RESEARCH ARTICLE

Application of remote sensing and GIS analysis for identifying

groundwater potential zone in parts of Kodaikanal Taluk,
South India
Murugesan BAGYARAJ
1
, Thirunavukkarasu RAMKUMAR()
1
,
Senapathi VENKATRAMANAN()
1
, Balasubramanian GURUGNANAM
2
1 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar 608002, India
2 Department of Geology, Gandhigram Rural Institute, Deemed University, Gandhigarm 624302, India
Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012
Abstract Groundwater potential zones were demarcated
with the help of remote sensing and Geographic Informa-
tion System (GIS) techniques. The study area is composed
rocks of Archaean age and charnockite dominated over
others. The parameters considered for identifying the
groundwater potential zone of geology slope, drainage
density, geomorphic units and lineament density were
generated using the resource sat (IRS P6 LISS IV MX)
data and survey of India (SOI) toposheets of scale 1:50000
and integrated them with an inverse distance weighted
(IDW) model based on GIS data to identify the ground-
water potential of the study area. Suitable weightage
factors were assigned for each category of these para-
meters. For the various geomorphic units, weightage
factors were assigned based on their capability to store
ground-water. This procedure was repeated for all the other
layers and resultant layers were reclassied. The reclassi-
ed layers were then combined to demarcate zones as very
good, good, moderate, low, and poor. This groundwater
potentiality information could be used for effective
identication of suitable locations for extraction of potable
water for rural populations.
Keywords remote sensing, GIS, slope, geomorphic,
lineament, Kodaikanal
1 Introduction
Groundwater is said to be vitally important for drinking,
irrigation, and domestic use. Groundwater is a form of
water occupying all the voids within a geological stratum.
Water bearing formations of the earths crust act as
conduits for transmission and as reservoirs for storing
water. The groundwater occurrence in a geological
formation and the scope for its exploitation primarily
depends on the formation of porosity. High relief and steep
slopes impart higher runoff, while topographical depres-
sions increase inltration. An area of high drainage density
also increases surface runoff compared to a low drainage
density area. Surface water bodies like rivers, ponds, etc.,
can act as recharge zones, enhancing the groundwater
potential in the neighborhood (Karanth, 1987; Hrkal, 1992,
2001; Sujatha and Rajeswara Reddy, 2003; Rai et al.,
2005; Subramani et al. 2005; Mathes and Rasmussen,
2006; El-Hames et al., 2011; Rekha et al., 2011;
Anithamary et al., 2012; Magesh et al., 2012; Venkatra-
manan et al., 2012). Hence, identication and quantization
of these features are important for generating a ground-
water potential model of a study area. The different
hydrogeological themes were used to identify the ground-
water potential zone of the present study. Chi and Lee
(1994), Krishnamurthy et al. (1996) and Ramkumar et al.
(2011) successfully used remote sensing and Geographic
Information System (GIS) in a diverse geological setup for
the demarcation of groundwater potential zones in
Kochang, Korea, and Marudaiyar river basin, Tamilnadu,
India, respectively. Analysis of remotely sensed data along
the survey of India (SOI) topographical sheets and
collateral information with necessary ground truth veri-
cations help in generating the baseline information for
groundwater targeting. Sankar (2002), Lokesha et al.
(2005), and Rai et al. (2005) found that identication of
groundwater occurrence location using remote sensing
data is based on indirect analysis of directly observable
Received April 2, 2012; accepted November 2, 2012
E-mail: tratrj@gmail.com, venkatramanansenapathi@gmail.com
Front. Earth Sci.
DOI 10.1007/s11707-012-0347-6
terrain features like geological structures, geomorphology,
and their hydrologic characteristics. Bahuguna et al. (2003)
found that lineaments play signicant role in groundwater
exploration particularly in hard rock terrain.
Srinivasa and Jugran (2003) have applied GIS for
processing and interpretation of groundwater quality data.
