PART1 INTRODUCTION

2-1 The data sheets of a switching device specify the following switching ties co!!esponding to
the linea!i"ed cha!acte!istics shown in #ig$2-%& fo! claped-ind'ctive switchings(
ns t
ri
1)) =
ns t
fv
*) =
ns t
rv
1)) =
ns t
fi
2)) =
Calc'late and plot the switching powe! loss as a f'nction of f!e+'ency in a !ange of 2*-1)),-"$
ass'ing .)) =
d
V / and 0 =
o
I A in the ci!c'it of #ig$2-%a$
2-2 Conside! the !esistive-switching ci!c'it shown in #ig$P2-2$ .)) =
d
V /$ 1)) =
s
f ,-" and
R12*$so that the on-state c'!!ent is the sae as in P!o&le 2-1$Ass'e the switch t'!n-on tie
to &e the s' of
rv
t and
fv
t
in P!o&le 2-1$3iila!ly ass'e the t'!n-off tie to &e the s' of
rv
t and
fv
t
$
Ass'ing linea! voltage and c'!!ent-switching cha!acte!istics $plot the switch voltage and
c'!!ent and switching powe! loss as a f'nction of tie$Copa!e the ave!age powe! loss with that
in P!o&le 2-1$
PART 2 45N5RIC PO65R 575CTRONIC CIRCUIT3
*-1 In the &asic ci!c'it of #ig$*-.a8
s
V 112)/ at %)-"8 711)-8and R1*$Calc'late and plot
the c'!!ent i along with
s
v $
*-2 In the &asic ci!c'it of #ig$*-0a8
s
V 112)/ at %)-"8 711)-8and
d
V 11*)/$Calc'late and
plot the c'!!ent i along with
s
v $
*-. The voltage v ac!oss a load and the c'!!ent i into the positive-pola!ity te!inal a!e as
follows9whe!e
1
and
.
a!e not e+'al:(
: cos9 2 : sin9 2 : cos9 2 : 9
. . 1 1 1 1
t V t V t V V t v
d
+ + + = /
: cos9 2 : cos9 2 : 9
. . . 1
+ + = t I t I I t i
i d
A
Calc'late the following(
9a: The ave!age powe! P s'pplied to the load
9&: The !s val'e of : 9t v and : 9t i
9c: The powe! facto! at which the load is ope!ating
3IN475-P-A35 R5CTI#I5R3
*-0 In the single-phase diode !ectifie! ci!c'it shown in #ig$*-%a with "e!o
L
8and a constant dc
c'!!ent 1) =
d
I A8 calc'late the ave!age powe! s'pplied to the load (
9a: If
s
v is a sin'soidal voltage with 12) =
s
V / at %) -"
9&: If
s
v has the p'lse wavefo! shown in #ig$P*-0
*-* Conside! the &asic co'tation ci!c'it of #ig$*-11a with 1) =
d
I A$
9a:6ith 12) =
s
V / at %)-" and ) =
s
L 8calc'late
d
V and the ave!age powe!
d
P $
9&:6ith 12) =
s
V / at %)-" and ) =
s
L -8 calc'late u 8
d
V 8and
d
P $
9c: -e!e
s
v has a %)--" s+'a!e wavefo! with an aplit'de of 2))/8and
s
L 1*-$Plot the
s
i wavefo! and calc'late u 8
d
V 8and
d
P $
9d: Repeat pa!t 9c: if
s
v has the p'lse wavefo! shown in #ig$P*-0$
*-% In the siplified single-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it shown in #ig$*-%& with ) =
s
L and a constant
dc c'!!ent
d
I 8o&tain the ave!age and the !s val'es of the c'!!ent th!o'gh each diode as a !atio
of
d
I $
*-2 In the single-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it of #ig$*-2)8ass'e the ac-side ipedance to &e negligi&le$
Instead8 an ind'ctance
d
L is placed &etween the !ectifie! o'tp't and filte! capacito!$ De!ive the
ini' val'e of
d
L in te!s of
s
V 8

8and
d
I that will !es'lt in a contin'o's
d
i ass'ing
that the !ipple in
d
v is negligi&le$
*-; In the single-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it shown in #ig$*-10a8
s
V 112)/ at %)-"8
s
L 11-8 and
d
I 11)A$ Calc'late u 8
d
V 8and
d
P $6hat is the pe!centage voltage d!op in
d
V d'e to
s
L <
*-= Repeat P!o&le *-; $
9a: If
s
v has a %)--" s+'!e wavefo! with an aplit'de of 2))/
9&: If
s
v has the p'lse wavefo! shown in #ig$P*-0
*-1) In the single-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it of #ig$ *-1%a8
s
L 11- and
d
V 11%)/$ The inp't
voltage
s
v has the p'lse wavefo! shown in #ig$P*-0$ Plot
s
i and
d
i wavefo!s$9-int(
s
i
and
d
i flow discontin'o'sly$:
*-11 In the single-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it of #ig$ *-1%a8
s
V 112)/ at %)-" 8
s
L 11- and
d
V
11*)/$ Calc'late the wavefo! fo!
d
i shown in #ig$ *-1%c and indicate the val'es of
b
8
f

8
and
peak d
I
$
$Also calc'late the ave!age val'e
d
I $
*-12 Using the >AT7A? p!o&le listing in the Appendi@ at the end of this chapte!8calc'late
d
V
and
d
P in the 5@aple *-1$ Copa!e the !es'lts with the plot in #ig$ *-22$
*-1. The single-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it of 5@aple *-2 with = 0 $ )
s
R is s'pplying a load of
1A6$ >odify the &asic P3pice inp't listed in Appendi@ at the end of this chapte! fo! 5@aple *-2
to o&tain the plot of the
d
v wavefo!$ Its ave!age val'e
d
V 8 and its pea,-to-pea, !ipple it the
load is !ep!esented as(
9a: A&so!&ing a constant instantaneo's powe! : 9t P
d
11A6$9-int(Rep!esent the load &y a
voltage-dependent c'!!ent so'!ce8 fo! e@aple$8 'sing the stateent 4DC * %
/A7U51B1)))$)C/*%D$:
9&: A constant e+'ivalent !esistance that a&so!&s 1A6 &ased on
d
V in pa!t9a:
9c: A dc c'!!ent so'!ce
d
I that a&so!&s 1A6 &ased on
d
V in pa!t9a:
Copa!e the pea,-to-pea, !ipple in the dc o'tp't voltage fo! these th!ee types of load
!ep!esentations$
*-10 In the single-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it of #ig$*-%& with
d d
I i = 8o&tain the T-D8DP#8P#8and C#$
*-1* Using the >AT7A? p!og!a in P!o&le *-128calc'late o&tain the T-D8DP#8P#8and C#$
*-1% In the single-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it of #ig$*-2)$ 12) =
s
V / at %)-"8 2 =
s
L -8
= 0 $ )
s
R 8and the instantaneo's load powe! 1 : 9 = t p
d
,6$ Using P3pice8eval'ate the effect
of the dc-side filte! capacitance &y plotting the T-D8DP#8P# and
: 9 peak peak d
V

fo! the
following val'es of
d
C (2))8*))81))8and 1*))
F
$
*-12 The gene!ali"ed !es'lts fo! the T-D8DP# and P# a!e p!esented in #igs$*-1; and *-1= fo!
single-phase !ectifie!s and in #igs$*-.2 and *-.; fo! th!ee-phase !ectifie!s$ 3how that ass'ing the
dc side of the !ectifie! to &e !ep!esented &y a p'!ely dc voltage so'!ce allows 's to p!esent the
!es'lts in a gene!ali"ed anne! as a f'nction of
circuit short d
I I C
$
*-1; Calc'late the voltage disto!tion at the point of coon co'pling in the ci!c'it of #ig$*-
2*$-e!e 12) =
s
V / at %)-"$ 1
2 1
= =
s s
L L -$and the dc side of the !ectifie! is !ep!esented &y
a dc c'!!ent so'!ce of 1)A$
3IN475-P-A35 /O7TA45 EDOU?75 AND >IDPOINT R5CTI#I5R3
*-1= Conside!s the voltage-do'&le! ci!c'it of #ig$*-228whe!e 12) =
s
V / at %)-"8 1 =
s
L -8
F C C 1)))
2 1
= = 8and the load is !ep!esented &y a dc c'!!ent so'!ce of 1)A$Use P3pice$
9a: O&tain
1 c
v 8
2 c
v 8and
d
v wavefo!s$
9&: O&tain
: 9 peak peak d
V

as a !atio of
d
V $
9c: Copa!e with the !es'lt in pa!t9&: if a single-phase8f'll-&!idge !ectifie! is 'sed with
20) =
s
V /8 1 =
s
L -8 F C
d
*)) = 8and a load of 1)A$
*-2) A idpoint !ectifie! is shown in #ig$P*-2)8whe!e we ass'e the t!ansfo!e! to &e ideal and
the dc-side load to &e !ep!esented &y a c'!!ent so'!ce$ Calc'late the volt-ape!e !ating of the
t!ansfo!e! as a !atio of the ave!age powe! s'pplied to the load$
T-R55-P-A358 #OUR-6IR5 3F3T5>38 N5UTRA7 CURR5NT
*-21 In the th!ee-phase8 fo'!-wi!e syste of #ig$*-2;8 all single-phase !ectifie! loads a!e identical
and the conditions a!e s'ch that each line c'!!ent flows lee than %0 d'!ing each half-cycle of the
line-to ne't!al voltage$ 3how that in te!s of thei! !s val'es
line n
I I . = $
*-22 6!ite a P3pice inp't ci!c'it file and e@ec'te it to o&tain the !es'lts of 5@aple *-%$
T-R55-P-A35 R5CTI#I5R3
*-2. In the siplified th!ee-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it of #ig$*-.1a8o&tain the ave!age and the !s
val'es of c'!!ent th!o'gh each diode as a !atio of the dc-side c'!!ent
d
I $
*-20 #o! siplification in the th!ee-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it of #ig$*-.*a8 ass'e the co'nication
voltages to &e inc!easing linea!ly !athe! than sin'soidally$
9a: O&tain the e@p!ession fo! u $ following a de!ivation siila! to that of 5+$*-;2$
9&: #o! 2); =
LL
V / at %)-"8 2 =
s
L -8 and 1) =
d
I A8 copa!e the !es'lts f!o the
e@p!ession in pa!t9a: and 5+$*-;2$
*-2* Using Pspice in 5@aple *-28 eval'ation the effect of the filte! capacitance on
: 9 peak peak d
V

