratory
rates, some ventilation may be required. This is in addition to the automated opening & closing
schedules.
Forced air Ventilation:
Heat & gas exchange can be improved provided air is forced to pass
through the stored product. This system allows for more efficient utilization of space for bulk
storage. Air conducts run under a perforated floor & air is forced through the product. Again, as
air follows the least resistance path, loading patterns as well as fan capacity & conduct
dimensions should be carefully calculated. This is to ensure that there is uniform distribution of
air throughout the product. Removable perforated ducts can be used for storage space when there
are no products in storage.
Fan selection is the most critical factor & specialized personnel should
design the system based on volume & number of air changes per unit of time required. The latter
is a function of respiratory rates of products to be stored. Static pressure or resistance to the
airflow by conducts & stored mass should be considered. Ideally, sensors reacting to the
internal/external ambient relationship should control the system if closed, internal air circulation
only occurs. On the other hand, if opened internal atmosphere is replaced by ventilation. A
partial opening products a mix of internal & external air to reach the desired combination of
temperature & relative humidity.
Ventilation of Packages:
Reduction of moisture loss from the product is a principal function of
limited-permeability packaging materials. A mesh or paper bag unitizes few or many fruits, &
can be prepriced for the rapid checkout sought in to days retail stores, but such bags do not
restrict loss of moisture from the product. Loss of moisture, with consequent shriveling &
surface dulling, causes a quality loss that can be noticed by the least discerning shapper.
An obvious solution to moisture-loss problems from produce
appeared with the development & wide distribution of semipermeable plastic films. Some of
these were too permeable that water vapour transpired from the packaged products rapidly
approached or reached saturation. Furthermore, permeabilities to CO2 & O2 were so low that
undesirable atmosphere modification occurred in the container.
The solution to attiring the desired RH in the package & limiting or
preventing increased CO2 or decreased O2 concentrations lay in controlled ventilation, based
largely on optimum RH for each packaged commodity.
Hardemburg (1954) studied the relationship of package
ventilation to RH, CO2& O2 in bags of vegetables & apples. He reported that sealed polyethylene
bags containing 4.5 KG (10lb) of potatoes require 326mm (¼in.) holes to reduce in-bag RH
below 90% when the bags are exposed to 21° C (70°F) & 50% RH. In order to completely avoid
the growth of surface mold an the tubers the bags must have 486 mm (¼ in) perorations under
the holding conditions described.
 On the Other hand, avoidance, of significant atmosphere
modification in the bag is accomplished by minimum ventilating, e.g., 1.4 Kg (3lb) of apples in
450 LSAT cellophane bags developed no hazardous atmosphere modification during seven days
at 21°C (70°F) when the bags had only 26 mm ( ¼ in). perforations.

WORK DONE REPORT:-

Ex no:-
Date:-

PRECOOLING; METHODS OF PRECOOLING FOR EXPORT

AND DOMESTIC MARKET

Precooling Referes to the rapid removal of heat from freshly harvested fruits and
Vegetables in order to slow repening and reduce deterioration prior to storage (or) shipment.
The rate of deterioration depends on many factors Temperature, the natural respiration rate of
the crop, the moisture content, the presence of natural protective barriers to water loss, and the
presence of decay organisms. The major effect of precooling consists in reducing the respiration
rate. Precooling also slows deterioration and not by retarding the growth of decay organism; and
it reduces wilting and shrivelling, since transpiration and evaporation occur more slowly at low
temperatures. The internal temperature of a horticultural product harvested on a hot day may be
20F (11C) higher than the air temperature the removal of field heat, to reduce the temperature of
the harvested product to 32 – 40 F (roughly 0-4 C ), must be as rapid as possible; consequently, a
great deal of energy is required. Hence the harvesting of many perishable crops is now done of
night or early in the morning to avoid excessive field heat with the field heat removed,
considerable less energy is required to maintain low temperatures, in as much as the respiration
rate at temperatures of 32 – 40 F relatively slight.
The special techniques developed to precool vegetables and fruits are
Cold Air Room cooling
Forced air cooling
Cold water Hydrocooling
Contact with ice Crushed ice
Liquid ice
Dry ice
Evaporation of surface Evaporative
Water vaccum cooling
Room Cooling:
This is probable the most widely used system and is based on the product’s exposure to
cold air inside a refrigrated room. It is simple to operate as the product is cooled and stored in
the same room. However, the removal of heat slowly makes this system unsuitable for highly
perishable commodities. This is because the product needs at least 24 hours to reach the required
storage temperature. Almost all crops are suitable for this type of cooling but it is mainly used in
potato, onions, garlic, citrus.
Forced Air Cooling:
This system includes cold air being forced to pass through produce by means of a
pressure gradient across packages. Cooling is 4 to 10 times more rapid than room cooling and its
rate depends on airflow and the individual volume of produce. Amongst the wide range of
systems available, this is probably the most versatile. This is because it can be applied to all
crops, particularly berries, ripe tomatoes, bell peppers and many other fruits.
It is slow compared to hydrocooling but it is a good alternative for crops, requiring rapid
heat removal which cannot tolerate wetting (or) chlorine of cooling water. However, inadequate
airflow may produce dehydration. Package ventilation openings should be large enough to allow
adequate air flow, particularly if products are stacked (or) palletised Adequate airflow is
necessary. This is because fruits in the centre of packages tend to lose heat at a slower rate,
compared to those on the exterior.
Hydro cooling:
The refrigerating medium is cold water. Because of its higher capacity to absorb heat, it
is faster than forced aircooling. Hydrocooling can be achieved by immersion or through means
of a chilled water shower. In this final system, produce must be arranged in thin layers for
uniform cooling. Not all crops can be hydrocooled. This is because they need to be able to
tolerate wetting, chlorine & water infiltration. Tomato, aparagus and Many other vegetables are
hydrocooled commercially. Chlorination of water is important to prevent accumulation of
pathogens.
Ice- cooling:
This is probably one of the oldest ways to reduce field temperature. The most common
method of ice cooling is at the individual pack level crushed ice is added to top of product before
package is closed. Ice layers may also be interspersed with produce. As it melts, cold water
cools the lower layers of product. Liquid icing is another system where a mix of water and
crushed ice (40% H2O + 60% ice + 0.1% salt) is injected into open containers so that big ice
block is formed.
The main disadvantage of ice cooling is that is limited to ice tolerant crops. It also
increases costs because of the heavier weight for transportation & the need for oversized
packages. In addition to this, as water melts. Storage areas, containers and shelves become wet
.
Evaporative:
This is one of the most simple cooling systems. It involves forcing dry air through wet
product. Heat is absorbed from product as water evaporates. This method has low energy cost
but cooling efficiency is limited by capacity of air to absorb humidity, as a result, it is only useful
in areas of very low relative humidty.

Vaccum Cooling:
Is one of the more rapid cooling systems. However, this is accomplished at very low
pressures. At a normal pressure of 76- mm Hg. Water evaporates at 1000C, but it does at 10C if
pressure is reduced to 5 mm Hg. Product is placed in sealed containers where vacuum is
performed. Vacuum cooling produces about 1% product weight loss for each 50C of temperature
reduction. Modern vaccum coolers add water as a fine spray in the form of pressure drops.
Similar to the evaporation method, this systems is in general appropriate for leafy vegetables.
This is because of their high surface to mass ratio.
Workdone Report:-
Ex no:-
Date :-

METHOD FOR EXTENDING SHELF LIFE OF FRESH PRODUCE

A process for the preservation of foods including the steps of:

1. washing the foods as required to remove any pesticides which may be present,

2. placing said foods in a container of a material which is essentially airtight but which permits
the passage of radio frequency waves therethrough, . sealing said container, and

3.Iirradiating said sealed container with a source of radio frequency electromagnetic energy
wherein said source is capable of producing a first band of energy in the range of 20 MHz to 330
MHz and a second band of energy in the range of 50 KHz to 200 KHz, said energy being at
power levels between thirty watts and three hundred watts.

. A process for the preservation of foods as set forth in claim 1 wherein the frequency of
said first band of energy is substantially 28.5 MHz and the frequency of said second band of
energy is substantially 100 KHz.

Description:
This invention relates to improvements in the packaging of produce such that its shelf life
is substantially extended. It is particularly useful for products which in their natural state have a
protective coating such as a skin or peel; for example, tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, string beans,
apples, pears, or citrus fruits. Many other produce items can be similarly packaged.

First the produce is washed to remove any pesticides present and allowed to dry.
The produce is then placed in a package or container which is of a nonporous material
(essentially airtight) and which is then sealed to keep outside air from reaching the contents. The
packaging material which is used should preferably be quite inexpensive and capable of being
heat-sealed, such as polyethylene film of adequate thickness or other plastic film material. For
marketing purposes it is preferable that the material be transparent to light. An additional
property which is essential is that the packaging material used be essentially transparent to radio
frequency electromagnetic waves.

The sealed package or container is then irradiated with radio frequency electromagnetic
energy. Depending upon the materials used, the preferred frequency may vary. Frequencies from
around 20 MHz up to 330 MHz are effective to destroy microorganisms within the film which
would otherwise attack the produce and cause it to deteriorate. I have preferred to use a band of
frequencies in the neighbourhood of 28.5 MHz. In combination with this frequency range, I have
found that a band of frequencies in the range of 50 to 200 KHz and preferably at or near 100
KHz has been quite effective in removing certain molds. The packaged produce may be
irradiated with these two separate frequency bands at the same time or sequentially, whichever
proves more convenient.

The radio frequency may be supplied from a crystal controlled radio frequency
generator of conventional design, the output of which is fed into an amplifier which is connected
by a shielded cable to an energy chamber. The power level in the energy chamber can be varied
to accommodate produce items of varying bulk. I have used power levels from 30 watts to 300
watts depending upon the bulk to be irradiated. While a conventional microwave oven could be
used, for large production a conveyor system would be preferable, and I have used a conveyor
moving the produce past the energy chamber at a rate of approximately one foot per second. This
gives an exposure of approximately one to three seconds to the radiation.

The produce thus packaged and irradiated may be stored and transported as required. It
must be kept from freezing, however. Refrigeration may be desirable to retard ripening which
will take place after irradiation. Packaging as described makes possible the picking of a more
mature product, thus insuring better quality and flavor at the market. Other materials which may
be used for packaging include polyester film, acrylic film, or polyvinylidene chloride film.
Work done Report:-
EX NO:-
DATE:-

STUDIES ON USE OF ETHYLENE TO HASTEN FRUIT RIPENING

Introduction

Plant tissues communicate by means of hormones. Hormones are chemicals that are
produced in one location that have an effect on cells in a different location. Most plant hormones
are transported through the plant vascular system, but some, like ethylene, are released into the
gaseous phase, or air.

Ethylene is produced and released by rapidly-growing plant tissues. It is released by the

growing tips of roots, flowers, damaged tissue, and ripening fruit. The hormone has multiple
effects on plants. One is fruit ripening. When fruit ripens, the starch in the fleshy part of the fruit
is converted to sugar. The sweeter fruit is more attractive to animals, so they will eat it and
disperse the seeds. Ethylene initiates the reaction in which the starch is converted into sugar.