GIS has also been considered for multicriteria analysis in
resource evaluation. Mohammed et al. (2003) have carried
out hydrogeomorphological mapping using remote sensing
techniques for water resource management around paleo-
channels. GIS has been applied to groundwater potential
modeling by Rokade et al. (2007). The use of remote
sensing and GIS tools to extract detailed drainage, slope,
and geomorphic features in parts of Kodaikanal Taluk
suggests appropriate methods for groundwater potential
zone studies. The aim of this study is to nd out the
suitable groundwater potential zone and way of proper
groundwater management and identify the groundwater
potential zones through recent scientic approaches of
remote sensing and GIS techniques.
2 Study area
2.1 General setting
The present study area is located in the Dindigul district of
Kodaikanal hill, which is a mountainous terrain in the
Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu with an area of 1039.46 km
2
.
It is geographically located between 77 14 26 and
77 45 28 E longitudes, and 10 6 25 and 10 26 54 N
latitudes. In the Survey of India toposheet, it forms part of
58 F/07, 08, 11, and 12 on 1: 50000 scale. It is
characterized by humid conditions in the study area.
Relative humidity is high during the retreating Northeast
(NE) monsoon season (October to Mid December). The
mean temperature of Kodaikanal Taluk is 15.93C with a
mean summer (June, July, and August) temperature of
17.29C and mean winter (December, January and
February) temperature of 14.10C. The average annual
precipitation is 1436.87 mm. The study area is mainly
covered by hills and the plain area forms a small part. The
hilly area is in the form of undulating terrain and slope
towards south-southeast and east. The maximum elevation
is 2517 m, located in the southwest portion. The study area
is rich in biodiversity and has a variety of endemic shola
forests (pine tree). The area has been inhabited from
prehistoric times and there are tribes still living there in the
ancient way. Labor intensive tea and coffee plantations and
extensive vegetable cultivation mark the place.
2.2 Geology
The geology of the study area mainly composed of
charnockite and pink granites.
The geological sequences of the rock are observed as
mentioned below:
Recent and sub recentBlack humus soil, laterite and
lithomorgic clay.
ArcheanPegmatite, quartz veins and pink granite.
Feldspathic gneiss(leptynitictype) , Charnockite Pyr-
oxene granulite, Calc-granulite.
The Charnockite rocks in the Kodaikanal hills have been
intensely altered resulting in the formation of laterite and
lithomorgic clays. This is due to the intensive tropical
conditions of the area and extensive laterisation of the
parent rock. During heavy precipitation in rainy seasons,
the capping laterite and clay materials have been eroded to
down side thereby, contributing to the denudation of the
plateau. In the Kodaikanal hill ranges, a brown colored
humus material is found overlaying the lateritic material.
2.3 Hydrogeology
The major part of the study area is underlain by an
Archaean crystalline metamorphic complex. The important
aquifer systems encountered in this district are classied
into: i) Fissured, fractured, and weathered crystalline
formations consisting of charnockites, granite gneisses and
ii) Valley ll sediments (unconsolidated sediments)
comprised of clay, sand, silt, and kankar (CGWB, 2008).
The aquifer is under semi to conned conditions in deeper
fracture zones. The shallow as well as deeper wells have a
common groundwater level. The water in the Archaean is
under semi to conned nature. The general water level of
the study area varied from 0.12 to 13.10 m bgl. The general
details of the transmissivity and specic yield of the study
area were <1 to 110 m
3
/day and 1.5%, respectively.
3 Methodology
The base map was prepared by using survey of India
toposheet nos. 58 F/07, 08, 11, and 12 on a 1: 50000 scale
and IRS P6 LISS IV MX satellite data. GIS and remote
sensing technology was applied to prepare various
thematic maps with reference to groundwater like drainage
density, lineament density, geomorphology and slope. It
was classify the inverse distance weighted (IDW) model
and its ranking has been used to evaluate suitable
groundwater potential zone. These thematic maps are in
turn assigned ranks and weights to analyze in the GIS
domain. All the thematic layers were overlaid by using GIS
to nd the nal integrated output of groundwater potential
zones (Fig. 1). In the present study, geomorphology, slope,
drainage density, and lineament density have been
considered for the identication of groundwater potential
zones.