$ T-D$ DP#$ and P# fo! the following val'es of

d
C (22)8 **)8 11))8 1*))8and
22))
F
$
*-2% In the th!ee-phase !ectifie! ci!c'it of #ig$*-.)8 ass'e the ac-side ind'ctance
s
L to &e
negligi&le$ Instead8 an ind'ctance
d
L is placed &etween the !ectifie! o'tp't and the filte!
capacito!$ De!ive the ini' val'e of
d
L in te!s of
LL
V 8 8 and
d
I that will !es'lt in a
contin'o's
d
i 8 ass'ing that the !ipple in
d
v is negligi&le$
*-22 Using #o'!ie! analysis8 p!ove 5+s$ *-%= th!o'gh *-2. fo! th!ee-phase !ectifie!s$
*-2; Using P3pice8 this p!o&le is intended to copa!e the pe!fo!ance of single-phase !ectifie!s
with th!ee-phase !ectifie!s in te!s of the T-D8 DP#8 P#8 and
: 9 peak peak d
V

while s'pplying
the sae load$ In the ci!c'its of #igs$ *-2) and *-.)8 12) =
s
V / and 2); =
LL
V /8
!espectively8 at %)-"$ Ass'e 1 =
s
L - and = 2 $ )
s
R $ The instantaneo's load is constant
at * ,68 as e@eplified in P!o&le *-1.9a:$ The filte! capacito!
d
C has a val'e of 11))
F
in
the single-phase !ectifie!$ Choose its val'e in the th!ee-phase !ectifie! to p!ovide the sae ave!age
ene!gy sto!age as in the single-phase case$
*-2= 5val'ation the effect of 'n&alanced voltages on the c'!!ent wavefo!s in a th!ee-phase
!ectifie!$ In the syste of 5@aple *-28 ass'e 11) =
an
V / and 12) = =
cn bn
V V /$ Using
P3pice8 o&tain the inp't c'!!ent wavefo!s and thei! ha!onic coponents$
INRU3- CURR5NT3
*-.) In the single-phase !ectifie! of 5@aple *-28 o&tain the a@i' in!'sh c'!!ent and the
co!!esponding instant of switching with initial capacito! voltage e+'al to "e!o$
*-.1 In the th!ee-phase !ectifie! of 5@aple *-28 o&tain the a@i' in!'sh c'!!ent and the
co!!esponding instant of switching with initial capacito! voltage e+'al to "e!o$
%-1 In the ci!c'it of #ig$P%-18
1 s
v and
2 s
v have an !s val'e of 12)/ at %) -"8 and the two a!e
1;) o't of phase$ Ass'e mH L
s
* = and =
d
I 1)A is a dc c'!!ent$ #o! the following two
val'es of the delay angle 8 o&tain
1 s
v 8
1 s
i and
d
v wavefo!s$ Calc'late the ave!age val'e
d
V and the co'tation inte!val ' at 9a: 0* and 9&: 1.* $
%-2 In the ci!c'it of #ig$P%-28 the &alanced th!ee-phase voltage
a
v 8
b
v and
c
v have an !s
val'e of 12) / at %) -"$ Ass'e mH L
s
* = and =
d
I 1)A is a dc c'!!ent$ #o! the following
two val'es of the delay angle 8 o&tain
a
v 8
a
i and
d
v wavefo!s$ Calc'late the ave!age val'e
d
V and the co'tation inte!val ' at 9a: 0* and 9&: 1.* $
%-. In the single-phase conve!te! of #ig$%-*8 the inp't voltage has a s+'a!e wavefo! with
aplit'de of 2)) / at a f!e+'ency of %) -"$ Ass'e =
d
I 1) A$ O&tain an analytical e@p!ession
fo!
d
V in te!s of
s
V 8
d
I and $ O&tain the
d
v wavefo! and its ave!age val'e
d
V fo!
e+'al to 0* and 1.* $
%-0 In the single-phase conve!te! of #ig$%-=8 the inp't voltage has a s+'a!e wavefo! with
aplit'de of 2)) / at a f!e+'ency of %) -"$ Ass'e mH L
s
. = and =
d
I 1)A$
9a: O&tain an analytical e@p!ession fo! ' and
d
V in te!s of
s
V 8
s
L
d
I and $ 6hy is '
independent of $'nli,e in 5+ $%-20$
9&: O&tain
s
i and
d
v wavefo!s and calc'late the co'tation inte!val ' and
d
V fo! the
following val'e of the delay angle ( 0* and 1.* $
3IN475-P-A35 CON/5RT5R3
%-* Conside! the single-phase conve!te!8 half-cont!olled conve!te! shown in #ig$P%-*8 whe!e
s
v
is sin'soidal$
9a: D!aw
s
v
s
i and
d
v wavefo!s and identify the devices cond'cting fo! va!io's inte!vals fo!
the following val'e of ( 0* 8 =) and 1.* $
9&: Calc'late DP#8P# and GT-D fo!
)
2
1
d d
V V = 8whe!e
) d
V is the dc o'tp't 1)$
9c: Repeat pa!t 9&: fo! a f'll-phase conve!te!$
9d: Copa!e !es'lts in pa!ts 9&: and 9c:$
%-% In te!s of
s
V and
d
I in the single-phase conve!te! of #ig$%-*a8 cop'te the pea, inve!se
voltage and the ave!age and the !s val'es of the c'!!ent th!o'gh each thy!isto!$
%-2 The single-phase conve!te! of #ig$%-= is s'pplying a dc load of 1 ,6$ A 1$*-,/A-isolation
t!ansfo!e! with a so'!ce-side voltage !ating of 12) / at %) -" is 'sed$ It has a total lea,age
!eactance of ;G &ased on its !atings$ The ac so'!ce voltage of noinally 11* / is in the !ange of
-1)G and H*G$ Ass'e
d
L is la!ge eno'gh to allow the ass'ption of
d d
I i = $
Calc'late the ini' t!ansfo!e! t'!ns !atio if the dc load voltage is to &e !eg'lated at a
constant val'e of 1)) /$ 6hat is the val'e of when
s
V 111* /H*G$
%-; 5+'ation %-2% can &e e@p!essed in te!s of the e+'ivalent ci!c'it shown in #ig$ P%-;8 whe!e
u
R is a IlosslessJ !esisto! to !ep!esent the voltage d!op d'e to
d
I $ 5@p!ess this e+'ivalent ci!c'it
in te!s of the e@tinction angle