Iodine solution binds to starch, but not to sugar, forming a dark-colored complex. You
can estimate how ripe a fruit is by whether or not is darkened after painting it with an iodine
solution. Unripe fruit is starchy, so it will be dark. The more ripe the fruit is, the more starch will
have been converted to sugar. Less iodine complex will be formed, so the stained fruit will be
lighter.

The dark spots on bananas release a lot of ethylene

Ethylene is a natural plant hormone.

It affects the growth, development, ripening, and senescence (aging) of all plants. It is normally
produced in small quantities by most fruits and vegetables. Many fruits produce larger quantities
of ethylene and respond with uniform ripening when exposed to an external source of ethylene.

USE OF ETHYLENE IN FRUIT RIPENING

Ethylene is a plant hormone regulating fruit ripening by coordinating the expression of genes that
are responsible for a variety of processes, including a rise in respiration, autocatalytic ethylene
production and changes in color, texture, aroma and flavor. Ethylene is biosynthesized from S-
adenosylmethione via 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), catalyzed by ACC
synthase and ACC oxidase. Both enzymes are limiting in preclimacteric fruits but are greatly
induced during the ripening. ACC synthase has been purified and characterized from various
fruit tissues and its cDNAs cloned. ACC oxidase was identified by a reverse genetic approach
and subsequent identification of gene function by expression in heterologous systems. ACC
synthase and ACC oxidase are encoded by multigene families. In ripening tomato fruits both LE-
ACS2 and LE-ACS4 ACC synthases are induced, but in preclimacteric fruit it is unclear which
enzymatic isoforms function. Experiments using ethylene inhibitors, pulse ethylene treatment
and antisense transgenic fruits demonstrated that ethylene synthesis plays a key role in regulating
fruit maturation and ripening. Time course studies of enzyme activity and northern blot analyses
indicate that the induction of the ACC oxidase gene precedes that of climacteric ACC synthase.
While ACC oxidase gene expression is a system 2 ethylene-independent process, the climacteric
ACC synthase genes are activated by system 2 ethylene.

Ethylene and fruit ripening

Fruits can be classified into two major groups based on the intervention of ethylene during
maturation. Non-climacteric fruits are those whose maturation does not depend on ethylene, such
as cherry, strawberry and pineapple. Climacteric fruits, such as tomato, avocado, melon, apple,
pear, peach and kiwifruit are characterized by an extraordinary increment in ethylene production
which accompanies the respiratory peak during ripening, called the 'climacteric crisis' . During
maturation several structural and biochemical changes occur in fruit which confer on them
specific organoleptic qualities, such as modifications in the external aspect, texture and flavor of
the fruit . For example, the change in the color of tomato fruits results from transformation of
chloroplasts into chromoplasts and from the degradation of chlorophyll, as well from the
accumulation of pigments such as carotenes and lycopenes, which are responsible for the orange
and red color of the fruit . The tomato maturation process is also accompanied by alterations in
the texture of the fruit, more specifically the loss of firmness, due to structural changes in the
principal cell wall components (cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin). Finally, the accumulation of
sugars such as glucose and fructose and organic acids in vacuoles and the production of complex
volatile compounds is responsible for the aroma and flavor of the fruit .

Most physical and biochemical changes that characterize the tomato ripening process are
associated with alterations in the activity of enzymes such as invertase and polygalacturonase ,
which increase during the ripening of tomato fruits, or citrate synthase and malate dehydrogenase
which decreases considerably during ripening. Examples of changes in enzymatic activity of
several plant species exposed to ethylene are summarized in Several studies have already
demonstrated that ethylene controls most of the events associated with the fruit ripening process .

Effect of ethylene on fruit ripening;

Ethylene can promote ripening in tomatoes, bananas, citrus, pineapples, dates,

persimmons, pears, apples, melons, mangos, avocados, papayas and jujubes - a clear
indication that the action of ethylene is general and widespread amongst a number of fruits.
It is clear that ethylene is a ripening hormone - a chemical substance produced by fruits
with the specific biological phenomenon of accelerating the normal process of fruit
maturation and senescence.

Ethylene promote' the ripening process;

Using tomatoes as an example, the life of a tomato fruit begins with fertilization of the
flower ovules. After fertilization, the young fruit goes through a short period of cell
division which is then followed by a rapid period of growth as these cells enlarge. During
the final stages of growth and development, the tomato fruit reaches its full size and is now
mature. This period of growth and development, from fertilization to development of the
mature fruit, requires about 45-55 days, depending on the cultivar and the season. During
the growth and development period, there are many chemical and physical changes
occurring that have an impact on fruit quality and ripening behavior after harvest. Ripening
is the final stage of the maturation process when the fruit changes color, and develops the
flavor, texture and aroma that makes up what we define as optimum eating quality. The
biological agent that initiates this ripening process after the fruit is mature is naturally
produced ethylene - this simple plant hormone described and understood over 40years ago.
While there are other factors involved in this "triggering" of the ripening process by
ethylene, it is essentially a universal ripening hormone. When this internal concentration of
naturally produced ethylene increases to about 0.1 - 1.0 ppm, the ripening process is
irreversibly initiated. The process may be slowed, but it cannot be reversed once it is truly
under way. So, here is the key point: additional and externally applied ethylene, provided
prior to the time that the naturally produced internal concentration reaches the required 0.1
- 1.0 ppm level, will trigger or initiate - "promote" if you will - this natural ripening process
at an earlier time.
WORK DONE REPORT:-
EX NO:-
DATE:-

COLD STORAGE UNITS FOR PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND

VEGETABLES:

COLD STORAGE UNIT:

Cold storage reduces the rate of biochemical changes in fresh foods (known as ‘respiration’ and
‘senescence’) and also slows down the growth of contaminating micro-organisms. The reason for
storing fruits and vegetables in a cold store is therefore to extend their life beyond the harvest
season. This may be because they can achieve a higher sale price out of season or for food
security reasons. However, cold storage is expensive - both in terms of buying the store and the
operating costs. So it is essential that this is only considered where the price for the stored crop is
high enough to cover these costs.

The factors that control the shelf life of fresh crops in cold storage include:
* The type of food and variety or cultivar.
* The part of the crop selected (the fastest growing parts have the highest respiration rates and
the shortest storage lives).
* The condition of the food at harvest (e.g. the presence of damage or microbial contamination,
and the degree of maturity).
* The temperature during harvest.
* The relative humidity of the storage atmosphere, which also influences weight losses due to
drying out.
* The composition of the storage atmosphere (see note below).

This Technical Brief gives an outline of the storage requirements of different crops and the
construction and operation of cold stores.
‘Climacteric’ fruits

Some fruits (Table 1) undergo ‘climacteric’ ripening, which is caused by the plant hormone
‘ethylene’. This produces a short, rapid rise in the respiration of fruits. A climacteric fruit can be
picked at full size or maturity but before it is ripe and then allowed to ripen in the store. This
increases its flavour, juiciness, sweetness and other factors. Non-climacteric fruits produce little
or no ethylene and retain the qualities that they have at harvest. Vegetables behave in a similar
way to non-climacteric fruits.

Climacteric Non-Climacteric
Temperate Apple Blueberry
Apricot Cherry
Melon Cucumber
Pear Grape
Peach Olive
Plum Strawberry
Tomato
Watermelon
(Sub) Avocado Cashew apple
Tropical Banana Grapefruit
Breadfruit Java plum
Cherimoya Lemon
Fig Lime
Guava Litchi
Jackfruit Orange
Kiwifruit Pepper (green, yellow, red)
Mango Pineapple
Nectarine Tamarillo
Papaya
Passion fruit
Persimmon
Soursop
Sapota

Table 1 : Climacteric and non-climacteric ripening fruits.

Adapted from Harris (1988) and Quisqualis (2008)

Preparation of crops

most crops are likely to contain contaminants, to have parts that are inedible, or to have the
storage variable shape or size. To ensure that foods have a uniformly high quality for sale in
the fresh market sector, it is necessary to clean, grade the crop before cooling and storage.

Harvesting and cleaning:

It is essential that fruits and vegetables are not damaged during harvest. Cut or bruised produce is
susceptible to post-harvest infection and has a much shorter storage life and poor appearance
after storage. Crops should be harvested carefully using a sharp stainless steel blade and should
not be placed on the ground where they could pick up dirt. Crops should be handled carefully
and as little as possible. The best option is to prepare crops in the field and place them carefully
in the containers that are also used in the cold store. This reduces the amount of handling and
keeps damage to a minimum.
Dirty crops can introduce insects, pests and moulds into the cold store, which will then damage
good quality produce. If produce (e.g. root crops) is dirty it should be cleaned before storage.
The washing water has to be kept clean to prevent it from transferring fungus spores throughout
the produce. Some fruit and vegetables should have their outer leaves removed before sale.
Depending on the requirements of the customers, it may also be useful to grade crops so that
fruits or vegetables that have similar size, maturity or colour are packed together.
Cleaning removes contaminating materials from crops. The selection of a cleaning procedure
depends on the type of crop and the types and amounts of contaminants that are likely to be
present, but wet cleaning methods are commonly used. Examples of wet-cleaning equipment
include soaking tanks, spray washers, brush washers, belt or drum washers and flotation tanks.
These are effective for removing soil from root crops or dust and pesticide residues from fruits or
vegetables. Different combinations of detergents and sterilants (or disinfectants) can be used at
different temperatures. For example, warm water improves cleaning efficiency, especially if
mineral oil is a contaminant, but this increases costs and may also damage the texture of some
foods and accelerate spoilage by enzymes and micro-organisms. Wet cleaning methods also
produce large volumes of waste water that may require payment for disposal or construction of
water treatment facilities to avoid the risk of local pollution. To reduce costs, water is
recirculated, filtered and chlorinated with 100 - 200 mg l–1 of chlorine.

Pre-cooling

It is important to remove ‘field heat’ from crops as quickly as possible after harvest.. It also
reduces the load on the cold store refrigeration system. A simple method is to pick the crop either
early in the morning when it is cool or late in the evening and leave it to cool overnight. On
larger farms, ‘hydrocooling’ is used to rapidly cool produce. Foods are sprayed with or
submerged in chilled water produced by a refrigeration unit. Alternatively crushed ice can be
used to make cold water. This has a lower capital cost for the equipment and may be more
suitable for growers that have smaller amounts of produce, provided that there is a reliable
source of ice at a reasonable cost.
In hydrocooling, produce is packed into wooden crates, mesh bags or perforated metal bins that
are stacked on pallets to cause water to flow through and not around the packages. There are four
different types of hydrocoolers:

1. Batch hydrocoolers have bins of produce loaded into an enclosure and chilled water is
sprayed over the produce, collected, re-cooled and recycled. They are relatively
inexpensive and are suitable for growers that have a limited amount of produce or a short
harvest season.
2. Conveyor hydrocoolers pass containers of produce under a shower of chilled water on
a conveyor belt. However, because of the higher cost, this equipment must operate for
long periods in a year to be economically justified.
3. In immersion hydrocoolers, crates of produce are moved by a submerged conveyor
through a large, shallow tank of recirculated chilled water. This system produces more
rapid cooling than other types because the water has greater contact with food surfaces.
4. Truck hydrocooling involves loading produce onto an enclosed trailer and inserting
perforated pipes above the load. These produce a shower of chilled water, which is
collected, re-cooled, and recycled. After cooling, the pipes are removed and the produce
is transported. Truck hydrocoolers can be constructed at a lower cost than a commercial
hydrocooler, but the coolingtimes are longer than other designs
 . ..