2 Front. Earth Sci.
4 Results and discussion
4.1 Geology and geomorphology
The geology of the study area (Fig. 2) mainly composed of
charnockite (837.90 km
2
) and granitic gneisses (195.58
km
2
) occurred in the southeastern part. The other type of
rock, namely anorthosite and laterite, are distributed in the
northeastern part of the study area. The geomorphic
features were interpreted from IRS P6 LISS IV data and
consist of dissected plateau, structural hill, structural
valley, valley ll, and pediment. These dissected plateaus
occupy nearly 24.84% of total study area. Pediments
shows broad gently sloping erosion surface and plain of
low relief, in an arid or semiarid region at the base of an
abrupt and receding mountain front; they are underlain by
bedrock this pediment are occupying nearly 8.41%of total
study area (Fig. 3). Structural hills covered in almost all the
parts of the study area and are delineated based on the
image characteristics valley lls are delineated with the
help of satellite imagery. More vegetation cover was found
in valley ll areas. These distinct geomorphic features
result from the complexity of geomorphic evolution. The
distribution and extent of these geomorphic zones vary
from place to place. Similar observations were made by
Leblanc et al. (2007).
4.2 Slope
Slope is also a crucial parameter for occurrence and
recharging conditions of groundwater in a particular area.
The slope is measured in degrees (Dawoud et al., 2005;
Vittala et al., 2005; Solomon and Quiel, 2006). A layout
grid of 2 cm was prepared and overlaid on the topographic
map, and the average slopes were delineated. General
slope track is in the NESW direction of the study area.
Steeper the slope, greater will be the runoff and thus, lesser
is the groundwater recharge. A digital elevation model
(DEM) is derived using contour information from the
topographical map for estimation of slope in degrees. The
various slope classes and their spatial distribution map is
shown in Fig. 4. In the study area, slope varies from 0 to
more than 30. The entire slope map is divided into ve
categories as follows:
0 10: Gently sloping
10 20: Moderately sloping
20 25: Moderate steep sloping
25 30: Steep sloping
>30: Very steeply sloping
4.3 Lineament and lineament density
In hard rock terrain the storage and movement of
groundwater is mainly controlled by secondary porosity,
i.e., presence of lineaments and fractures. Lineament study
of the area from remotely sensed data provides important
information on sub-surface fractures that may control the
movement and storage of the groundwater. Subsurface
permeability is a function of fracture density of rocks
(Mnch and Conrad, 2007; Vijith, 2007). Hence, the
identication of lineaments in the hard rock terrain from
the satellite data possesses more importance. Most of the
lineaments are identied with the anomalies associated
with features like straight drainage course, vegetation
pattern, topography, etc. The study area is crisscrossed by
major and minor lineaments. They vary in length from few
meters to kilometers in dimension. The general trend
shown (Fig. 5) by the lineaments present in the study area
are NNESSW and NESW.
The study of lineament density may help to identify the
weathered zones in an area; this is very essential in the
studies relating to groundwater exploration, soil erosion,
landslides, etc. The lineament density map of present study
area was prepared by interpretation of satellite data.
The lineament map, which was prepared on 150000
scale, was overlayed by a 2 cm grid sheet. The total length
of the lineament in each grid was noted down and the
process was repeated for all the grids covering the study
area. By carefully examining the values obtained, the data
were grouped into four classes as low (lineament density
less than 1000 m/km
2
, moderate (10002000 m/km
2
), high
(20003000 m/km
2
) and very high ( >3000 m/km
2
). Iso-
lines were drawn for these values to prepare the lineament
density map as shown in Fig. 6.