!athe! than the delay angle to !ep!esent the inve!te! ode

of ope!ation$
%-= In the single-phase inve!te! of #ig$%-1%a8
s
V 112) / at %) -"8 mH L
s
2 $ 1 = 8
mH L
d
2) = 8
d
E 1;; /8 and the delay angle 1 1.* $ Using P3pice8 o&tain
1 s
v 8
1 s
i 8
d
v
and
d
i wavefo!s in steady state$
%-1) In the inve!te! of P!o&le %-=8 va!y the delay angle f!o a val'e of 1%* down to
12) and plot
d
I ve!s's $ O&tian the delay angle
b
&elow which
d
i &ecoes
contin'o's$ -ow does the slope of the cha!acte!istic in this !ange depend on
s
L <
T-R55-P-A35 CON/5RT5R3
%-11 In the th!ee-phase conve!te! of #ig$%-208 de!ive the e@p!ession fo! the displaceent powe!
facto! given &y 5+$%-%0$
%-12 In the th!ee-phase conve!te! of #ig$%-208
LL
V 10%) / at %) -" and
s
L 12* '-$ Calc'late
the co'tation inte!val ' if
d
V 1*2* / and
d
P 1*)),6$
%-1. In te!s of
LL
V and
d
I in the th!ee-phase conve!te! of #ig$%-1=a8 cop'te the pea, inve!se
voltage and the ave!age and the !s val'es of the c'!!ent th!o'gh each thy!isto!$
%-10 In the th!ee-phase conve!te! of #ig$%-2;8 de!ive the e@p!ession fo! the ini' dc c'!!ent
dB
I that !es'lts in a contin'o's-c'!!ent cond'ction fo! given
LL
V 8 8
d
L and 1 .)
$Ass'e that
s
L and
d
r a!e negligi&le and
d
E is a dc voltage$
%-1* Conside! the th!ee-phase conve!te!8 half-cont!olled conve!te! shown in #ig$P%-1*$ Calc'late
the delay angle fo! which
) d d
V V = D!aw
d
v wavefo! and identify the devices that
cond'ct d'!ing va!io's inte!vals$ O&tian DP#8P# and GT-D in the inp't line c'!!ent and copa!e
!es'lts with a f'll-&!idge conve!te! ope!ating at
d
V 1)$*
) d
V $Ass'e
s
L 1)$
%-1% Repeat P!o&le %-1* &y ass'ing that diode
f
D
is not p!esent in the conve!te! of #ig$P%-
1*$
%-12 The th!ee-phase conve!te! of #ig$%-20 is s'pplying a dc load of 12 ,6$ AF-F connected
isolation t!ansfo!e! has a pe!-phase !ating of *,/A and ac so'!ce-side voltage !ating of 12)/ at
%) -"$ It has a total pe!-phase lea,age !eactance of ;G &ased on its !atings$ The ac so'!ce voltage
of noinally 2); /9line-line: is in the !ang of of -1)G and H*G$ Ass'e
d
L is la!ge eno'gh to
allow the ass'ption of
d d
I i = $
Calc'late the ini' t!ansfo!e! t'!ns !atio if the dc load voltage is to &e !eg'lated at a
constant val'e of .)) /$ 6hat is the val'e of when
LL
V 12); /H*G$
%-1; In the th!ee-phase inve!te! of #ig$%-..a8
LL
V 10%) / at %) -" 51**)/ and
s
L 1)$* -$
Ass'e
d
L is va!y la!ge8 to yield
d d
I t i = : 9 $ Calc'late and

if the powe! flow is **,6$

%-1= In typical applications8
s
L is finite$ >o!eove!8
d
i is not a p'!e dc c'!!ent $ Ta&le %-1 lists
typical and ideali"ed val'e of ac-side c'!!ent ha!onics in a si@-p'lse8 f'll-&!idge cont!olled
conve!te! as f'nctions of its f'ndaental c'!!ent coponent$
Calc'late the !atio
1
I C
I
and the T-D in the c'!!ent fo! typical as well as ideali"ed ha!onics$
%-2) In the th!ee-phase conve!te! to #ig$ %-1=8 ass'e that the inp't ac voltage and dc c'!!ent
d
I
!eain constant$ Plot the loc's of the !eactive volt-ape!es d'e to the f'ndaental-f!e+'ency
coponent of the line c'!!ent ve!s's the !eal powe! fo! va!io's val'es of the delay angle $
%-21 In the ci!c'it of #ig$ %-.*a$
1 s
L co!!esponds to the lea,age ind'ctance of a %)--"
t!ansfo!e! with the following !atings( th!ee-phase ,/A !ating of *)) ,/A8 line-to-line voltage of
0;) /8 and an ipedance of %G$Ass'e
2 s
L is d'e to a 2))-ft-long ca&le8 with a pe!-phase
ind'ctance of )$1 '-Cft$ The ac inp't voltage is 0%) / line to line and the dc-side of the !ectifie! is
delive!ing 2* ,6 at a voltage *2* /$
Calc'late the notch width in ic!oseconds and the line notch depth

in pe!centage at the point

of coon co'pling$ Also8 calc'late the a!ea fo! a deep line notch at the point of coon
co'pling in volt-ic!oseconds and copa!e the answe!s with the !ecoended liits in Ta&le %-
2$
%-22 Repeat P!o&le %-21 if a 0;)-/ 1(1 t!ansfo!e! is also 'sed at the inp't to the !ectifie!8
which has a lea,age ipedance of .G$ The th!ee-phase !ating of the t!ansfo!e! e+'als 0) ,/A$
%-2. Calc'late the T-D in the voltage at the point of coon co'pling in P!o&le %-21 and %-22$
%-20 Using the typical ha!onics in the inp't c'!!ent given in Ta&le %-18 o&tain the T-D in the
voltage at the point of coon co'pling in P!o&le %-21$
%-2* 6ith the pa!aete!s fo! the conve!te! in 5@aple %-.8 'se the P3pice listing of the appendi@
at the end of this chapte! to eval'ate the voltage disto!tion at the point of coon co'pling$
2-11 In P!o&le 2-;8 calc'late
)
V pea,-pea, if
)
I 9instead of &eing )$*A: is e+'al to
oB
I
2
1
$
?UCA-?OO3T CON/5RT5R3
2-12 In a &'c,-&oost conve!te!8 conside! all coponents to &e ideal$ 7et
d
V &e ;-0) /8
)
V
11*/9!eg'lated:8
s
f 12),-"8 and C102)'#$ Calc'late
in
L that will ,eep the conve!te!
ope!ating in a contin'o's-cond'ction ode if W P 2
)
$
2-1. In a &'c,-&oost conve!te!8
d
V 112 /8
)
V 11*/8 711*)'-8 C102)'# and
s
f 12),-"$
Calc'late
)
V 9 pea,-pea,:$
2-10 Calc'late the !s val'e of the !ipple c'!!ent in P!o&le 2-1. th!o'gh the diode and8 hence8
th!o'gh the capacito!$
2-1* De!ive an e@p!ession fo!
)
V 9 pea,-pea,: in a discontin'o's-cond'ction ode in te!s of
the ci!c'it pa!aete!s$
2-1% In P!o&le 2-1.8 calc'late
)
V 9 pea,-pea,:8if if
)
I 9instead of &eing 2*)A: is e+'al to
oB
I
2
1
$
CUA CON/5RT5R
2-12 In the ci!c'it of 5@aple 2-.8 calc'late the !s c'!!ent following th!o'gh the capacito!
1
C $
#U77-?RID45 dc-dc CON/5RT5R3
2-1; In a f'll-&!idge dc-dc conve!te! 'sing P6> &ipola! voltage switching8
tri
control
V v
K
* $ ) =
$O&tain
)
V and
d
I $?y #o'!ie! analysis8 calc'late the aplit'des of the switching-f!e+'ency
ha!onics in
)
v and
d
i $
2-1= Repeat P!o&le 2-1;8 fo! a P6> 'nipola! voltage-switching schee$
2-2) Plot instantaneo's powe! o'tp't : 9
)
t P and the ave!age powe!
)
P 8 co!!esponding to
)
i
in #igs$2-2;e and 2-2;f$
2-21 Repeat P!o&le 2-2) fo! #igs$2-2=e and 2-2=f$
2-22 In a f'll-&!idge dc-dc conve!te! 'sing P6> &ipola! voltage switching8 analytically o&tain the
val'e of 9
)
V C
d
V : which !es'lts in the a@i'9 pea,-pea,: !ipple in the o'tp't c'!!ent
)
i $
Calc'late this !ipple in te!s of
d
V 8
a
L and
s
f $
2-2. Repeat P!o&le 2-22 fo! a P6> 'nipola! voltage-switching schee$
2-20 Using P3pice8 si'late the f'll-&!idge dc-dc conve!te! shown in #ig$P2-20 'sing 9a: P6>
&ipola! voltage switching and 9&: P6> 'nipola! voltage switching
3IN475 P-A35
;-1 In a single-phase f'll-&!idge P6> inve!te!8 the inp't dc voltage va!ies in a !ange of 2=*-.2*
/$ ?eca'se of the low disto!tion !e+'i!ed in the o'tp't
)
v 8 ) $ 1
a
m $
9a: 6hat is the highest
)1
v that can &e o&tained and staped on its naeplate as its voltage
!ating<
9&: Its naeplate volt-ape!e !ating is specified as 2))) /A8 that is8 V I V
o
2)))
a@ $ a@ $ )1
=
8whe!e
)
i is ass'ed to &e sin'soidal$ Calc'late the co&ined switch 'tili"ation !atio when the
inve!te! is s'pplying its !ated volt-ape!es$
;-2 Conside! the p!o&le of !ipple in the o'tp't c'!!ent of a single-phase f'll-&!idge inve!te!$
Ass'e
)1
v 122)/ at a f!e+'ency of 02 -" and the type of load is as shown in #ig$;-1;a with
711)) -$
If the inve!te! is ope!ating in a s+'a!e-wave ode8 calc'late the pea, val'e of the !ipple c'!!ent$
;-. Repeat P!o&le ;-2 with the inve!te! ope!ating a sin'soidal P6> ode8 with
f
m
121 and
a
m 1)$;$
;-0 Repeat P!o&le ;-2 &'t ass'e that the o'tp't voltage is cont!olled &y voltage cancellation
and
d
V has the sae val'e as !e+'i!ed in the P6> inve!te! of P!o&le ;-.$
;-* Calc'late and copa!e the pea, val'es of the !ipple c'!!ents in P!o&le ;-2 th!o'gh ;-0$
;-% Using >AT7A?8 ve!ify the !es'lts given in Ta&le ;-1$
T-R55-P-A35
;-2 Conside! the p!o&le of !ipple in the o'tp't c'!!ent of a th!ee-phase s+'a!e-wave inve!te!$
Ass'e
1
: 9
LL
v 12))/ at a f!e+'ency of *2 -" and the type of load is as shown in #ig$;-2*a
with 711)) -$ Calc'late the pea, !ipple c'!!ent defined in #ig$;-2%a$
;-; Repeat P!o&le ;-2 if the inve!te! of P!o&le ;-2 is ope!ating in a synch!ono's P6> ode8
with
f
m
1.= and
a
m 1)$;$ Calc'late the pea, !ipple c'!!ent defined in #ig$;-2%&$
;-= O&tain an e@p!ession fo! the #o'!ie! coponents in the wavefo! of #ig$;-.0a fo!
p!og!aed ha!onic eliination of the fifth- and seventh-o!de! ha!onics$ 3how that fo!
)
1
= $