Construction and operation of a cold store

It is not advisable to attempt conversion of an existing room to make a cold store. Cold stores
should be purpose-built using insulating materials to reduce the amount of heat that can enter the
store through the walls and ceiling. Most cold stores are now constructed from prefabricated
panels that have:
* structural steel or concrete to give them strength
* insulation (fibrous material such as rock wool or cellular plastics such as polyisocyanurate)

Packing systems

A packing system is required in the store so that produce can be loaded and unloaded easily and
safely. This system can involve stacked crates or a more complicated system using racks and
trays. For small-scale cold storage, stackable crates are the most appropriate packing system. The
layout of crates in the store needs to be simple and clearly understood by operators so that
produce can be loaded or removed easily and quickly. It is important that the crates are small
enough to be moved easily when full of crop; that the crop cannot be crushed by stacking crates;
and that the crates are strong enough to support the weight of other crates above them without
collapsing. To maintain the airflow around crates, a 60 cm gap should be left between the
storeroom walls and the crates, and a 90 cm gap between the crates, the ceiling and the
refrigeration unit. Fig. 2 shows a design of crate that is suitable for cold stores. These can be
made locally from wood, or plastic (polypropylene) crates may be available from import agents.
If the produce can be transported to market in the same crates that they are stored in, this reduces
handling and possible damage to the crop.
.Temperature at storage

Cold stores are cooled by circulation of cold air produced by refrigeration units. All cold stores
should lower the temperature of crops as quickly as possible through the ‘warm zone’ (50 –>
10°C) where maximum growth of micro-organisms occurs. Not all foods can be chilled to low
temperatures and some tropical, subtropical and temperate fruits suffer from ‘chilling injury’ at 3
- 10°C. This causes a range of effects, including browning or discolouration, the development of
off-flavours and excessive softening. The storage temperature always has to be above the
minimum temperature and care is needed to set the store thermostat so that the cooling system
does not produce any oscillation in temperature below the minimum temperature. It can be seen
from Table 2 that there are basically three groups of fruit and vegetables: those stored at 0 - 4°C;
those stored at 4 - 8°C; and those that require a storage temperature above 8°C. For storage of
mixed crops in a single cold store it is important that the crops should have similar temperature
requirements. Table 2 also shows control of humidity and cooling methods needed to achieve the
required storage life for different crops.

Humidity of storage

There is always some moisture loss from fruits and vegetables during cold storage but excessive
moisture loss is a problem. It is prevented by keeping the humidity of air in the store above 85%.
Table 2 shows specific storage humidities for different fruits and vegetables. Moisture loss can
be reduced by allowing the crop to cool to the storage temperature and then covering it in plastic,
or sprinkling the crop with water before storage. It is not advisable to sprinkle water during
storage because this increases ice formation in the refrigeration unit. It is important to maintain
an adequate circulation of air using fans, and foods are therefore stacked in ways that enable air
to circulate freely around all sides and avoid the risk of spoilage by moulds if‘dead-spots’ permit
localised increases in humidity.

A note on controlled atmospheres in cold stores

Reducing the level of oxygen in the atmosphere of a cold store (either with or without increasing
the level of carbon dioxide) can extend the life of the crop. It slows down spoilage, destroys
insects and prevents mould growth without the need for treatment with toxic fumigants.
However, different types of crop, and even different cultivars of the same species, require
different atmospheres for successful storage, and each therefore needs to be independently
assessed. If the oxygen concentration is too low, it can produce off-flavours or discolouration in
some types of fruits and vegetables. But the main disadvantages of controlling the cold store
atmosphere are economic: the costs of setting up a controlled-atmosphere those of normal cold
storage).
Alternatives to cold storage /reducing energy use:

• Continued use of refrigeration is necessary

• Use of genetic resources – select for reduced respiration, retarded ripening,improved rot
resistance
• Chemical intervention to counteract effects of higher temperatures
• Greater use of CA/MA (not an alternative)
• Improve energy efficiency of cold stores
• Lower consumer quality and availability expectations
• Accept higher wastage in production• Store commodities that provide low heat loads

Consequences of using higher

storage temperatures for top fruit
• Loss of eating(nutritional) quality particularly texture
• Reduced storage life
• Premature ripening (pears) difficulties with mechanical
grading
• Increased wastage from fungal rots
• Marked reduction in orchard area to stabilise prices

Consequences of using higher

storage temperatures for stone
and soft fruit
• General loss of visual(nutritional) quality
• Raspberries and strawberries – Insufficient
time for marketing with rots the major consideration
• Cherries – shorter storage and loss of quality particularly weight (water)
loss (strigs) and rotting
• Plums – shorter storage due to softening (‘bladdery’ fruit) and rotting. Inevitable gluts

Table I. Storage Requirements for Fruits and

Vegetables.

Commodity Storage Relative Averag Storage

Temperatur Humidit e Notes
e* y Storage
 (°F) (%) Life
Vegetables
Artichoke, Jerusalem 31-32 90-95 2-5 months
Asparagus 32-36 95-100 2-3 weeks
Bean & pea, dry 32-40 65-70 1 year
Bean, green or snap 40-45 90-95 7-10 days
Bean, lima 37-41 90-95 5-7 days
Beet (topped) 32 90-95 3-5 months
Broccoli 32 90-95 10-14 days
Brussels Sprout 32 90-95 3-5 weeks
Cabbage, late 32 90-95 3-4 months
Cabbage, Chinese 32 90-95 1-2 months
Carrot 32 90-95 4-5 months trim tops to 1/2"
Cauliflower 32 90-95 2-4 weeks
Celeriac 32 90-95 3-4 months
Celery 32 90-95 2-3 months
Chard 32 90-95 7-10 days
Collard Greens 32 90-95 10-14 days
Corn, sweet 32 90-95 4-8 days
Cucumber 50-55 90-95 10-14 days
Eggplant 45-55 90-95 1 week
Endive, escarole 32 90-95 2-3 weeks
1, do not remove
Garlic, dry 32 65-70 6-7 months
skins
Horseradish 30-32 90-95 10-12 months
Kale 32 90-95 10-14 days
Kohlrabi 32 90-95 2-4 weeks
Leek 32 90-95 1-3 months
Lettuce 32 95 2-3 weeks
Melon, muskmelon
32-40 85-90 5-14 days
(Cantaloupe)
Melon, honeydew 45-50 85-90 3-4 weeks
Melon, watermelon 40-50 80-85 2-3 weeks
Mushroom 32 90 3-4 days
Okra 45-50 90-95 7-10 days
1, do not remove
Onion, dry 32 65-70 1-8 months
skins
Onion, green 32 90-95 3-5 days
Parsley 32 90-95 1-2 months
Parsnip 32 90-95 2-6 months
Pea, green 32 90-95 1-3 weeks
Pepper, dry 32-50 60-70 6 months 4
Pepper, sweet 45-50 90-95 2-3 weeks 4
Potato, late 40-45 90 2-9 months 4
Pumpkin 50-55 70-75 2-3 months 2, 4
Radish 32 90-95 3-4 weeks
Rhubarb 32 95 2-4 weeks
Rutabaga 32 90-95 2-4 months
Salsify 32 90-95 2-4 months
Spinach 32 90-95 10-14 days
Squash, summer 40-50 90 5-14 days
Squash, winter 50-55 50-75 2-6 months 2
Sweet Potato 55 85-90 4-6 months 1, 4
Tomato, mature green 55-70 85-90 1-6 weeks 2, 4
Tomato, colored, firm 46-50 85-90 4-10 days 2, 4
Turnip 32 90-95
Fruits
Apple 30-40 90 3-8 months 4
Apricot 31-32 90 1-2 weeks
Avocado 50-55 90-95 3-10 days
Blackberry 31-32 90-95 2-3 days 3
Blueberry 31-32 90-95 2 weeks 3
Cherry, sour 32 90-95 3-7 days 3
Cherry, sweet 30-31 90-95 2-3 weeks 3
Grapefruit 40-50 85-90 4-6 weeks
Grape 31-32 85 2-8 weeks
Orange 32-40 85-90 3-10 weeks
Peach 31-32 90 2-4 weeks
Pear 29-31 90-95 2-4 months 4
Plum 31-32 90-95 2-4 weeks
Raspberry 31-32 90-95 2-4 days 3
Strawberry 32 90-95 5-7 days 3

INSTRUCTIONS:

1 - do not wash, brush off excess soil

2 - wash with 1 1/2 teaspoons liquid chlorine laundry bleach (5.25 percent sodium hypochloride) in
one gallon of water
3- do not wash before storing, rinse just before using
4- see detailed section on storing this product

*Note the storage temperatures of several commodities ranges from 45-55°F. Most fruits and
vegetables of tropical and subtropical origin may be damaged by cool temperatures. Chilling injury,
a result of prolonged exposure to low but not freezing temperatures, may interrupt the ripening
process. Symptoms of chilling injury include dark circular pits on the surface, shrivelling, internal
darkening, loss of the ability to ripen and the development of off-flavor and poor texture. Careful
attention to the storage conditions will help achieve maximum post-harvest life.
WORK DONE REPORT:-
EX NO;-
DATE:-

EQUIPMENTS USED IN PRESERVATION OF FRUITS AND

VEGETABLES

1.HOME SCALE PRESERVATION OF FOOD

In the home scale preservation of squashes and syrups there is no need of large
investment in machinery or equipment with ordinary household utensils, preservation
operation can be run successfully. However the following utensils chemicals and raw
materials will be required.
1.aluminium/stainless steel kettle.
2.plastic or stainless steel buckets and jugs.
3.stainless steel knife.
4.stainless steel or wooden stirrer.
5.juicer/blender.
6.muslin or khasa cloth.
7.bottle with plastic or aluminium caps.
8.bottle cleaning brushes.
9. balance.
10.stove.
11.centigrade thermometer.
12.citric acid.
13.potassium meta bi sulphite and sodium benzoate.
14.food grade color.
15.food grade flavours.
16.sugar.
17.Fruits.