4.4 Drainage and drainage density
Drainage pattern reects surface characteristics as well as
subsurface formation. Drainage density (in terms of
km/km
2
) indicates closeness of spacing of channels as
well as the nature of surface material (Prasad et al., 2008).
The greater the drainage density, the higher would be
Fig. 1 Flow chart of the present study
Murugesan BAGYARAJ et al. Remote sensing and GIS analysis for groundwater 3
runoff. Thus, the drainage density characterizes the runoff
in an area or in other words, the quantum of relative
rainwater that could have inltrated. Hence, the lesser the
drainage density, the higher is the probability of recharge
Fig. 2 Geology of the study area
Fig. 3 Spatial distribution map of geomorphological features of the study area
4 Front. Earth Sci.
or potential groundwater zone. As mentioned earlier, most
of the drainage originates from the NESW of the area
(Fig. 7). The drainage pattern, in general, is dendritic,
typical of granitic terrain. The drainage density in the area
Fig. 4 Spatial distribution map of slope
Fig. 5 Map showing lineament trend of the study area
Murugesan BAGYARAJ et al. Remote sensing and GIS analysis for groundwater 5
has been calculated after digitization of the entire drainage pattern and shown in Fig. 8. The high drainage density
Fig. 6 Spatial distribution map of lineament density
Fig. 7 Map showing drainage map of the study area
6 Front. Earth Sci.
areas indicate a low-inltration rate whereas the low-
density areas are favorable with a high- inltration rate
(Saha et al., 2010, Vasanthavigar et al., 2011).
4.5 Assigning rank and weightages
There are several methodologies to locate and map the
occurrence and distribution of groundwater. This study
mainly focused on the utility of high resolution satellite
imagery to identify and delineate surface features more
accurately. This method provides a more efcient way of
mapping of groundwater potential zones than those of the
conventional methods and yields better results (Krishan-
murthy et al., 1996). Remote sensing serves as the
preliminary inventory method to understand groundwater
potential and helps in delineating areas where further
explorations need to be taken up through hydrogeological
and geophysical methods. In addition, the advantage of
using remote sensing techniques together GPS in a single
platform and integration of GIS techniques facilitated
better data analysis and their interpretations.
Different ranks and weightages were assigned from the
IDW model to relevant geo-system parameters. Depending
on the relative importance of in groundwater exploration,
the themes were assigned specic weights as indicated. For
assigning the ranks, the slope and geomorphology were
assigned higher ranks, whereas the lineament density and
drainage density were assigned lower ranks. After assign-
ing ranks (maximum weightages) to the different geo-
system parameters, individual weightages were given for
sub variables of the above main four geo-system
parameters. Similarly, various weightages were assigned
to the individual sub variable of each geo-system
parameter. In this process, the GIS layers on lineament
density, geomorphology, and slope and drainage density
were analyzed carefully and weightages were assigned to
each of their sub variables (Butler et al 2002; Skubon,
2005; Asadi et al., 2007; Yammani, 2007). GIS layers of
four geo-system parameters holding nal weightages of
each parameter were also added and nally the study area
was divided into different groundwater potential zones
based on the added weightages.
The weightages of individual theme and feature scores
were xed and added to the layers depending upon their
suitability to hold groundwater (Table 1). This process is
most commonly known as multi-criteria evaluation.
Several methods are available for determining interclass/
inter-map dependency; a probability weighted approach
has been adopted that allows a linear combination of
probability weights of each thematic map (Wt) and
different categories of derived thematic maps have been
assigned scores (Wi), depending upon their suitability to
hold groundwater. The maximum value is given to the
feature with highest groundwater potentiality and the
minimum given to the lowest potential feature. The
procedure of weighted linear combination dominates in
raster based GIS software systems. The spatial analyst
extension of ArcGIS (Ver.9.3) was used for converting the
Fig. 8 Spatial distribution map of drainage density
Murugesan BAGYARAJ et al. Remote sensing and GIS analysis for groundwater 7
features to raster and also for nal analysis. In this method,
the total weights of the nal integrated map were derived
as sum or product of the weights assigned to the different
layers according to their suitability. Finally, the panchayath
wise groundwater condition was assessed by superimpos-
ing the panchayath map over the groundwater potential
zone map.