= 20 $ 1%
2
and

= )% $ 22
.
8the fifth and seventh ha+!onics a!e eliinated and the
f'ndaental-f!e+'ency o'tp't of the inve!te! has a a@i' aplit'de given &y 5+$;-2;$
;-1) In the th!ee-phase s+'a!e-wave inve!te! of #ig$;-20a8 conside! the load to &e &alanced and
p'!ely !esistive with !esistive with a load-ne't!al n $D!aw the steady-state
n
v 8

i 8

D
i
and
d
i
wavefo!s8 whe!e

D
i
is the c'!!ent th!o'gh

D $
;-11 Repeat P!o&le ;-1) &y ass'ing that the load is p'!ely ind'ctive8 whe!e the load !esistance8
tho'gh finite8 can &e neglected$
;-12 Conside! only one inve!te! leg as shown in #ig$;-08 whe!e the o'tp't c'!!ent lags
1 )
: 9

v
&y an angle

8as shown in #ig$P;-12a8and o is the fictitio's idpoint of the dc inp't$ ?eca'se of

the &lan,ing tie

t 8the instantaneo's e!!o! voltage

v is plotted in #ig$P;-12&8 whe!e

v 1
actual ideal
v v : 9 : 9
) )

5ach

v p'lse8 eithe! positive o! negative8 has an aplit'de of

d
V and a d'!etion of

t $In
o!de! to calc'late the low-o!de! ha!onics of the f'ndaental f!e+'ency in the o'tp't voltage d'e
to &lan,ing tie8 these p'lses can &e !eplaced &y an e+'ivalent !ectang'la! p'lse 9shown dashed in
#ig$P;-12&: of aplit'de A whose volt-second a!ea pe! half-cycle e+'als that of

v p'lses$
De!ive the following e@p!ession fo! the ha!onics of the f'ndaental f!e+'ency in
)
v
int!od'ced &y the &lan,ing tie(
s d h
f t V
h
V

0
: 9
)
9h118.8*LL:
6he!e
s
f is the switching f!e+'ency$
;-1. Using P3pice8 si'late the inve!te! of #ig$P;-1.$
PART . >OTOR DRI/5 APP7ICATION
10-1 A th!ee-phase8%)--"8 fo'!-pole81)-hp80%)-/9line-line8 !s: ind'ction oto! has a f'll-load
speed of 120% !p$ Ass'e the to!+'e-speed cha!acte!istic in a !ange of )-1*)G !ated to!+'e to
&e linea!$ It is d!iven &y an adM'sta&le-f!e+'ency sin'soidal s'pply s'ch that the ai! gap fl'@ is
held constant$ Plot its to!+'e-speed cha!acte!istics at the following val'es of f!e+'ency f(%)8 0*8
.)8and 1*-"$
10-2 The d!ive in P!o&le 10-1 is s'pplying a cent!if'gal p'p load8 which at the f'll-load speed
of the oto! !e+'i!es the !ated to!+'e of the oto!$ Calc'late and plot speed 8 f!e+'ency f 8 slip
f!e+'ency
sl
f 8 and slips at the following pe!centage val'es of p'p !ated to!+'e(1)) 8 2* 8 *) 8
and 2*G$
10-. A 0%)-/ 8 %)--" 8 fo'!-pole ind'ction oto! develops its !ated to!+'e &y d!awing 1)A at a
powe! facto! of )$;%%$The othe! pa!aete!s a!e as follows(
= *. $ 1
s
R = 2 $ 2
ls
! = ) $ %=
m
!
If s'ch a oto! is to p!od'ce a !ated to!+'e at f!e+'encies &elow %) -" while aintaining a
constant ai! gap fl'@8 calc'late and plot the !e+'i!ed line-to-line voltage as a f'nction of
f!e+'ency$
10-0 The oto! in P!o&le 10-. has a f'll-load speed of 12*) !p$ Calc'late
start
f 8
start
I 8and
9
start LL
V : if the oto! is to develop a sta!ting to!+'e e+'al to 1$* ties its !ated to!+'e$ Ass'e
the effect of
lr
L to &e negligi&ly sall and the ai! gap fl'@ to &e at its !ated val'e$
10-* The ideali"ed oto! of P!o&le 10-1 is initially ope!ating at its !ated conditions at %)-" $ If
the s'pply f!e+'ency is s'ddenly dec!eased &y *G while aintaining a constant ai! gap fl'@8
calc'late the &!a,ing to!+'e developed as a pe!centage of its !ated to!+'e$
10-% In a th!ee-phase %)--"8 0%)-/ ind'ction oto! 8 = + ) $ .
r s
R R and = + ) $ *
lr ls
! ! $
The oto! is d!iven &y a s+'a!e-wave voltage so'!ce inve!te! that s'pplies a 0%)-/ line-line
voltage at the f!e+'ency of %)-"$5stiate the ha!onic c'!!ents and the additional coppe! losses
d'e to these ha!onic c'!!ents &y incl'ding fifth8 seventh8 eleventh8 and thi!teenth ha!onics$
10-2 #o! ha!onic f!e+'ency analysis8 an ind'ction oto! can &e !ep!esented &y a pet-phase
e+'ivalent ci!c'it as shown in #ig$P10-28which incl'des a f'ndaental-f!e+'ency co'nte!-ef o!
Thevenin voltage
"H
E $Also8 = ) $ .
"H
R and = ) $ *
"H
! $It is s'pplied &y a voltage
so'!ce inve!te!8 which p!od'ces a %)--" line-line voltage coponent of 0%)/$ The load on the
oto! is s'ch that the f'ndaental-f!e+'ency c'!!ent d!awn &y the oto! is 1)A8which lags the
f'ndaental-f!e+'ency voltage &y an angle of

.) $
O&tain and plot the c'!!ent d!awn &y oto! as a f'nction of tie 8 if it is d!iven &y a s+'a!e-wave
/3I$ 6hat is the pea, c'!!ent that the inve!te! switches 'st ca!!y<
10-; Repeat P!o&le 10-2 if the ind'ction oto! is d!iven &y a P6>-/3I with an aplit'de
od'lation !atio ) $ 1 =
a
m and f!e+'ency od'lation !atio
1* =
f
m
$Copa!e the pea, switch
c'!!ents with those in P!o&le 10-2$
10-= A s+'a!e-wave /3I d!ive s'pplies 0%)/ line-line at a f!e+'ency of %)-" to an ind'ction
oto! that develops a !ated to!+'e of *)N- at 12*) !p$ The oto! and the inve!te! efficiencies
can &e ass'ed to &e constant at =) and =*G8 !espectively 8 while ope!ating at the !ated to!+'e of
the oto!$
If the oto! is ope!ated at its !ated to!+'e and the !ated ai! gap fl'@8 dete!ine the e+'ivalent
!esistance Re+ that can !ep!esent the inve!te!-oto! co&ination in #ig$P10-= at the oto!
f!e+'encies of %)8 0*8 .)8 and 1*-N$
10-1) Repeat P!o&le 10-= if a P6>-/3I d!ive with an 'ncont!olled !ectifie! is 'sed8 whe!e
) $ 1 =
a
m at %) -" o'tp't$
10-11 A C3I-d!iven ind'ction oto! is s'pplying a constant-to!+'e load e+'al to the !ated to!+'e
of the oto!$The C3I d!ive is s'pplied f!o a 0%)/9line-line: voltage at a %)-" f!e+'ency with a
f'ndaental f!e+'ency c'!!ent of 1))A that lags &ehind the f'ndaental-f!e+'ency voltage &y an
angle of

.) $
If the oto! displaceent powe! facto! angle !eains constant at

.) 8estiate and plot the inp't

powe! facto! and the displaceent powe! facto! at the oto! f!e+'encies of %)8 0*8 .)8 and 1*-"$
Ideali"e the oto! c'!!ent wavefo!s to &e as shown in #ig$10-2*& and ass'e a constant ai! gap
fl'@ in the oto! $ Neglect losses in the oto! and the inve!te!$
10-12 3how that in a voltage-cont!olled ind'ction oto! s'pplying a constant load to!+'e 8 the
powe! loss in the !oto! ci!c'it at a voltage
#
V as a !atio of the powe! loss at the !ated voltage
condition can &e app!o@iated as
2 8
: 9
9P!:
P!
s
rated s
volta$e rated
V
V

fo! !easona&ly sall val'es of slip$

1*-1 A &!'shless$ pe!anent-agnet$ fo'!-pole8 th!ee-phase oto! has the following pa!aete!s(
To!+'e constant1)$22= N-CA
/oltage constant120$) /C1))) !p
Phase-to-phase !esistance1;$0