2.PILOT SCALE PRESERVATION OF FOOD:

In addition to the above the folllowing equipment are necessary for pilot or
commercial scale food preservation.
1.Reflectometer(0-90 degree): it is used for determination of tss in fruit juices , squashes
and jams etc.,
2.lactometer/hydremeter: to be used for determination of specific gravity of liquids.
Lactometer is usually used for determination of milk purity.
3.ph meter: used for determination of ph of food items.
4.pulper: it is used to remove coarse particals from liquid juice. Different sieves(coarse
to fine) are used in the pulping machine. It is very useful device for extracting fine juice
fron tomatoes, mangoes, plums, apricots, etc.,
5.citrus juics extractor: large in size, automatic, cuts fruit into halves, extracts and strains
juices from citrus fruits like oranges, kinnows, lizbon, lemons, grape fruits etc.,
6.hand operated juice extractor: small , portable, single knob hand or electric operated
machine used for extracting juices from oranges, lemon etc.,
7.steam boiler:it is highly technical device used for generation of steam. The staeam is
requored for large sclaled blanching, cooking, processing of fruits and vegetables.
8.steam blancher: It is used to give a mild heat treatment to fruits and vegetables for
killing some of the enzymes.
9.steam jacketed kettles: double walled stainless steel kettle used for cooking of fruit,
vegetables, jams etc., by steam.
10.exhaust box:it is used for expelling air from the filled cans or jars during canning.
Cans are placed on conveyer belt that carries through an atmosphere of steam.
11.double seamer: a machine used to seal the cans harmetically.
12.retort: a closed vessel in which pressure can be built and temparature higher than
atmosphere can be attained. It is used for heat processing of canned foods.
13.can reformer:a machine used for reforming of flattened cans.
14.plunger: a device used for making the ends of reformed cans.
15.vaccum guage: an instrument used for measuring vaccum in cans. It is fitted with a
hollow steel pointer , protruding through a heavy gasket.
16.rotary washer: a machine used for washing of fruits and vegetables through the action
of high pressure water sprays.
17.abrasive peeler: a mechanical peeler used for peeling of fruits and vegetables
especially potatoes , carrots, turnips etc.,
18.cabinet dryer: a drying chamber used for drying of fruits and vegetables. It is a
electric or gas operated can accommodate 4-10 trays loaded with drying material.
19.shredder: a small machine used for making shreds from citrus peels for marmalade.
20.chipping machine: used for making chips from potatoes and apples.
21.mincing machine: a small device used for mincing of meat etc.,
22.deep freezer:a large box used for freezing preserved fruits, vegetables etc.,
23.bottle cap sealer: both hand electric driven, used for sealing metallic caps.
24.bottle filling machine: used for filling squash/syrup in bottle. Fills 6 bottles at a time.
25.syrup tanks:stainless steel tanks with a capacity of 300 litres. Used for mixing/cooling
of squashes and syrups.
26.potato dicer: it is used to make small cubes of potatoes, apples, peaches etc., the size of
cubes can be adjusted according to final use of cubes. Usually 4x4 inch to 10x10inch
cubes are preferred.
27.carbonating machine: it is used for carbonating ready-to-serve drinks. A measured
quantity favoured syrup base put in a bottle while carbonated water is added in the
bottle and sealed by the machine

REFLETOMETER

REFLETOMETER LACTOMETER

PH METER
HYDROMETER STEAM BOILER
DEEP FREEZER

ROTARY WASHER

WORK DONE REPORT;-

EX NO:-
DATE:-

PREPARATION OF SQUASHES

Fruit juices in this country are most commonly packed as squashes or cordials. Methods
of preparing some of the more important of these are given below.

Preparation of Squashes
Sugar, citric acid, flavouring materials, colour and preservative are added to the juice.
The method of preparation has been standarised by lal singh, Girdhari Lal, and other workers,
who have given simple recipes for small scale production.
Sugar, citric acid and water are mixed together, heated, cooled and filtered through cloth.
The clean syrup is mixed with the juice. To improve flavour, peel emulsion of 2 to 4 oranges for
every 100 orange used, or an appropriate quantity of an essential oil or orange essence is added.
Its coloured can be improved by adding an edible colour like sunset yellow, edicol orange A.G.
etc. This must be resistant to the action of sulphurdioxide. After mixing all the ingradients, a
chemical preservative like potassium metabi sulphite dissolved previously in a small quantity of
juice or water is added at the rate of about an ounce for every 100lb. of squash. This corresponds
to approximately 350 ppm of SO4 in the squash, which is permitted by law. By careful attention
to hygienic conditions, the concentration of SO4 can be reduced to about 250PPM. This will help
in minimizing the taste of SO2 in the beverage. The squash is then filled into washed and
sterilized bottles, leaving about one inch head space the bottles are closed with crown or ordinary
corks, capsuled and labelled. They are then stored in a cool and dry place. The squash keeps well
for 1 to 1 ½ years without much change in coour or taste.

Grape Fruit Squash

The method of preparing juice for grape fruit squash is the same as that employed in the
case of orange squash.

Lemon Squash
European lemon, Eureka lemon and Golgal (citrus/ imonia) are generally used. True
lemons are not, however, available in large quantities in India.
Lemon squash requires addition of flavour to improve its taste. The method of preparing
juice for the squash is practically the same as that employed in the manufacture of orange
squash.

Lime Squash
Kagzi nimboo is widely used for making lime squash. It is available in plenty in India.
The fruit is cut into halves with a knife and its juice pressed act in a basket press, or by
means of small wooden squeezers or by using stone roller type presses. The juice is filtered
through cloth to remove seeds.
Sugar is made into syrup and added to the juice. The preserved juice is bottled as usual.

Jamun Squash
The fruit is crushed and heated for about 5-10 minutes at 1400F to extract the colour. The
crushed material is then pressed in a basket press to get the juice for squash.

Mango Sqash
Juicy varieties are preferred for making squash. Fully ripe fruit are taken, the stem
portion cut off and four slits given to each fruit. They are then passed through a pulping machine
to separate the skin and the stones. The pulp is used for making squash. Ingredients are mango
pulp, sugar, citric acid, water, preservative (potassium metasulphite) sugar is added in syrup
form. The squash may be strained through cloth before bottling.

Passion Fruit Squash

With its exotic flavour, passion fruit squash is becoming quite popular. It is prepared
mostly in Australia. The fruit is grown in the Nilgiris and Coorg.
Ripe purple coloured fruits are picked. These are cut into halves and the yellow
mucilaginous pulp along with the seeds is scooped out. The pulp is then passed through the
pulper to remove seeds. On a small scale, the pulp can be passed through ordinary sieves of 20-
30 meshes per inch.

Peach Squash
Juicy white peaches are good for making squash. The pulp is heated with half its weight
of water for about 15 minutes at 1800F. and the juice pressed in a basket press. The pulpy juice is
the converted into a good squash. Potassium metabisulphite is added as a preservative.
Phalsa Squash
 The method of preparing phalsa squash is similar to that described for making jamun
squash. Citric acid is, however, not needed since the juice itself is sufficiently acidic.
Pinapple squash
The fruit are peeled and cut into slices which are then passed through a screw-type juice
extractor. The pulp left over in canning may also be utilized for extracting juice. The juice thus
obtained is converted into squash.

Plum squash
Juicy like the alucha are to be preferred. To extract colour the plums are heated fore
about 30 minutes at 1800F. in half their weight of water. These are then passed through a pulper
to extract juice. This juice can then be made into a squash of 45 or 55 degrees --. Sodium
benzoate is added as a preservative.

Water Melon Squash

Water squash is cut into suitable pieces and the flesh scraped off from the rind. The juice
is extracted by means of a basket press. The pinkish juice, which is of 6-7 degrees Brir, is
converted into squash. Sodium benzoate is used as preservative.
Squash and syrups can also be made from several others fruits like mulberry, raspberry,
strawberry, pear, apricot, pumelo, guara, musk melon, etc. The methods fo preparation are
broadly the same as those explained above.

WORK DONE REPORT:-

EX NO:-
DATE:-
PREPARATION OF CORDIALS
Cordial
`Cordial` may refer to: Squash (drink), an extremely sweet non-alcoholic fruit flavoured drink
concentrate that is diluted with water to taste. It is most popular in the UK, Australia and New
Zealand; Cordial (medicine), any invigorating and stimulating preparation; e.g. peppermint
cordial * Liqueur is often used as a synonym for an `alcoholic cordial

Belvoir Cordials
Belvoir Fruit Farms - Makers of pure fruit cordials and
presses, all made from fresh fruits, flowers and spices and
with no flavourings, colourings and artificial sweeteners.
Genuinely different and naturally delicious.
Flow chart for preparation of cordials

fruits

washing

Cutting into halves

Juice extraction

straining

Addition of preservative
 Storing in glass container for clarification

Siphoning off the supernatant clear juice

Strianing and measuring

Preparation of syrup

Straining

Mixing of juice with syrup

Addition of preservative

Capping

Storing in cool place

PROCEDURE FOR PREPARATION OF DIFFERENT CORDIALS

APRICOT CORDIALS:

Capture fresh apricots at the peak of the season and make a smooth and fragrant liqueur.
Its lovely golden color and rich, tangy taste make it a favorite. Ready in one to two months. After
making the drink, use the plumped, liqueured apricots in desserts or compotes or to top pound
cake or ice cream.
Makes about 1 quart. 1-1/2 lbs (about 3 cups) pitted fresh
apricots ,1 fifth vodka, 2 C sugar, 1/2 C water
Place cut apricots and vodka in aging container; set aside. Heat sugar and water in a small
saucepan, stirring constantly over medium heat until sugar has completely dissolved. Remove
from heat and let cool. When cool, pour sugar liquid into aging container. Stir gently to combine.
Seal and place in a cool, dark place. Stir weekly with a wooden spoon for one month.
Place a colander in a large mixing bowl. Pour apricot mixture into colander. Remove fruit (which
may be reserved and used as liqueured fruit, if desired). Pour liqueur through a fine strainer or
unbleached muslin cloth. Discard sediment. Restrain or filter until clear. Bottle, cap tightly and
label as desired. Liqueur is ready but improves with an additional month of aging.
RASPBERRY CORDIALS:
A favorite for its magnificent color and taste! Make it once and you'll make it again. This recipe
also works well with most all cane berries, such as blackberries, marionberries and loganberries.
Ready in three months.
Makes more than 1 quart. 1 lb fresh raspberries, 1 lb sugar, 2 C water , 2 C pure grain alcohol, 2
C water
Rinse and check raspberries, discarding any overripe or moldy berries. Place berries in a large
bowl; crush slightly with a wooden spoon. Set aside.
Warm 2 cups of water with sugar in a medium saucepan over moderate heat. Stir continuously
until sugar is well dissolved and liquid is just warm. Pour sugar-water over raspberries and stir.
Cover with lid or plastic wrap and refrigerate for one week. Stir occasionally.
Bring 1 cup water to boil and pour over sugar and lemon peel. Stir well to completely dissolve
sugar. Let cool to room temperature. Remove lemon peel and discard. Pour cooled sugar-water
mixture into a in container and add strained blueberry liquid. Stir to combine. Cap and let age six
weeks more.
After second aging, strain mixture again through a fine strainer or unbleached muslin cloth.
Discard sediment. Re-strain or filter as needed until liquid is clear. Bottle and cap as desired.
May be used now for cooking but for serving as a liqueur let it age at least one more month. The
flavor improves with this additional time.
Variation 1: Substitute 3 cups 80-proof vodka for the pure grain alcohol and 1-1/2 cups water, if
desired.
Variation 2: Spiced Blueberry Liqueur is easily made by adding 1/2 teaspoon whole cloves and
1/2 teaspoon whole coriander to the Blueberry Liqueur recipe during the initial aging step.