The thematic maps such as lineament density, geomor-
phology and slope, drainage density layer maps were
integrated by GIS platform. The landforms such as
structural valley and valley lls were given the highest
weightage factors followed by plateau plains. Lower
values were assigned for moderately sloping lands and
for other geomorphic classes like structural hills and
pediments, which little chance for groundwater storage. As
far as slope is concerned, the highest weightage value was
assigned for the gentle slope category; low weightage
values were assigned for moderate slope classes, followed
by moderately steep slope classes. Least values were
assigned for steep slopes and very steep slopes. The higher
weightage factors were assigned to very low drainage
density category. The very low drainage density factors
favor more inltration than surface runoff. This category
was given higher weightage values. Low drainage density
classes are given lower values followed by moderate
density classes, and least values were assigned for higher
drainage density. Among the various lineament density
classes, the very high lineament density category was
assigned higher weightage values as this category has
greater chance for groundwater inltration. Lower values
were assigned for higher lineament density classes and still
lower values were assigned for the moderate density class
and the least value was assigned for low drainage density
class (Skidmore et al., 1997; Jaiswal et al., 2003; Tjandra et
al., 2003; Pius et al., 2012).
The slope map was added with landform units of
geomorphology. The resultant layer was stored as a
separate layer and reclassied according to the values of
each cell. This procedure was repeated for all the other
layers and resultant layers were reclassied. The reclassi-
ed layers were then combined to demarcate zones
showing very good zone, good zone, moderate zone,
low, and poor zone. The output of this procedure is shown
in Table 2. The study area is covered by 16 villages within
Kodaikanal Taluk and the high groundwater potential zone
falls in Kodaikanal, Vilpatti, Periyur, Kallar RF, Karungal-
Table 1 Thematic map rank and weightages
Parameters
Classes Rank Weightages
Geology
Charnockite
10
3
Granitic gneiss 2
Laterite 1
Anorthosite 1
Geomorphology units
Dissected plateau
20
3
Pediment 2
Structural hill 1
Structural valley 3
Valley ll 3
Drainage density
Very low
5
3
Low 2
Moderate 2
High 1
Very high 1
Lineament density
Low
30
1
Moderate 1
High 2
Very high 3
Slope
0 10 (Gentile slope)
35
3
10 20 ( Moderate slope) 2
20 25 (Moderate steep slope) 2
25 30 (Steep slope) 1
>30 ( Very steep slope) 1
8 Front. Earth Sci.
Dhonimedu block, Adukkam block, and Iruttrkanal block.
Pambar block is considered as I priority zone; Umayar
block, Palani upper shoal R.F, Marudanadar block, and
Vannilai block are considered as II priority zones, and
Kudirayar block, Pumbaraipatti block, and Oliyanuttuodai
block as III priority zones.
In the study area (Fig. 9), slope and lineaments play a
signicant role in groundwater potentiality. Lineaments,
particularly joints, fractures, and their intersection
enhances the potential of hydro-geomorphic units. Study
areas having high lineament density are good for ground-
water development. The lineaments mapped from the
satellite images cut across slope categories and litho-units,
thereby indicating the possibility of acting as major
conduits for subsurface movement and linear aquifer for
the storage of water. It has been observed in the eld and
from the groundwater potential map that the gentler slope
has more potential for groundwater.
5 Conclusions
The present study was to understand the groundwater
potential zone in Kodikanal and pictorially represent it
using GIS. GIS is an effective tool for storing large
volumes of data that can be correlated spatially and
retrieved for the IDW spatial model and is able to take
temporal changes into account and to provide the nal,
more reliable, and current version of outputs (Hrkal, 2001).