Phase-to-phase winding ind'ctance11%$; -

The a&ove oto! p!od'ces a t!ape"oidal &ac,-ef$ The to!+'e constant is o&tained as a !atio of the
a@i' to!+'e p!od'ced to the c'!!ent flowing th!o'gh two of the phases$ The voltage constant
is the !atio of the pea, phase-to-phase voltage to the !otational speed$ If the oto! is ope!ating at a
speed of .))) !p and delive!ing a to!+'e of )$2* N-8 plot ideali"ed phase c'!!ent wavefo!s$
1*-2 In a sin'soidal-wavefo!8 th!ee-phase8 two-pole &!'shless dc oto! with a pe!anent-
agnet !oto!8
"
k 1)$* N-CA8 whe!e
"
k is defined &y 5+$1*-22$ Calc'late
a
i 8
b
i 8 and
c
i if the
oto! is !e+'i!ed to s'pply a holding to!+'e of )$2* N-9to ,eep he load f!o oving: at the
!oto! position of
.) =
o
8 whe!e is defined in #ig$1*-0$
1*-. 5stiate the ini' dc inp't voltage to the switch-ode conve!te! !e+'i!ed to s'pply the
oto! in P!o&le 1*-1 if the a@i' speed id *))) !p and the to!+'e is )$2* N-$
1*-0 In a sin'soidal-wavefo!8 pe!anent-agnet &!'shless se!vo oto!8 phase-to-phase
!esistance is ;$)

and the phase-to-phase ind'ctance is 1%$) -$ The voltage constant8 which is

the !atio of the pea, phase voltage ind'ced to the !otational speed8 id 2*/C1))) !pO p12 and
n11)8))) !p$ Calc'late the te!inal voltage if the load is s'ch that the oto! d!aws 1) A !s pe!
phase$ Calc'late the powe! facto! of ope!ation$
1*-* 3how the !elationship &etween
E
k and
"
k in 5+s$1*-2; and 1*-2= fo! a t!ape"oidal-
wavefo! &!'shless oto!$ Copa!e the !es'lt with the !atio of to!+'e constant to the voltage
constant of the oto! specified in P!o&le 1*-1$
PART 0 OT-5R APP7ICATION3
1%-1 In #ig$1%-2 fo! a single-speed heat p'p8 ass'e that each on and off pe!iod is 1) in long8
that is8 the!e a!e th!ee cycles pe! ho'! $ 6hen the cop!esso! is t'!ned on8 its o'tp't inc!eases
e@ponentially8 !eaching ==% of its a@i' capacity at the end of the 1)-in on inte!val$ Once
the cop!esso! is t'!ned off8 the heating9o! cooling: decays with a 'ch salle! tie constant and
can &e ass'ed to &e instantaneo's$
9a: If the !ated elect!ical powe! is d!awn th!o'gho't the on inte!val8 calc'late the loss in
efficiency d'e to the e@ponential !ise in the cop!esso! o'tp't$
9&: A load-p!opo!tional capacity-od'lated heat p'p is 'sed to eliinate the a&ove on-off
cycling$ The efficiency of the solid-state cont!olle! is =%% and the oto! efficiency is lowe!
&y 1 pe!centage point &eca'se of !ed'ced speed8 !ed'ced load ope!ation8 and inve!te!
ha!onics$ Ass'e that the cop!esso! efficiency !eains 'nchanged$
Copa!e the syste efficiency with the single-speed cop!esso! syste of pa!t a if the
oto! efficiency in pa!t a can &e ass'ed to &e ;*%.
12-1 /e!ify the c'!!ent wavefo!s in #ig$12-.a and the e@p!essions given &y 5+s$ 12-1 th!o'gh
12-.$
12-2 6ith a constant-inp't ac voltage /77 and a constant dc c'!!ent Id 8 plot the loc's in the P-P
plane as the delay angle of the conve!te!s in #ig$12-2 is va!ied$ Repeat this fo! a faily of Id
val'es$
12-. A dc t!ansission lin, inte!connects two 2.)-,v ac systes$ It has fo'! &!idges at each
te!inal 9two pe! pole: with each pole !ated at 2*) ,v81)))A$ The pa!aete!s fo! each pole of
the dc lin, a!e given in the following ta&le(
Rectifie! Inve!te!
Act'al open-ci!c'it voltage !atio fo! line-line
/oltage on p!ia!y and seconda!y sides of conve!te!
t!ansfo!s( seconda!y voltage divided &y p!ia!y voltage
)$0%; )$0.*
N'&e! of th!ee-phase conve!te! &!idges in se!ies on the dc
side
2 2
Conve!te! t!ansfo!e! lea,age !eactance pe!
?!idge in ohs$ Refe!!ed to seconda!y side dc line !esistance
pe! pole11*$.*

1%$2; 10$22
>ini' e@tinction angle of inve!te! 1

1;
In this syste8

1;
in
= =
l
$At the !ectifie! te!inal8 the voltage is as close to 2*),v as
possi&le$ Id11)))A$
Calc'late all the c'!!ents8 voltage8 !eal and !eactive powe!s8 and angles at each end of the dc lin,$
12-0 Repeat P!o&le 12-. if each conve!te! t!ansfo!e! is e+'ipped with a tap change!$ Now8 it is
possi&le to ope!ate the !ectifie! at a fi!ing angle as close to

1; as possi&le8 while the inve!te!

ope!ates as close to the ini' e@tinction angle of

1; 9&'t

1;
l
: as possi&le$ The tap
info!ation is given &elow whe!e the noinal line-line 8 p!ia!y voltage fo! each conve!te!
t!ansfo!e! is 2.),v9!s:(
9a: >a@i' val'e of the conve!te! t!ansfo!e! tap !atio in pe! 'nit(1$1* at the !ectifie! te!inal
and 1$1) at the inve!te! te!inal
9&: >ini' val'e of the conve!te! t!ansfo!e! tap !atio in pe! 'int()$=* at the !ectifie! and )$=)
at the inve!te! te!inal
9c: Conve!te! t!ansfo!e! tap step in pe! 'int( )$)12* at &oth te!inals
12-* The noinal line-to-line voltage at a &'s in a th!ee-phase ac syste is 2.),v9!s: when it is
s'pplying a th!ee-phase ind'ctive load of
va! 2*) 1*)) % & %W &' P + = +
$
The pe!-phase ac syste ipedance N3 seen &y the &'s can &e app!o@iated to &e p'!ely
ind'ctive with = * $ ) & (
#
$
9a: Calc'late the pe!centage change in the &'s voltage agnit'de fo! a 1)G inc!ease in P$
9&: Calc'late the pe!centage change in the &'s voltage agnit'de fo! a 1)G inc!ease in P$
12-% A hy&!id a!!angeent of a TCI and a T3C is connected at the ac &'s in P!o&le 12-*$The
TCI can d!aw a a@i' of *)>va!s pe! phase8 whe!eas the T3C consists of fo'!-capacito!
&an,s 8each with a pe!-phase !ating of *) >va!s$ -olding the ac &'s voltage to its noinal val'e
fo! a 1)G inc!ease in P in p!o&le 12-*&8calc'late the n'&e! of capacito! &an,s that sho'ld &e
switched in 8the delay angle at which the TCI sho'ld ope!ate $ and the pe!-phase effective
ind'ctance of the TCI$
12-2 De!ive 5+$ 12-1.$
PART * 35>ICONDUCTOR D5/IC53
1=-1 The int!insic tepe!at'!e Tt of a seicond'cto! device is that tepe!at'!e at which
i
n
e+'als the doping density$ 6hat is Tt of a silicon pn M'nction that has
1;
1)

.
cm
accepto!s on
the p-type side and
10
1)

.
cm
dono!s on the n-type side <
1=-2 6hat a!e the !esistivities of the p !egion and n !egion of the pn M'nction desc!i&ed in P!o&le
1=-1<
1=-. 5stiate po and no in a silicon saple whe!e &oth dono! and accepto! ip'!ities a!e
si'ltaneo'sly p!esent and
. 1.
1)

= cm ) )
a d
$
1=-0 6hat change in tepe!at'!e
"
do'&les the ino!ity-ca!!ie! density in the n-type side of
the pn M'nction desc!i&ed in P!o&le 1=-1 copa!ed with the !oo tepe!at'!e val'e<
1=-* 3how that a decade inc!ease in the fo!wa!d c'!!ent of a pn M'nction is accopanied &y an
inc!ease in the fo!wa!d voltage of a&o't %) v$
1=-% Conside! a step silicon pn M'nction with
10
1)

.
cm
dono!s on the n-type side and
1*
1)
c
-.
accepto!s on the p-type side(
9a: #ind the width of the depletion laye! on each side id the M'nction$
9&: 3,etch and diension the elect!ic field dist!i&'tion ve!s's position th!o'gh the depletion laye!$
9c: 5stiate the contact potential
c
$
9d: Using a pa!allel-plate capacito! fo!alis8 estiate the capacitance pe! 'nit a!ea of the
M'nction at )/ and at -*)/$
1=-2 A &a! of n-type silicon with
10
1)
c
-.
dono!s is 2))
m
long and mm 1 1 s+'a!e$
6hat is its !esistance at !oo tepe!at'!e and at C