EQUIPMENT FOR PREPARATION OF CORDIALS

PEACH CORDIAL:
 Pick peaches at their peak of perfection for a liqueur that will whisper "summer" in your
ear with each sip. Ready in just over one month.
Makes about 1 fifth. 1-1/2 lbs peaches ,1 Csugar, 4 strips lemon peel, 2 C bourbon or brandy
Peel, pit and slice peaches. Place in saucepan. Add sugar, stir well to combine. Warm over low
heat until sugar is well dissolved and peaches are juicy. Place peach mixture in aging container.
Add lemon peel and bourbon or brandy, stirring to combine. Cover container and put in a cool,
dark place, or refrigerate if necessary. Let stand for one week, stirring occasionally.
After one week aging, strain liqueur mixture through medium wire strainer placed over a large
mixing bowl. Press out liqueur liquid in peaches by pressing on the fruit with the back of a
wooden spoon. Discard peach pulp or save for use in other recipes. Re-strain through fine wire
mesh or unbleached muslin cloth. Discard sediment. Re-strain or filter until clear. Bottle and cap
as desired. Liqueur is good for cooking at this point and is drinkable, but improves with
additional aging.
Variation: A vodka-based liqueur may be made by substituting an 80- proof vodka for either the
bourbon or the brandy. The result will be a very natural, fruity liqueur.
Microwave Directions: Combine peaches and sugar in a large microwave-safe mixing bowl and
stir. Microwave on high (100 percent) power for 6 to 7 minutes, stirring every 2 minutes.
Proceed as previously directed.

WORK DONE REPORT:--

EX NO:-
DATE:-

PREPARATION OF JAM
JAM:

Jam is a product prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to a
reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold fruit tissues in position. In its preparation,
about 20.4kg of fruit should be used for every 24.9kg of sugar. It should contain not less than
68.5% soluble solids as determined by refractometer, when cold and uncorrected for insoluble
solids. Jam contains 0.5-0.6% acid and invert sugar should not be more than 40%.

RECIPIES FOR SOME IMPORTANT TYPICAL JAMS:

FRUIT/VEGETABLE INGRADIENT FOR 1 Kg PULP
Sugar(kg) Citric acid(gm) Water(ml)
Apple 0.75 2.0 100
Apricot 0.60 1.0 100
Grapes 0.70 1.0 50
Guava 0.75 2.5 150
Mango 0.80 1.5 50
Plum 0.80 - 150
Peach 0.75 3.0 100
Pear 0.75 1.5 100
Sapota 0.75 3.0 150
Mixed jam 0.80 2.5 100
A Jam manufacturer can choose fruit from among the following 5 classes

1. fresh fruit
2. frozen, chilled or cold stored fruit
3. fruit or fruit pulp preserved by heat
4. sulphited fruit or fruit pulp
5. dried fruit

TECHNOLOGICAL FLOW SHEET FOR PROCESSING OF JAM

RIPE FIRM FRUITS

WASHING

PEELING

PULPING
 ADDITION OF SUGAR

BOILING

ADDITION OF CITRIC ACID

JUDGING END POINT BY SHEET TEST

FILLING OF HOT JAM INTO STERILISED BOTTLES

COOLING

WAXING

CAPPING

STORAGE

PREPARING THE FRUIT FOR JAM MAKING:

The fruit is washed thoroughly to remove any adhering dust and dirt. leaves, stalks and other
Undesirable portions are removed. The fruit is then subjected to preliminary treatment which
varies with the type of fruit.
For example

1. Strawberries are crushed between rollers

2. Gooseberries are whirled in a rotary vertical cylinder lined with carborundum to rub of the
tops and tails
3. Peaches are lye peeled, and the stones removed. they are then cut into small pieces.
4. Apricots are cut and the stones removed, unless the jam to be made with the stones also
included.
5. Mangoes are peeled, sliced, stones separated and passed through a pulper.
6. Pineapples are peeled, sliced, the cores punched.
7. Bananas are peeled and crushed in a screw extractor fitted with a coarse sieve.
8. Grapes are heated and passed through a screw type juice extractor for getting a coarse juicy
pulp.
 Other fruits are suitably treated to get a fairly coarse pulp suitable for making the jam.

ADDITION OF SUGAR:

Generally cane sugar of good quality is used in the preparation of jams.

Sweet fruits require less sugar than tart fruits. The quantity added should be adequate to give the
maximum strength to the pectin –sugar-acid gel to ensure a minimum of 68.5% sugar in the jam,
generally 24.9 kg of sugar is required for every 20.4 kg of fruit. Sugar in excess of the requisite
quantity should not be added because the jam becomes gummy and sticky.

ADDITION OF ACID, COLOUR AND FLAVOUR:

Acid :
Generally, citric, tartaric or malic acid, which are natural fruit acids, are used to
supplement the acidity of the fruit for jam making. Addition of acid to fruits is a necessity
because appropriate combination of pectin, sugar and acid is essential top give a SET to the jam.
The best results are obtained when the pH of the mixture is about 3.0.
Colour
Only permitted edible food colours should be used if necessary, and these should be
added towards the end of the boiling process.
Flavour:
Ordinarily jams do not require the addition of flavours. If desired they may be added
when jam-boiling is nearing completion.
BOILING:
A steam jacketed pan made of nickle, aluminium, stainless steel or copper heavily
lined with tin or silver is generally used for boiling jams. The fruit-sugar-acid-pectin mixture is
boiled in these pans, heated by steam at4.20 to 5.60 kg/cm2.the fruit is placed in the boiling pan
and cooked sufficiently to liberate the pectin. sugar is added next. The fruit sugar mixture is then
boiled rapidly to concentrate the soluble solids to about 68.5% and also to effect the necessary
degree of inversion of the sugar.

END POINT:

1. SHEET OR FLAKE TEST:

A small portion of jam is taken out during boiling, in a spoon or

wooden ladle and cooled slightly. It is then allowed to drop. If the product falls off in the form of
a sheet or flakes instead of flowing in a
continuous stream or syrup, it means that the
end-point has been reached and the
product is ready, otherwise, boiling is
continued till the sheet test is positive.
 SOME TYPICAL JAMS

APRICOT JAM:

Both white and yellow apricots can be used for the preparation of apricot jam.
The method is similar to that employed in the case of peach jam except the quantity of acid
added should be increased to 0.5% especially in the case of sweeter white varities .The kernels
can be decuticled like almonds and added to the jam to improve its taste and appearance. Apricot
jam is a popular product in several parts of the country.

PEACH JAM:

white as well as yellow peaches of free and also olingstone type are employed for
the preparation of peach jam.The fruit is peeled with a knife or with lye solution, and the stones
removed. The pulp is softened by heating it with about ¼ th its weight of water. an equal weight
of sugar and 0.2% citric or tartaric acid are added to get a jam having good taste, set and flavour.

PEAR JAM:

Pears are peeled and cut into small pieces which are then crushed and boiled with ¾
th
of their weight of water. To that pulp 0.25 to 0.5% citric acid is added towards the end point of
boiling the jam.

PLUM JAM:

Plum jam can be made with or without the stones . The fruit is crushed and boiled
with about one-third of its weight of water to soften the pulp. The aluca plum gives a golden
brown jam with a fruit-sugar ratio of 1:1.oter yellow and purple varieties plums also can be
utilized for the preparation of jam. plum jam has a fairly tart taste unlike jams made from less
acidic fruits.

OTHER JAMS:

Jams from cherry, mulberry, strawberry, muskmelon, mango, cashew apple etc
also can be made in the usual way. It may however be necessary to vary slightly the fruit-sugar
ratio and the percentage of acid added.

MIXED FRUIT JAM:

Blends of mango, pineapple, orange, apricots, papaya, guava etc pulps as

available in different proportions to meet the consumer acceptance.

PROBLEMS IN JAM PRODUCTION:

CRYSTALLISATION:
The final product should contain 30-50% invert sugar. If the % is less than 30, cane sugar
may crystallize out on storage and if it is more than 50 the jam will become a honey like mass
due to the formation of crystals of glucose. Corn syrup or glucose may be added along with cane
sugar to avoid crystallization.
STICKY OR GUMMY JAM:
Because of high% of soluble solids, jams tend to become gummy or sticky. This problem
can be avoided by addition of pectin or citric acid or both.
3. PREMATURE SETTING: This is due to low total soluble solids and high pectin content in
the jam and can be prevented by adding more sugar.
4. SURFACE GRAINING AND SHRINKAGE:
This is caused by evaporation of moisture during storage of jam. Storing in a cool place
can reduce it.

MICROBIAL SPOILAGE:
Sometimes moulds may spoil the jam during storage but they are destroyed if they are
exposed to less than 90% humidity. Hence jams should be stored at 80% humidity. Mould
growth can also be prevented by not sealing the filled jar and covering the surface of jam with a
disc of waxed paper because mould does not grow under open conditions as rapidly as in a
closed space.

WORK DONE REPORT:-

EX NO:-
DATE:-

PREPARATION OF JELLY
A jelly is a semi solid product prepared by boiling a clear strained solution of pectin –
containing fruit extract , free from pulp , after the addition of sugar and acid . A perfect jelly
should be transparent , well set ,but not too stiff and should have the original flavour of the fruit.
It should be of attractive colour and keep its shape when removed from the mould. It should be
firm enough to retain a sharp edge but tender enough to quiver when pressed. It should not be
gummy ,sticky or syrupy or have crystallized sugar.
Guava, sour apple, plum, karonda, woodapple, loquat, papaya, and gooseberry are generally used
for preparation of jelly. Apricot, pineapple etc., can be used after addition of pectin powder.
Fruits can be divided into four groups based on pectin and acid contents.

RICH IN PECTIN AND ACID:

Sour and crab apple, grape ,sour guavas, lemon, sour orange, sour plum, jamun.

RICH IN PECTIN BUT LOW IN ACID:

Low acid apple un riped banana sour cherry, fig,per,ripe guava.

LOW IN PECTIN BUT RICH IN ACID;

Apricot, sweet cherry, sour peach, pineapple.

LOW IN PECTIN AND ACID:

Ripe apricot, peach, pomegranate, raspberry and other over ripe fruits.

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN JELLY MAKING;

a)Pectin:
Pectin substances present in the form of calcium pectate are responsible for the firmness
of fruits. In early stages of development the pectin is water soluble protopectin and is converted
to pectin by protopectinase during ripening.In over riped fruits petic methyl esterase enzyme
converts pectin to pecticacid and is water soluble so both immature and over ripe fruits are not
used for jelly making.Setting of pectin depends on PH and sugar concentration.Stiffness
increases with pectin upto certain point beyond which there is little effect . Pectin keeps sugar
from crystallizing by acting as protective colloid.Usually about 0.5 to 1% pectin is sufficient to
produce good jelly.

DETERMINATION OF PECTIN CONTENT:

1) ALCOHOL TEST: It involves precipitation of pectin with alcohol.

One tea spoon of strained extract and three of methylated spirit are taken in a beaker and rotated
for mixing.
a)If extract is rich in pectin, a single transparent lum or clot will form.An equal amount of sugar
is to be added for preparing jelly.
b)If moderate pectin is there less firm clot is formed and fragmented.3/4th the amount of sugar is
to be added.

c)If extact is poor in pectin many small granular clots are seen. ½ of the amount of sugar is
added.

2)JEL METER TEST:

The jel meter is held with left hand thumb and forefinger and closed with the little
finger.The extract is poured in the jel meter with a spoon held in the righthand,till it is filled to
the brim.Remove little finger from bottom end and the extact is allowed to flow or drip for
1minute.The reading of the level of extract in the jel meter is noted .This figer indicates how
many parts of sugar are to be added to one part of juice.

B. Acid:
 The jellying of extract depends on the amount of acid and pectin present in the fruit. Of
the three acids citric, malic, tartaric found in the fruits, tartaric acid gives the best results. The
final jelly should contain at least O.5% but not more than 1% total acids.