Moreover, GIS makes the groundwater potential zone into
an easily understood format. Identifying potential ground-
water zones and integrating the thematic maps prepared
from platforms of remote sensing and GIS gives more and
accurate results. From the present study, the slope area of
Table 2 Groundwater potential zones of the study area
S. No Potential zones Total area of the potential zones/km
2
1 Very good groundwater potential zone priorityI 17.70
2 Good groundwater potential zone priorityI 389.9
3 Moderate groundwater potential zone priorityII 557.01
4 Low groundwater potential zone priorityIII 71.46
5 Poor groundwater potential zone 3.23
Fig. 9 Groundwater potential zone map of the study area
Murugesan BAGYARAJ et al. Remote sensing and GIS analysis for groundwater 9
010, lineament density of >3000 and structural valley,
valley lls, dissected plateau and denudational slope is
found to be good zone for groundwater exploration and
development and it occupies 39.17% of the area. These
zones should be concentrated for the future watershed
development activities. Thus the above present study has
capabilities of a remote sensing and GIS technique of
groundwater potential zones in Kodikanal. This vital
information could be used effectively for identication of
suitable locations for extraction of potable water for rural
populations. The current multiparametric approach using
GIS and remote sensing is holistic in nature and will
minimize the time and cost especially for identifying
groundwater-potential zones and suitable site-specic
recharge structures in hard rock terrain on a regional as
well as local scale, thus enabling quick decision-making
for water management.
Acknowledgements We express our sincere thanks to UGC, Government
of India for extending the nancial support to carry out this work. The authors
are grateful to two anonymous referees for their constructive comments and
suggestions which led to signicant improvements to the manuscript.
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Murugesan Bagyaraj obtained his M.Sc.
degree in applied geology from Annamalai
University, India. Now he is a Ph.D.
candidate in the Department of Earth
Sciences, Annamalai University. His
research interest focuses on hydrogeology,
remote-sensing and GIS in Kodaikanal,
South India. E-mail: geobagya25@gmail.
com.
Thirunavukkarasu Ramkumar obtained
his B.Sc., M.Sc., M.Sc (Hydrology), M.
Phil., Ph.D degree from Annamalai Uni-
versity, respectively, M.Sc. (Environmental
Science) from Nottingham University, UK.
Now he is a Professor and Head in
Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai
University, India. His expertise is in the area
of environmental geochemisty, hydrogeol-
ogy, sedimentology and remote-sensing and GIS. Prof. Ramkumar
has published more than 30 peer-reviewed research articles in his
research area. E-mail: tratrj@gmail.com.
Senapathi Venkatramanan obtained his
B.Sc. degree in geology from Madurai
Kamaraj University, India; M.Sc. (Applied
Geology), M.Sc. (Geoinformatics), M.Phil.
degrees in applied geology from Annamalai
University, India. Now he is a Ph.D.
candidate in the Department of Earth
Sciences, Annamalai University, India. His
research interest focuses on environmental
geochemisty, sedimentology, hydrogeology, remote-sensing and GIS
in Tirumalairajan estuary, India. He has published more than 20 peer-
reviewed research articles in his research area E-mail: venkatrama-
nansenapathi@gmail.com.
Balasubramanian Gurugnanam obtained
his B.Sc., M.Sc., M.Tech. degrees from
Bharathidasan University, India, M.Phil.
degree from Madras University, India,
M.Sc. degree from Salzburg University
and Ph.D. degree from Annamalai Univer-
sity, India, respectively. Now he is a Director
in Centre for Applied Geology, Gandhigram
Rural University, India. His expertise is in
the area of remote-sensing and GIS and hydrogeology. Prof.
Gurugnanam has published more than 30 peer-reviewed research
articles in his research area. E-mail: gurugis@yahoo.co.in.
Murugesan BAGYARAJ et al. Remote sensing and GIS analysis for groundwater 11