2*) < Ass'e tepe!at'!e independent

o&ilities$
1=-; 5stiate the &!ea,down voltage of the pn M'nction diode desc!i&ed in P!o&le 1=-%$
1=-= 3how that fo! a step M'nction 8 the width of the space cha!ge laye! when the !eve!se-&ias
voltage is e+'al to the avalanche &!ea,down val'e ?/?D can &e w!itten as
BD
BD
BD
E
BV
BV W
2
: 9 =
9-int( 5@aine the plot of elect!ic field vs$ position in #ig$ 1=-=& with
BD
E E =
a@
and
: 9
BD
BV W W = $: Use this !es'lt to find the depletion laye! width of the pn M'nction of P!o&le
1=-% when it is &iased at avalanche &!ea,down$
1=-1) 6hat a!e the ca!!ie! diff'sion lengths8 7n and 7p8 fo! the pn M'nction of P!o&le 1=-%8 pa!t
e<
1=-11 A one-sided step M'nction with a p-side doping level Na 'ch g!eate! than the n-side
doping level Nd8 cond'cts a c'!!ent I when fo!wa!d-&iased &y a voltage /#$ The c'!!ent is to &e
inc!eased to twice this val'e 9to 2I: at the sae voltage /# &y adM'sting the ca!!ie! lifetie$ 6hat
adM'stent is !e+'i!ed in the lifetie to !eali"e this change in c'!!ent<
1=-12 #ind the ini' cond'ctivity achieva&le in silicon &y choice of doping level and
conditions 'nde! which it occ'!s$ Ass'e !oo tepe!at'!e and o&ilities independent of the
doping levels$
1=-1. 6hat is the !esistivity of int!insic silicon at !oo tepe!at'!e 9 *

.)) :<
2)-1 The silicon diode shown in #ig$2)-1 is to have a &!ea,down voltage of 2*))/$ 5stiate what
the doping density of the d!ift !egion sho'ld &e and what the ini' width of the d!ift !egion
sho'ld &e$ The diode is a non-p'nch-th!o'gh device$
2)-2 A silicon diode siila! to that shown in #ig$2)-1 has a d!ift !egion doping density of
1.
1) *

.
cm
dono!s and a d!ift !egion width of *)
m
$6hat is the &!ea,down voltage<
2)-. The diode in P!o&le 2)-2 has a c!oss-sectional a!ea of 2 c
2
and ca!!ie! lifetie
o
of 2
s
$App!o@iately s,etch and diension the on-state voltage incl'ding the M'nction d!op ve!s's
fo!wa!d c'!!ent$ Conside! c'!!ents as la!ge as .)))A$
2)-0 The diode of P!o&le 2)-. is fo!wa!d &iased &y 1)))A c'!!ent that !ises the !ate of 2*)AC
s
$
9a: Ass'ing that no ca!!ie! inMection ta,es place 'ntil the c'!!ent !eaches its steady-state val'e8
s,etch and diension the fo!wa!d voltage fo! )QtQ0
s
$
9&: Now ass'e that ca!!ie! inMection coences at t1) and that this ca'ses the d!ift !egion to
d!op linea!ly in tie f!o its ohic val'e at t1) to its on-state val'e at t10
s
$3,etch and
diension the fo!wa!d voltage fo! )QtQ0
s
$
2)-* A silicon diode with a &!ea,down voltage of 2))) / that is cond'cting a fo!wa!d c'!!ent of
2))) A is t'!ned off with a constant dt di
R
C 12*) AC's$ Ro'ghly estiate the tie !e+'i!ed fo!
the diode to t'!n off $
2)-% A 3chott,y diode having the p-n-n st!'ct'!e shown in #ig$2)-12 is to &e designed to have a
&!ea,down voltage of 1*)/$ 6hat sho'ld &e the dono! doping density in the d!ift !egion and what
sho'ld &e the length of the d!ift !egion< 9-int( Recall that a 3chott,y diode can &e odeled as a
one-sided step M'nction$:
2)-2 Conside! a 3chott,y diode that has an n-type d!ift !egion with a dono! doping density of
1)
1*
c
-.
and a d!ift !egion length of 2)
m
$ The diode is to ca!!y 1)) A of c'!!ent in the on state
with a a@i' d!ift !egion length voltage d!op of 2 /$ 6hat sho'ld the c!oss-sectional a!ea of
the diode &e<
2)-; A p'nch-th!o'gh geoet!y is to &e 'sed fo! a powe! pn-M'nction diode$ The &!ea,down
voltage is to .)) / and the d!ift !egion length is to &e 2)
m
$ 6hat sho'ld the doping level &e in
the n-type d!ift !egion< Fo' ay ass'e that &e pn-M'nction is a p-n-M'nction 9i$e$ a one-sided step
M'nction:$
2)-= Does a p'nch-th!o'gh diode of a specified &!ea,down voltage ?/?D have a la!ge! o! salle!
val'e of d!ift !egion ohic !esistance than a non-p'nch-th!o'gh diode having the sae &!ea,down
voltage and c!oss-sectional a!ea< Answe! the +'estion +'antitatively &y ass'ing one-sided step
M'nction doping p!ofiles fo! the diodes$ This +'estion is of pa!tic'la! ipo!tance in inii"ing the
on-state powe! losses in aMo!ity-ca!!ie! devices s'ch as 3chott,y diode$ 9-int( The n-type d!ift
!egion !esistance pe! 'nit a!ea
d n d
) + W R = 8 whe!e 6d is the d!ift !egion length$ #o! a non-
p'nch-th!o'gh diode 'se 5+s$2)-1 and 2)-. fo! 69?/?D:8 the space cha!ge width at &!ea,down
and Nd and ass'e 6d169?/?D:$ #o! a p'nch-th!o'gh diode 'se 5+$2)-= to find 6d8 which then
gives 6d9Nd: fo! a fi@ed ?/?D$ Use 6d9Nd: in the e@p!ession fo! !esistance and find the Nd val'e
that inii"es the !esistance$:
2)-1) A pn-M'nction diode 9step M'nction :and a 3chott,y diode a!e to &oth have a &!ea,down
voltage of 1*)/ and a d!ift !egion voltage d!op of 2/ when ca!!ying a !ated c'!!ent of .))A$
6hat is the "e!o-&ias space cha!ge capacitance C of each diode < Ass'e a contact potential of
)$2/ fo! each diode and an e@cess-ca!!ie! lifetie of 1))ns in the pn-M'nction diode d!ift !egion$
2)-11 The &!ea,down voltage of a cylind!ical a&!'pt M'nction 9with
d a
) ) : is given &y
{ } 2 R 1 lnS : 1 9 2
1 1 2
1
+ + =

pp c,
BV BV
6he!e ?/cy11cylind!ical M'nction &!ea,down voltage
?/pp1plane pa!allel M'nction &!ea,down voltage1
d
BD
+)
E
2
2

n
W
R
2
=
O R1!adi's of cylind!ical p-type !egion
d
BD
n
+)
E
W

=
1depletion laye! thic,ness 9at &!ea,down :of plane pa!allel a&!'pt M'nction having
sae doping levels as cylind!ical M'nction$
Plot
pp
c,
BV
BV
1
ve!s's

fo!
1) 2 $ )
2)-12 -ow la!ge 'st R &e if ?/pp11)))/ and ?/cy1 is to &e =*)/<
21-1Plot CE- BV as a f'nction of &eta 9T: fo! *QTQ1)) fo! identical npn and pnp silicon
t!ansisto!s$ Ass'e that &oth # B." ?UT3 have sae val'e of ?/C?O$
21-2 when eitte!-open switching 9see Ch$2;: is 'sed to t'!n off a powe! ?UT8 the ?UT is less
s'scepti&le to second &!ea,down copa!ed with the no!al t'!n-off sit'ation 8 whe!e negative
&ase c'!!ent flows while eitte! c'!!ent is still flowing $P'alitatively e@plain$ with the aid of
diag!as$ 6hy this is t!'e$
21-. conside! the step-down conve!te! ci!c'it of #ig$21-1)$the f!ee-wheeling diode is ideal and the
powe! t!ansisto! has the following pa!aete!s( T11)8/C59on:12/8RTU-
V11CC68TM$a@11*)C8t!i1tfi12))ns8tfvA12))ns8tfv11tfv21t!v11t!v21*)ns8 and
td9on:1td9off:11))ns$The ?UT is d!iven &y a s+'a!e wave 9*)G d'ty cycle: of va!ia&le f!e+'ency$
Ass'e I)10)A and /d11))/$
9a: s,etch and diension a!e the ave!age powe! dissipated in the t!ansisto! ve!s's the
switching f!e+'ency $
9&: estiate the a@i' pe!issi&le switching f!e+'ency$
21-0The t!ansisto! in the ci!c'it of P!o&le 21-. is d!iven &y a 2*-,-" s+'a!e wave 9*)Gd'ty
cycle:$ The switching ties inc!ease &y 0)G as the M'nction tepe!at'!e inc!ease &y 1)))C9f!o
2* to 12* )C :$If the ci!c'it is ope!ating in an a&ient tepe!at'!e of *) )C8estiate the lowa&le
!ange of val'e of the the!al !esistance & R that will ,eep the M'nction tepe!at'!e TM $
21-* A t!ansisto! siila! to that shown in fig$21-1 has an effective eitte! a!ea A of 1 c2 and a
&ase width of . W$At app!o@iately what val'e of collecto! c'!!ent dose the &eta of the device
&egin to d!op as the c'!!ent is inc!eased< -int (Recall f!o the disc'ssion in 3ection 21-0-1that
&eta &egins to fall when high-level inMection conditions a!e o&tained in the &ase$Also !ecall the
d/ / dn +D I I b n ne C C : 9 =
21-% Conside! a ?UT and pn-M'nction diode each having the sae c!oss-sectional a!ea and sae
d!ift !egion length 9and th's the sae ca!!ie! lifeties and &loc,ing voltage capa&ilities:$ 6hich
device can ca!!y the la!ge! fo!wa!d c'!!ent and why<
21-2A ?UT siila! ti the that shown in #ig $21-1 has &een designed &y a novice device designe!$
The voltage !ating of the device is s'pposed to &e 1)))/$The d!ift !egion doping is as indicated in
the fig'!e 8and the d!ift !egion length is 1))W$ ?'t the &ase doping density is
1*
1)