PH of extract:

Jelly strength increases with the increase in PH until optimum is reached. Further addition of
acid decreases the jelly strength. The optimum PH for a jelly containing 1% pectin is
approximately 3, 3.2 and 3.4 for 60, 65 and 70% TSS, respectively. The PH of the jelly can be
controlled by
1. Adjusting pH of extract with acid or alkali
2. Adding a suitable buffer.

In general the optimum PH value for jelly is 3.2

C. Sugar:

This essential constituent of jelly imparts to it sweetness as well as body. If the

concentration of the sugar is high, the jelly retains less water resulting in a stiff jelly, probably
because of dehydration.

Inversion of sugar:

When sugar is boiled with an acid, it is hydrolyzed into dextrose and fructose, the degree
of inversion depending on the pH and duration of boiling. Because of partial inversion of the
sucrose, a mixture of sucrose, glucose and fructose are found in the jelly. This mixture is more
soluble in water than sucrose alone and hence the jelly can hold more sugar in solution without
crystallization.

D. Judging of end-point:

Boiling of jelly should not be prolonged, because excessive boiling results in a greater
inversion of sugar and destruction of pectin. The end-point of boiling can be judged in the
following way:

1. Drop test: A drop of the concentrated mass is poured into a glass containing water.
Settling down of the drop without disintegration denotes the end-point.
2. Temperature test: A solution containing 65% total soluble solids boils at 105 o C.
Heating of the jelly to this temperature would automatically bring the concentration of
solids to 65%. This is the easiest way to ascertain the end-point.
TECHNOLOGICAL FLOW-SHEET FOR PROCESSING OF JELLY
 FRUIT

WASHING

CUTTING INTO THIN SLICES

BOILING WITH WATER

ADDITION OF CITRIC ACID DURING BOILING

STRAINING OF EXTRACT

PECTIN TEST

ADDITION OF SUGAR

BOILING

JUDGING OF END POINT

REMOVAL OF SCUM OR FOAM

COLOUR AND REMAINING CITRIC ACID

ADDED

FILLING HOT INTO CLEAN STERILISED BOTTLES

WAXING

CAPPING

STORAGE AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

WORK DONE REPORT:-

EX NO:-
DATE:-

PREPARATION OF MARMALADES

Marmalade:
This is a fruit jelly in which slices of the fruit or its peel are suspended. The term is generally
used for products made from the citrus fruits like oranges and lemons in which shredded peel is
used as the suspended material.
In the preparation of marmalades, all the conditions necessary for jelly-making are applicable.
The pectin and acid contents of marmalades should be kept slightly higher than what has been
recommended for jellies.
Citrus marmalades are generally of two kinds, namely sweet marmalades and bitter marmalades
Citrus marmalades are classified into two types depending upon their physical appearance. They
are:

1.Jelly marmalades
2.Jam marmalades

Jelly marmalades:
A good jelly marmalade can be made using the following combination:
Malta or sweet orange and lime (Citrus aurantium) or bitter orange in proportion of 2:1 by
weight. The shreds, however, are taken from the peel of Malta orange.
Sangtra (loose jacket orange) and lime in the proportion of 2:1 by weight. The shreds are from
the Malta orange.
lime shreds are alone, of Malta orange.
Malta or sweet orange and galgal ( Citrus limonia) in the proportion of 2:1 by weight. Shreds are
from Malta orange. Cruess and McNair recommended the use of two whole oranges and whole
lemon for making the marmalades.

Steps in the preparation of Jelly Marmalades:

1. Selection of Fruit:
Sun-ripened fruits only should be used. The size of the fruit is immaterial as long as the fruits
are free from blemishes.
2. Preparing the Fruit:
The outer yellow flavedo portion of the peel of citrus fruits contains coloring matter and
volatile oils, where as the whiter albedo portion contains pectin. The yellow portion of the peel is
peeled off thinly from the fruit with an ordinary table knife on a small scale, and with a special
peeling and shredding machine on a large-scale. Care should be taken to see that very little of the
white portion is removed. Loose skin oranges like the Coorg and Nagpur ones are unpeeled by
hand.
The thin yellow peel is cut into fine shreds with a knife or on a shredding machine, and the
shreds are boiled and drained to remove as such of the bitterness as possible before adding them
to the marmalade.
The peeled fruits are cut with a knife into slices 0.3 cm to 0.45 cm thick or crushed into a rough
pulp in an apple later, facilitate extraction of pectin.
3. Boiling of extraction of pectin:
The sliced or crushed fruit is boiled gently by simmering with 2-3 times its weight of water to
extract pectin. While it is being boiled, a teaspoon full of clear extract is taken from the pan and
tested with alcohol for its pectin content. Boiling is discontinued when sufficient pectin has been
extracted. The process is usually takes 45-60 minutes.
The aqueous pectin extract is separated by pressing the boiled fruit in a rack and the cloth
pressed, or by means of cheese blotch or jelly bags.
4. Cleaning of pectin extract:
For a work on small-scale, the pectin extract is placed in aluminium or enamelled or stainless
steel vessel and allowed to stand over night, when the sediment is settles down leaving a clear
supernatant juice. The clear juice is decanted or siphoned off carefully without disturbing the
sediment. For large-scale work, the extract is mixed with filter-aids such as wood pulp, hyflo-
supercel etc., and passed through jelly bags, is pumped through a plate and flame filter press to
get a clear liquid.
5. Preparation of shreds of peel:
While the pectin extract is being clarified, the peel is cut into shreds, 1.9 cm to 2.5 cm along
and 0.8 cm to 0.12 cm thick. The shreds are softened by boiling before they are added to the
marmalade. If they are added directly without preliminary softening, to the sugar solution and
boiled, they became tough. Generally the following three methods are employed for softening
the shreds.
The shredded peel is boiled for 10-14 min. in several changes of water. Incidentally, the bitter
principles present in the peel are also removed in this process.
The shreds are boiled in 0.25% solution of sodium carbonate or 0.1% ammonia solution.
The shreds are auto-claved at 116oC to 121oC at 10-15 psig (0.7-1.05 kg cm2). The time required
to soften them depends upon the size and shape.
6. Cooking:
In order to determine the quantity of sugar to be added, the pectin extract is tested with the
alcohol or with a jelmeter. The extract is brought to a boil in a steam-jacketed pan and the
requisite quantity of clean sugar added to it. Boiling is continued, and the impurities rising to the
surface are skimmed off occasionally. When the temperature of the boiling mixture reaches
103oC at sea level, the prepared shreds are added to it at the rate of about 62g. of it. Boiling is
continued till the jelling point is reached. Boiling process should not take more than 20 minutes.
Short boiling produces a bright and sparkling marmalade.
7. Cooling:
When the marmalade is ready, it is cooled in a shallow pan or in a water-cooled pan, in which
it is stirred slowly all the while. This operation is essential to keep the shreds uniformly
distributed in the marmalade. When the temperature reaches 82oC to 88oC, a thin film begins to
form on the surface of the marmalade, and it becomes sufficiently thick to prevent floating of the
shreds to the surface.
8. Flavouring:
It is desirable to add a small amount of flavor to the product, because most of the natural
flavour volatilizes during the boiling and cooking processes. Generally, a small quantity of
orange oil may be added to the marmalade at the time of filling into jars or cans.
9. Canning and Sterilization:
After cooling the marmalade is filled into jelly glasses or jars, which can be closed air-tight, or
it is packed in cans which can be hermitically sealed. In the case of jars and cans, they are closed
hermitically and sterilized for 25-30 minutes at 82O to 88OC.
10. Darkening:
Marmalades tend to darken during storage. To prevent this, potassium metabisulphate is
dissolved in a small quantity of water and added to the marmalade while it is kept for cooling.
Incidentally, this small quantity of potassium metabisulphate also removes any chance of
spoilage of the product by mould growth. Experience over a long period with large scale
manufacture of jams, jellies and marmalades have amply confirmed the advantage of its addition.

Jam marmalade:
The method of preparation of the jam-type marmalade is practically the same as that for making
jelly marmalade. No attempt is, however, specially made to clarify the pectin extract of the fruit.
The whole of the pulp mass is used.
Steps in preparation of jam marmalade:
The fruits are taken in the same proportion as recommended for jelly marmalade. The orange
peel is removed along with the inner, white albedo portion, and the peeled fruit is sliced into
pieces 0.3-0.45 cm thick. The peel is shredded and treated as in the case of the jelly marmalade.
The case of lime (Citrus aurantium) or lemon, the outer yellow portion of the peel is peeled off
thinly and discarded.
The sliced fruit (orange, lemon, lime) mixture is boiled with a little added water, till the slice
become soft, and sufficient quantity of pectin has been extracted. The boiled fruit mixture is
passed through a coarse sieve or through a pulper to remove the seeds and coarser material. To
the sieved pulp, the prepared shreds are added, and the mixture containing the requisite amount
of added sugar, is boiled to get jam marmalade.
In the preparation of jam marmalade, pectin test is not quite essential, because it will not give
any indication of the amount of the sugar needed. The pulp will make the marmalade thicker in
consistency. Sugar is, therefore, added on the basis of the weight of the fruit taken, generally the
proportion of 1:1.
The pulp-sugar mixture is cooked till the marmalade contains 65% sugar.
After cooking, a small quantity of orange oil is added to enhance the flavour of marmalade, as is
done in the case of jelly marmalade.
When the marmalade is ready, it is filled into cans, scalding hot. The cans are sealed hermitically
and inverted for 5-10 minutes to sterilize the lids also. No further sterilization of the cans is
necessary. In large scale production, however, it is necessary to heat-process the product is at
82oC -880C for about 30 min. in the case of a 2.5 size cans. The time of processing will vary
slightly for cans of other sizes.

PROBLEMS IN MARMALADE MAKING:

Browning during storage is very common which can be prevented by the addition of 0.09gms. of
potassium metasulphate per Kg of marmalade and not using in tin containers. Potassium
metasulphate dissolved in a small quantity of water is added to the marmalade while it is cooling.
Potassium metasulphate also eliminates the possibility of spoilage due to moulds.

TECHNOLOGICAL FLOW-SHEET FOR PROCESSING OF MARMALADE

 RIPE FRUITS

WASHING

PEELING OUTER YELLOW PORTION THINLY

CUTTING YELLOW PORTION INTO FINE SHREDS

BOILING

STRAINING THE EXTRACT

TESTING FOR PECTIN CONTENT

ADDITION OF SUGAR

COOKING TO 103-1050C

ADDITION OF PREPARED SHREDS

BOILING TILL JELLING POINT

TESTING FOR END-POINT

COOLING

FLAVOURING

FILLING IN STERILISED BOTTLES

SEALING

STORAGE AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

WORK DONE REPORT:-

EX NO:-
DATE:-

PREPARATION OF CHUTNEYS

Chutneys:

A good quality chutney should be palatable and appetizing. Mango chutney is an

important food product exported from India to many countries. Apple and apricot chutneys are
also very popular in the country.
The method of preparation of chutney is similar to that for jam except that spices, vinegar and
salt are added. The fruits or vegetables are peeled, sliced or grated, or cut into small pieces and
cooked in water until they become sufficiently soft. The quality of chutney depends to a large
extent on its cooking which should be done for a long time at a temperature the boiling point. To
ensure a proper thickening, cooking is done without a lid even though this results in some loss of
volatile oils from the spices. Chopped onion and garlic are added at the start to mellow their
strong flavors. Spices are coarsely powdered before adding. Vinegar extract of spices may be
used instead of whole spices. Spice and vinegar are added just before final stage of cooking,
because prolonged boiling causes loss of some of the essential oils of spices and of vinegar by
volatilization. In mango and apricot sweet chutneys, where vinegar is used in large quantity, the
amount of sugar added may be reduced, because vinegar itself acts as a preservative. These
chutneys are cooked to the consistency of jam to avoid fermentation.