.
cm
and
the &ase width is .W$6hat is the act'al voltage !ating of this device< Ass'e all M'nctions and
that &eta1*
21-;A &ipola! NPN t!ansisto! is to &e designed fo! a &!ea,down voltage 9 CE- BV : of 1)))/
$The &ase-eitte! &!ea,down voltage 9 CE- BV : is to &e 1)/ $#ind the !e+'i!ed &ase doping
density is
1=
1)
.
cm
$Ass'e that the &ase-eitte! and &ase-cont!olle! M'nctions a!e step
M'nctions and that &eta1*
21-= A Da!lington pai! has an effective &eta of 1*)$The d!ive! ?UT has a &eta of 2)$ 6hat is &eta
of the ain ?UT<
21-1) A powe! ?UT with a &eta of 1) is cha!acte!i"ed in the on-state &y a
/?51)$;/8/?C1)$%/8and Ron1)$)2 ohs$ Two s'ch ?UTs a!e 'sed in a Da!lington config'!ation
which 'st cond'ct a c'!!ent of 1)) A in the on-state powe! dissipation of the pai!<
21-11 #ind the "e!o-&ias val'es of the collecto!-&ase space cha!ge capacitance$ BR- C 8and &ase-
eitte! space cha!ge capacitance $ BR- C of the t!ansisto! desc!i&ed in p!o&le 21-;$Ass'ed a
&ase-eitte! a!ea Ac of )$.
2
cm
and a &ase-collecto! a!ea Ac of .
2
cm
$
21-12 The t!ansisto! desc!i&ed in p!o&le 21-; and 21-11 is to &e 'sed in a step-down conve!te!
s'ch as is shown in #ig$21-1)$ The &ase d!ive ci!c'it consists of an ideal voltage so'!ce in se!ies
with a !esistance of 1) ohs$ 6hen the ?UT is to &e an t'!ned on the changes f!oE;/ to
H;/$5stiate the t'!n-on delay tie$ Ass'e the dc voltage powe!ing the step-down conve!te! Is
1))/$
22-1 The sall-signal gate-so'!ce capacitance of a >O3#5T dec!eases as /43 is inc!eased f!o
"e!o volts$ #o! /43X/439th:$ The sall-signal capacitance is constant$ P'alitatively e@plain the
!easons fo! this &ehavio!$
22-2 An n-channel >O3#5T is to &e 'sed in a step-down conve!te! ci!c'it$ The dc voltage /d1.))
/$ the load c'!!ent I)11) A$ the f!ee-wheeling diode is ideal$ And the >O3#5T is d!iven &y a
1*-/9&ase-to-pea,: s+'a!e wave 9*)G d'ty cycle and "e!o de val'e: in se!ies with *) . The
>O3#5T cha!acte!istics a!e /439th:10/$ ID11) A at /4312 /8 Cgs11))) p#8 Ced11*) p#$ and
!D39on:1)$* .
9a: 3,etch and diension vD39t: and id9t:$
9&: 5stiate the powe! dissipation at a switching f!e+'ency of 2) A-"$
22-. The switching ties of a >O3#5T with /439th:10 /8 g11 ho$ and Cgs11))) p# a!e
eas'!ed in !esistively loaded test ci!c'it having a load !esistance RD12*Y and a powe!
s'pply voltage /d12*/$ The >O3#5T is d!iven &y a 'nipola! s+'a!e wave of 1* / in se!ies
with *$ The eas'!ed switching ties a!e tts1t!t1.) ns and t<1t<12) ns$ The >O3#5T is to &e
'sed in a !esistively loaded ci!c'it having RD11*) ./d1.))/$ and the d!ive ci!c'it is a 1*-/
'nipola! s+'a!e wave in se!ies with 1))$ 6hat will the switching ties &e in this ci!c'it<
22-0 The >O3#5T 'sed in P!o&le 22-. has an on-state !esistance !D39on:12Y at a M'nction
tepe!at'!e TM12*
o
C $ This !esistance inc!eases linea!ly with inc!easing TM when the >O3#5T
is 'sed in the ci!c'it of P!o&le 22-. 9 RD11*) and /d1.))/ :$ Ass'e a switching
f!e+'ency of 1) A-"$
22-* Th!ee >O3#5T3$ 5ach !ate at 2 A$ a!e to &e 'sed in pa!allel to sin, * A load c'!!ent when
they a!e on$ The noinal on-state !esistance of the >O3#5T3 is 2 at TM12*
o
C $ &'t
eas'!eents indicate that the act'al val'es fo! each >O3#5T a!e !D39on:111$; $
!D39on:212$) .and !D39on:.12$2 $ The on-state !esistance inc!eases linea!ly with tepe!at'!e and
is 1$; ties la!ge! at TM112*
o
C $ -ow 'ch powe! is dissipated in each >O3#5T at a M'nction
tepe!at'!e of 1)*
o
C< Ass'e a *)G d'ty cycle$
22-% A hy&!id powe! switch coposed of a >O3#5T and a ?UT connected in pa!allel is to &e 'sed
in a switch-ode powe! application$ 5@plain what the advantages of s'ch a hy&!id switch a!e
and what the !elative tiing of the t'!n-on and t'!n-off of the two devices sho'ld &e$
22-2 Design a >o3#5T siila! to that shown in #ig$ 22-1a fo! a &!ea,down voltage ?/D3312*)
volts$ 3pecify the channel length 9d!ain-so'!ce distance:$d!ift !egion doping density and length$
Fo' ay ass'e that the &ody !egion doping density N&ody1* 1)
1%
c
-.
$
22-; Conside! the e+'ivalent ci!c'it fo! the powe! >O3#5T shown in #ig$ 22-12& which incl'des
the pa!asitic ?UT$ 5@p!ess yo'! answe! in te!s of the gate-d!ain capacitance$ Cgd8 the &ody
!esistance8 R&ody8 and othe! pe!tinent ci!c'it pa!aete!s$
22-= The gate o@ide fo! a powe! >O3#5T is *)) angst!os thic,$ 6hat sho'ld &e the a@i'
gate-so'!ce voltage$ /gs$a@< Incl'de a *)G facto! of safety$ Ass'e the &!ea,down field
st!ength of the gate dielect!ic is * 1)
%
/Cc
-.
$
22-1) The t!ansfe! c'!ve8 iD ve!s's /43 8of a powe! >O3#5T ope!ating in the active !egion is
app!o@iately given &y
iD1 nCo@
R S
2
: 9th 0# 0#
V v
L
W