Recipes for chutneys:

Some common recipes for preparation of chutney are given below. However, it is always
possible to go beyond a recipe, ignoring conventional tastes and creating something new.

1. Sweet mango chutney:

Mango slices or shreds 1 kg, sugar or gur 1 kg, salt 45 gms, onions (chopped) 50 gms, garlic
(chopped) 15 gms, ginger (chopped) 15 gms, red chilli powder 10 gms, black pepper, cardamom
(large), cinnamon, cumin, aniseed (powdered) 10 gms each, clove (headless) 5 numbers and
vinegar 170 ml.
PROCESSING FLOW-SHEET FOR MANGO CHUTNEY
MATURE MANGOES

WASHING

PEELING

GRATING OR SLICING

COOKING WITH A LITTLE WATER TO MAKE HIGHLY SOFT

MIXING WITH SUGAR AND SALT AND LEAVING FOR AN HOUR

KEEPING ALL INGREDIENTS IN CLOTH BAG, TIED LOOSELY,

PUTTING IN MIXTURE AND COOKING ON LOW FLAME

DURING COOKING SPICES BAG PRESSED OCCASIONALLY

COOKING TO CONSISTENCY OF JAM WITH OCCASIONAL STIRRING

REMOVAL OF SPICE BAG AFTER SQUEEZING

ADDITION OF VINEGAR

COOKING FOR 2-5 MINUTES

FILLING HOT INTO HOT AND DRY STERILIZED BOTTLES

SEALING

STORAGE AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

2. Apple chutney:
Apple slices 1 kg, sugar 750 gms, salt 45 gms, dried dates (chopped) 100 gms, raisins 50 gms,
ginger 50 gms, red chilli powder 10 gms, black pepper, cardamom(large), cinnamon, cumin,
aniseed(powdered) 10 gms each, clove (headless) 5 numbers, onion(chopped) 250 gms,
garlic(chopped) 15 gms and vinegar 200ml.

PROCESSING FLOW-SHEET FOR APPLE CHUTNEY

APPLES

WASHING

PEELING

REMOVAL OF CORES

FINE SLICING

COOKING SLICES WITH ONION AND SALT TILL SOFT

ADDITION OF ALL INGREDIENTS AND COOKING GENTLY TO DESIRED CONSISTENCY

ADDITION OF SUGAR AND COOKING TO THICK CONSISTANCY

ADDITION OF VINEGAR AND COOKING FOR 5 MINUTES

FILLING HOT INTO BOTTLES

SEALING

STORAGE AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

3. Apricot Chutney:
 Apricot slices 1 kg, sugar 1 kg, salt 45 gms, onion (chopped) 50 gms, ginger (chopped)
20 gms, garlic (chopped) 10 gms, red chilli powder 10 gms, black pepper, cinnamon, cardamom
(large), aniseed, cumin (powdered) 10 gms each, clove(headless) 5 numbers and vinegar 150 ml.

PROCESSING FLOW-SHEET FOR APRICOT CHUTNEY

APRICOTS

WASHING

SLICING

MIXING SUGAR AND LEAVING FOR HALF AN HOUR

REST OF PROCESS SIMILAR TO THAT FOR SWEET MANGO

CHUTNEY EXCEPT THAT SALT IS MIXED WHEN VINEGAR
IS ADDED AT THE END OF PROCESS

4. Papaya Chutney:

Papaya halves 1 kg, sugar 750 gms, salt 45 gms, onion (chopped), 50 gms, ginger
(chopped) 15 gms, garlic (chopped) 15 gms, red chilli powder 10 gms, black pepper, cinnamon,
cardamom (large), aniseed, cumin (powdered) 10 gms each and vinegar 100 ml.

PROCESSING FLOW-SHEET FOR PAPAYA CHUTNEY

PAPAYA

WASHING

PEELING

CUTTING INTO HALVES

SEED REMOVAL

GRATING

REST OF PROCESS SIMILAR TO THAT FOR APPLE GHUTNEY

5. Tomato chutney:
Tomato 1 kg, sugar 500 gms, salt 25 gms, onion (chopped) 100 gms, ginger (chopped) 10 gms,
garlic (chopped) 5 gms, red chilli powder 10 gms, black pepper, cinnamon, cardamom (large),
aniseed, cumin (powdered) 10 gms each vinegar 100 ml and Sodium benzoate 0.5g/kg final
product.

PROCESSING FLOW-SHEET FOR TOMATO CHUTNEY

TOMATOES

WASHING

SORTING

BLANCHING FOR 2 MINUTES

PUTTING QUICKLY IN COLD WATER

PEELING

CRUSHING

ADDITION OF INGREDIENTS EXCEPT SALT AND VINEGAR

AND COOKING GENTLY TO DESIRE CONSISTANCY

ADDITION OF SALT AND VINEGAR

AND COOKING FOR 5 MINUTES

ADDITION OF PRESERVATIVES

FILLING HOT INTO BOTTLES

WORK DONE REPORT:-

EX NO:-
DATE:-
 PREPARATION OF PICKLES

Indian pickles consist of a large variety of pickled fruits and vegetables which are
marinated in oil or lemon juice and different Indian spices and salt.
Pickled items include mango, lemon, lime, cauliflower, carrot, radish, tomato, onion, pumpkin,
palm heart, lotus stem, rose petals, ginger, Indian gooseberry, garlic, green or red chili peppers
etc…
Homemade pickles are prepared in the summer and kept in the sun during daytime for at
least three weeks before use. They are stored in porcelain or glass jars with airtight lids. The
acidic nature of the marinade retards bacterial growth, and oil acts as a preservative. Pickles
retain their freshness and flavor so long as they do not come into contact with moisture.
Commercially produced pickles use preservatives like citric acid and sodium benzoate. These
pickles are not canned and must be stored in the refrigerator. They are supposed to be able to last
for 2 years, but rarely make it a whole year before being consumed.
Indian pickles come in a wide variety of flavours; thus, a mango pickle from South India
may taste very different from one made in North India. In the southern states, sesame oil is
preferred, while mustard oil is preferred in northern states for making pickles
Tomato pickle

Ingredients:
Tomatoes - 1 Kg
Haldi (optional) - 2Tsp
Garlic chopped finely - 50 Gms
Ginger chopped finely - 25 Gms
Red chilli powder - 2 Tsp
Whole dry red chillies - 4
Vinegar - 1 Cup
Sugar - 125 Gms or 1 Cup
Mustard oil or cooking oil - 1 Cup
Salt - 50 Gms
Dry Roast & Grind Coarsely:
Jeera (cumin seeds) - 50 Gms
Methi daana (fenugreek seeds) - 25 Gms

Method:
Clean tomatoes and cut into small pieces.
Chop garlic and ginger finely.
Dry roast jeera and methi seeds and grind coarsely.
Heat oil, add garlic and ginger and fry till light brown.
Break red chillies into 3-4 pieces and add to garlic and ginger.
Fry for a few seconds.
Add chopped tomatoes and cook till tender.
Keep stirring constantly.
Add sugar and cook till it dissolves.
Add vinegar, salt, haldi, freshly ground methi and jeera.
Cook for 5 minutes and Remove from fire.
Cool and fill in a clean jar

MANGO PICKLE:

How to make Mango-Pickle

Ingredients:
Raw sour mangoes – 2 No.
Red chilli powder – 1 table spoon
Salt – 2 table spoons
Mustard seeds – 1 teaspoon
fenugreek seeds(methi) – ½ teaspoon
Turmeric powder – 1 teaspoon
Asafoetida – ½ teaspoon
Preparation
Roast lightly fenugreek seeds.
Grind with mustard seeds to fine powder

Seasoning ingredients:
Oil – for seasoning – 2 tablespoons
Mustard seeds – 1 teaspoon
Turmeric powder – ½ teaspoon
Asafoetida – 1/4 teaspoon
Make Seasoning:
Heat Oil
Add Mustard seeds, Turmeric powder, Asafoetida
Cool completely before adding to pickle
Making Mango-Pickle:
Cut mangoes in your desired size pieces
Mix together mangoes, salt, red chilli powder, fenugreek and mustard powder, turmeric and
asafetida.
Mix well and fill in dry airtight bottle.
Add the cooled seasoning
Shake the bottle/mixture everyday with a dry spoon once per day for about 15 days.
Pickle is ready to eat. Serve with any dish such as snacks, rice, roti, poori etc
Lime pickle:

How to make Lime-Pickle

Ingredients:
Limes – 10 No.
Red chilli powder – 1 table spoon
Salt – 3 table spoons
fenugreek seeds(methi) – ½ teaspoon
Turmeric powder – 1 teaspoon
Asafoetida – ½ teaspoon
Preparation
Roast lightly fenugreek seeds.
Grind/pound to fine powder
Cut Limes in 4 or 8 pieces, as you wish.
Seasoning ingredients:
Oil – for seasoning – 2 tablespoons
Mustard seeds – 1 teaspoon
Turmeric powder – ½ teaspoon
Asafoetida – 1/4 teaspoon

Make Seasoning:
Heat Oil
Add Mustard seeds, Turmeric powder, Asafoetida
Cool completely before adding to pickle
Making Lime-pickle:
Mix together lime pieces, salt, red chili powder, fenugreek, turmeric and asafetida.
Add the cooled seasoning
Mix well and fill in dry airtight bottle.
Shake the bottle/mixture everyday with a dry spoon once per day for about 15 days.
Lemon Pickle is ready to eat. Serve with any dish such as snacks, rice, roti, poori etc.

Carrot pickle:
Pickled crunchy carrots make a terrific accompaniment for just about any meal. I love to eat this
Achaar (pickle) with plain rice and yogurt!

Ingredients:
1/2 kg/ 1 lb (approx) carrots, washed and patted dry
6 tbsps mustard oil (use any vegetable oil if you cannot get mustard oil)
1 tsp turmeric powder
2 tsps fennel seeds
1 tsp mustard seeds
2 tsps kalonji/ nigella
1 tsp mustard seeds
1/2 tsp fenugreek seeds
1 tsp sea salt/ salt
1 thumb-sized piece of ginger minced/ chopped very finely
Juice of 1 lime/ lemon
Preparation:
Cut the tops and tails off the carrots and then cut them into small 1/2" cubes.
Heat the oil in a deep pan, on medium heat, till very hot. Add the whole spices and fry for 30
seconds or till popping and spluttering stops.
Add the carrots, salt and ginger. Mix well. Stir often and cook till carrots are slightly soft.
Remove from fire.
When cooled slightly, add the lime/ lemon juice. Put the pickle into a sterilized jar with a tight
lid. Keep in the sun daily for 2 weeks. This will cause the pickle flavors to develop nicely.
The pickle will keep outside the refrigerator, for a month. To store longer (not more than 8
weeks) keep in the fridge. Stir the pickle with a dry spoon every few days.
Handy tip: Never put a wet spoon into a pickle

Potato pickle
Ingredients:
500 gms potatoes, slightly boiled, peeled and cut into small pieces
50 gms chili powder
Salt to taste
25 gms garlic, crushed
25 gms methi (fenugreek) seeds, powdered
4 lemons
100 gms oil
5 gms mustard seeds
4-5 red chilies
A pinch of asafoetida

Procedure:
Pat dry the potato pieces with a cloth or paper towel and place in a clean bowl; add chili powder,
salt, crushed garlic, methi seeds powder and mix well.
Heat oil in a pan; add red chilies, mustard seeds, asafoetida and pour over the potato pieces.
Finally add lemon juice; mix well and store in an air-tight container.
After 3 days, mix the mixture well and serve.
Preparation time: 20 minutes

Process for the preparation of salt-free pickled vegetables

A process for the preparation of pickles which are salt free and taste nice,
comprising adding to a vegetable such as radish, cucumber or the like, a pickling agent
consisting of strained lees obtained by the brewing of natural rice vinegar, a suitable amount of a
sweetening material and a small amount of an acid-neutralizing agent, and putting weight on the
vegetable at a cold place of about 0°-10° C.

WORK DONE REPORT:-

EX NO:-
DATE:-

PREPARATION OF SAUCES AND/OR KETCHUPS

Sauces (Ketchups):
There is no essential difference between sauce and ketchup. However, sauces are
generally thinner and contain more total solids (min. 30%) than ketchups (min. 28%). Tomato,
apple, papaya, walnut, soybean, mushroom, etc., are used for making sauces.
Sauces are of two kinds:
Thin sauces of low viscosity consisting mainly of vinegar extract of flavoring materials like
herbs and spices, and
Thick sauces:
These are highly viscous.
Sauces/ketchups are prepared from more or less the same ingredients and in the same manner as
chutney, except that the fruit or vegetable pulp or juice used is sieved after cooking to remove
the skin, seeds and stalks of the fruits, vegetables and spices and to give a smooth consistency to
the final product. However, cooking takes longer because fine pulp or juice is used.
Thin sauces:
Thin sauces mainly consist of vinegar extract of various flavoring materials like spices
and herbs. Their quality depends mostly on the piquancy of the material used.
Some sauces are matured by storing them in wooden barrels or casks. During storage, they
develop flavour and aroma. Freshly prepared products have often a raw and harsh taste and they
should, therefore, be matured by storage. For the preparation of sauces of high quality, the
spices herbs, fruits and vegetables are macerated in cold vinegar. Sometimes, they are also
prepared by boiling them in vinegar. The sauce is filtered through a fine or coarse mesh sieve of
non corrodible metal, accordingly to the quality desired.
The usual commercial practice is to prepare vinegar extracts of each kind of spice and fruit
separately, either by maceration or by boiling in vinegar and then blending these extracts suitably
before filling the sauce into barrels for subsequent maturation.
Mushrooms and Walnut ketchup sauces popularly known as ketchups are also produced
commercially. Ketchup is generally the name given to tomato sauce of thick consistency. Thick
sauces made from other fruits or vegetables are not generally called ketchups or catsups. This is
a widely accepted definition and classification.
A few typical recipes for thin sauces are given here.

1. Soya sauce:
Soya sauce is made from Soya beans. The sauce has usually a predominant saltish taste and
has a dark brown colour. It is made by cooking soybeans and wheat, and then allowing the mass
to undergo mould fermentation for 3-4 days. The moudly mass is then mixed with strong brine
(15-20%) to form a mash which is filled into wooden barrels to bring about bacteriological and
chemical changes in the presence of a high concentration of salt. In due course, a thick brown
liquid is formed. It is boiled and filtered. To the filtered liquid, molasses are added to improve
the flavour. The finished product, which is known as soya sauce, is bottled in the usual way.
Soya sauce is a highly popular product of China, Japan and the far East and it is considered not
only a relish, but also a nutritious product on account of the protein by hydrolysate of the soya
bean, which is rich in protein.
2. Worcestershire sauce:
This is another sauce which is well known in the U.K. and elsewhere in Europe. Tamarind,
which is a typical acidic material employed widely in south Indian cooking is an important
constituent of this sauce. This sauce is utilized in the preparation of cooktails also.
Tendon has recommended the following recipe for the preparation of the sauce.
Macerate tamarind in a small quantity of vinegar and filter the extract through muslin cloth.
Prepare an extract in vinegar of garlic, onion, dried, ginger, cumin, cardamom, cinnamon and
clove, and mix it with the tamarind extract. Then add essence of lemon and vanilla and also
sugar, salt, lemon juice and ethyl acetate. Place the blended mixture in a wooden barrel for
maturing over a period of about 2 months. After maturation, filter the mixture again through a
coarse sieve to get the sauce. Bottle it properly. If desired, a small quantity of caramel may be
added to the sauce to give it an attractive colour. There are various popular brands of
Worcestershire sauces in the market.
3. Mushroom ketchup (sauce):
Select dry fully grown and unbruised mushrooms of edible harmless variety. Break them into
pieces and place them in word missing with salt in a deep bowl. Sprinkle salt at the rate of 1 kg
for every 8kg of mushroom. Allow the mushroom to stand in the brine formed for 4 days, stirring
the mixture twice a day. Cook the mass gently for about 45 minutes and strain the liquor. To
every quart of the liquid, add the following ingredients:

All spices 1 teaspoonful

Pepper 1 -do-
Ginger ½ -do-
Mace ½ -do-
Clove A pinch
Cinnamon -do-

A mixture of equal quantities of cumin, cinnamon and cardamom may be used instead of all
spices.
Summer the ketchup in a pan until it is reduced to about a third of its original volume. Bottle hot.
4. Walnut ketchup (sauce):

RECIPE:
Tender, green Walnuts 100 numbers
Vinegar 2.2 litres
Chopped onions 0.45 kg
Salt 0.22 kg
Pepper corns 28 g
All spices 14 g
clove ½ teaspoonful
Nutmeg ½ teaspoonful

Instead of all spices, cumin, cinnamon and cardamom mixed in equal proportion may be
added.
Cut the Walnuts into halves. Crush them and place them in a deep jar. Place the rest of the
ingredients in the vinegar; bring the mass to a boil and pour it over the crushed walnuts. Allow
the mixture to stand for 2 weeks, stirring it daily. Draw off the separated liquid, simmer it for
about ½ hour and fill it into bottles.
1. Apple sauce:

RECIPE
Apple pulp 100 kg
Sugar 28 kg
Salt 750 gms
Red chilli powder 150 gms
Dried ginger, onion, garlic each 250 gms
Clove oil 30 ml
Cinnamon oil 10 ml
Acetic acid 1200 ml
Cardamom oil 10 ml
Malt vinegar 1200 ml
Apple essence 40 ml
Citric acid 200 gms
Sodium benzoate As required
Red color 6% solution
Preservative 50 gms
Fresh ginger, onion and garlic may be used in equivalent quantities instead oe the dried
materials. The proportion of the other ingredients may be varied to suit consumer taste. The
sauce is prepared as usual by boiling and is boiled hot.
2. Tomato sauce:

RECIPE
Tomato juice 120 kg
Sugar 9 kg
Salt 1.35 kg
Acetic acid, glacial 230 ml
Chilli powder 60 gm.
Ginger, green Not necessary
Onion, fresh, chopped 680 gm.
Clove, headless 35 gms.
Garlic dried Not necessary
Cinnamon 4 gms.
Cumin 12 gms.
Black pepper 12 gms.
Colour, red As required

Prepare the sauce by boiling as usual 26-27% total soluble solids and can it hot. Process A 2.5
cans for 45 min. in boiling water.
The sauce can also boiled by adding sodium benzoate as chemical preservative within the limits
prescribed by P.F.A.A.
The spices added in the case of tomato sauce are considerably less than in the case of tomato
ketchup.
Recipes for different sauces:

1. Apple sauce:
Apple pulp 1kg, sugar 250 gm, salt 10gm, onion (chopped) 200gms, ginger (chopped) 100
gms, garlic (chopped) 50 gms, red chilli powder 10 gms, clove (headless) 5 numbers, cinnamon,
cardamom (large), aniseed (powdered) 15 gms each, vinegar/acetic acid 50 ml and sodium
benzoate 0.7 gm/kg finished product.
PROCESSING FLOW-SHEET FOR APPLE SAUCE

WASHING

PEELING

REMOVAL OF CORE AND SEEDS

MAKING INTO FINE PULP

STRAINING OF PULP

COOKING PULP WITH 1/3 QUANTITY OF SUGAR

PUTTING SPICE BAG IN PULP AND PRESSING OCCASIONALLY

COOKING TO 1/3 OF ORIGINAL VOLUME OF PULP

REMOVAL OF SPICE BAG

ADDING REMAINING SUGAR AND SALT

COOKING TO 1/3 ITS ORIGINAL VOLUME

ADDITION OF VINEGAR/ACETIC ACID PRESERVATIVE

FILLING HOT INTO BOTTLES

CROWN CORKING

PASTEURIZATION

COOLING

STORAGE AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

2. Plum sauce:

Plum pulp 1 kg, sugar 100 gms, salt 20 gms, onion (chopped) 50 gms, ginger (chopped) 25
gms, garlic (chopped), 10 gms, red chilli powder 10 gms, clove (headless) 5 numbers, black
pepper, cardamom (large), cinnamon (powdered) 10 gms each, vinegar 40 ml and sodium
benzoate 0.7 gm/kg sauce.

PROCESSING FLOW-SHEET FOR PLUM SAUCE

PLUMS

WASHING

REMOVAL OF SEED

COOKING PULP WITH ONION AND GINGER TILL SOFT

RUBBING PULP AND STRAINING

REST OF PROCESS SIMIAR TO THAT FOR APPLE SAUCE

3. Papaya Sauce:

Papaya pulp 1kg, sugar 50gms, salt 14gms,onion(chopped) 50gms, garlic(chopped) 5gms,
ginger (chopped) 10gms, red chilli powder 5gms, hot spices 10gms, vinegar 40ml and sodium
benzoate 0.7gms per kg sauce.

PROCESSING FLOW-SHEET FOR PAPAYA SAUCE

PAPAYA

WASHING

PEELING

CUTTING INTO HALVES

REMOVAL OF SEEDS

MAKING INTO FINE PULP

STRANING OF PULP

REST OF PROCESS SIMILAR TO THAT FOR APPLE SAUCE

4. Aonla sauce:
After extraction of pulp, the recipe and procedure for preparation of Aonla sauce are similar to
that for tomato sauce. Tomato pulp of high lycopene content may be mixed with Aonla pulp to
give a better colour to the sauce.

PROCESSING FLOW-SHEET FOR AONLA SAUCE

AONLA

WASHING

BOILING FOR 25-30 MINUTES

SEPERATION INTO SEGMENTS AND REMOVAL OF SEED

ADDITION OF DOUBLE ITS WEIGHT OF WATER

PULP EXTRACTION

STRAINING

REST OF PROCESS SIMILAR TO THAT FOR TOMATO SAUCE

WORK DONE REPORT:-