whe!e Co@ is given &y 5+$922-0: and 61N6cell$ In each cell$ A

powe! >O3#5T is to &e designed to cond'ct a d!ain c'!!ent of 1)) A when /4311* / and the
th!eshold voltage /439th:10 /$ Ass'e 7 11 ic!on$ 6cell12) ic!ons8 and to@11))) angst!os$
9a: -ow any cells a!e !e+'i!ed fo! this >O3#5T<
9&: -ow 'ch c'!!ent is ca!!ied &y each cell<
22-11 A powe! >O3#5T with a &!ea,down !ating ?/D331;)) / 'st cond'ct 1) aps when on
with a a@i' on-state voltage /D38on10 /$ If the c'!!ent density in the >O3#5T 'st &e
liited to 2)) ACc
2
$ estiate the cond'cting a!ea which is !e+'i!ed$
22-12 6hat is the app!o@iate gate-so'!ce capacitance of the >O3#5T desc!i&ed in P!o&le 22-
1)< The gate o@ide is 1))) angst!os thic,$
22-1. A >O3#5T step-down conve!te! s'ch as shown in #ig$22-1) ope!ates at a switching
f!e+'ency of .) A-" with a *)G d'ty cycle at an a&ient tepe!at'!e of *)
o
C $ The powe! s'pply
/d11)) / and the load c'!!ent Io11)) A$ The f!ee-wheeling diode is ideal &'t a st!ay ind'ctance
of 1)) nanohen!ies is in se!ies with the diode$ The >O3#5T cha!acte!istics a!e listed &elow(
?/D3311*) /O TM8a@11*)
o
C O RA8M-a11
o
CCw O !D39on:1)$)1 oh
T!i1tfi1*) nsO t!s1tfs12)) nsO ID8a@112* A
Is the >O3#5T ove!st!essed in this application and if so$ how< ?e specific and +'antitative in
yo'! answe!$
22-10 Conside the >O3#5T step-down conve!te! ci!c'it shown in #ig$ 22-1)$ The voltage !ise
and fall ties$ t!s and tfs a!e significantly la!ge! than c'!!ent !ise and fall ties$ t!s and tfs
pa!tic'la!ly at la!ge! powe! s'pply voltage9X1)) /:$ ?!iefly e@plain why this is so$ Ass'e
that the val'es of Cgs and Cgd a!e constant and independent of /D3$ That Cgd11Cgd21Cgd8 and that
the f!ee-wheeling diode D8 is ideal$
2.-1 A thy!isto! is connected in se!ies with a load !esisto!
L
R and a %)--" sin'soidal voltage
so'!ce with an !s voltage of /$ A phase cont!ol ci!c'it is 'sed to set the t!igge! angle

so that
a specified ao'nt of powe! is delive!ed to the load $ The on-state voltage of the thy!isto! is given
&y 1$) 9 :
-) -)
V R i t = + whe!e
-)
R is the on-state !esistance of the thy!isto! and I9t: is the c'!!ent
flowing in the ci!c'it th!o'gh
L
R and the thy!isto!$ Develop an e@p!ession fo! the ave!age powe!
dissipated in the thy!isto! as a f'nction of the t!igge! angle

$
2.-2 In P!o&le 2.-18 1
L
R = and 22)
s
V V = $ The thy!isto! cha!acte!istics a!e listed &elow$
The thy!isto! 'st ope!ate in a&ient tepe!at'!es as high as
12) F

$ -ow 'ch powe! can &e

delive!ed to the load and what is the t!igge! angle<
)$))2
-)
R = ;))
RW% B-
V V V = =
9a@:
1)))

I =

9a@:
12*
&
" C =

)$1
& a
R CW

=

2.-. A c!'de estiate of the C

i t
d d liitation in a thy!isto! can &e o&tained f!o the following
odel$ Ass'e a gate-cathode st!'ct'!e s'ch as is shown if #ig$2.-1 fo! a phase cont!ol thy!isto!
and the !adi's of the cent!al gate is
o
r $ 6hen the c'!!ent &egins to !ise at t'!n-on8 it sta!ts o't in a
sall cond'cting a!ea of !adi's
o
r 8 and sp!eads !adially o'twa!d as is ill'st!ated in #ig$2.-;8 with
a velocity of
s
$ The c'!!ent !ises at a constant !ate C
i t
d d fo! a tie
t
t and the anode-cathode
voltage
91 :
* * &
V V t =
d'!ing the c'!!ent !ise inte!val$
If it is ass'ed that all of the powe! dissipated in the thy!isto! d'!ing the t!ansient goes into
!aising the tepe!at'!e
t
" of the t'!ned-on a!ea and none gets to the heat sin,8 then the
tepe!at'!e !ise
t
" is given &y

1
)
1
9 :
t
t
v
" P t dt
C
=

6he!e
v
C is the specific heat of silicon and P9t: is the instantaneo's powe! dissipation in the
t'!n-on a!ea$ Ass'ing the following n'e!ical val'es 8 find the a@i' allowa&le
dv
dt
$
9a@:
1)))
1)) C
)$*
2)
12*
*
s
o
f
&
V V
m s
r cm
t s
" C

=
=
=
=
=

2.-0 A odification to the &asic st!'ct'!e of a thy!isto! has &een p!oposed that consists of p'tting
an
n

laye! &etween the

1
p and
1
n laye!s shown in #ig$2.-.a$ This eans that a p'nch-th!o'gh
st!'ct'!e has &een set 'p fo! M'nction
2
. when it is !eve!se &iased$ 5@plain the advantages and
disadvantages this st!'ct'!e wo'ld have on the thy!isto! cha!acte!istics$
2.-* A thy!isto! is not copletely latched in the on-stage 'ntil the plasa has sp!ead ac!oss the
enti!e c!oss section of the device$ If the thy!isto! of P!o&le 2.-. has a diaete! of ; c8 how
long does it ta,e to !elia&ly &e latched in the on-state <
2.-% 6hy can thy!isto!s &e ade to have la!ge! c'!!ent-ca!!ying capa&ilities in the on-state than
?UTs < Answe! +'alitatively 'sing siple diag!as to e@plain$
2.-2 The doping levels in the siplified thy!isto! st!'ct'!e shown in #ig$2.-.a a!e
1= .
1
1) p cm

= 8
1
< n = 8
12 .
2
1) p cm

= 8 and
1= .
2
1) n cm

= $
9a: 6hat sho'ld &e the app!o@iate thic,ness and doping density of the
1
n laye! if
2)))
B-
BV V = <
9&: App!o@iately estiate the !e+'i!ed e@cess ca!!ie! lifetie in the n1 !egion$
9c: The thy!isto! is to ca!!y a a@i' c'!!ent of 2)))A with a a@i' voltage d!op ac!oss the
d!ift !egion 9n1 !egion: of 2 volts$ 5stiate the !e+'i!ed c!oss-sectional cond'cting a!ea of the
thy!isto!$
2.-; A thy!isto! ca!!ying a a@i' on-state c'!!ent of .))) A is designed so that the a@i'
c'!!ent density is 2)) AC
2
cm
$ The cathode and gate st!'ct'!es &oth occ'py the sae side of the
silicon wafe! s'ch as is shown in #ig$2.-1$ The cathode occ'pies %*G of the a!ea and the gate
occ'pies .*G$ 5stiate the total silicon wafe! a!ea !e+'i!ed fo! this thy!isto! and e@p!ess the a!ea
as the diaete! of an e+'ivalent ci!c'la! a!ea$
2.-= A thy!isto! has an effective cond'ction a!ea of 1)
2
cm
and a &!ea,ove! c'!!ent of *) A$
The doping levels a!e
1= .
1
1) p cm

= 8
10 .
1
1) n cm

= 8
12 .
2
1) p cm

= 8and
1= .
2
1) n cm

=
$App!o@iately estiate the
dv
dt
!ating of this thy!isto!$
2*-1 P-channel >O3#5Ts !e+'i!e a&o't th!ee ties the a!ea on a silicon wafe! to achieve a
pe!fo!ance copa!a&le to an n-channel >O3#5T $ -oweve! 8 p-channel I4?Ts have the sae
a!ea as n-channel I4?Ts8 what a!e the !easons fo! the diffe!ences &etween the I4?T &ehavio! and
>O3#5T &ehavio! <
2*-2 D'!ing t'!n-off$ The d!ain c'!!ent in an I4?T will e@hi&it diffe!ent &ehavio!s depending on
whethe! the ca!!ie! lifetie in the d!ift !egion is longe! o! sho!te!$ P'alitatively s,etch the d!ain
c'!!ent ve!s's tie d'!ing t'!n-off fo! a sho!t-lifetie I4?T and fo! a long-lifetie I4?T and
e@plain the !eason fo! the diffe!ences$
2*-. A p'nch-th!o'gh I4?T will have a highe! o'tp't !esistance in the active !egion 9flatte!
d ds i v

c'!ves in the active !egion: than a non-p'nch-th!o'gh I4?T$ 5@plain why$

2*-0 5stiate the fo!wa!d and !eve!se &!ea,down voltages of the I4?T shown in flag$2*-1$ The
doping levels a!e
1
1 1= .
1) p n cm

= =
8
1
12 .
1) p cm

=
8
1 10 .
1) n cm

=
$ The length
9diension pa!allel to the c'!!ent flow di!ection: of the d!ift !egion is 2*
m
$
2*-* An I4?T and a >O3#5T$ ?oth n-channel devices 8 a!e designed to &loc, voltages as la!ge as
2*) volts in the off-state$ The effective cond'cting a!ea of &oth devices is 2
2
cm
$ If the on-state
voltage is liited to . / o! less8 estiate the on-state c'!!ent each device can cond'ct$ Use
1% .
1)
b
n cm

= as the e@cess ca!!ie! density at which the o&ilities and ca!!ie! lifetie &egin to
dec!ease with inc!easing ca!!ie! density$
2*-% A p'nch-th!o'gh 9PT: I4?T and a non-p'nch-th!o'gh 9NPT: I4?T a!e each designed to
&loc, 12)) / and &oth have the sae effective cond'cting a!ea in the on-state$ 5stiate the
!elative on-state c'!!ent capa&ility of each device ass'ing that &oth devices have the sae on-
state voltage$
2*-2 An I4?T can tole!ate an ove!c'!!ent of conside!a&le agnit'de if its d'!ation is not too long$
Advantage can &e ta,en of this cha!acte!istic in soe ci!c'it designs$ App!o@iately estiate the
ove!c'!!ent capa&ility of an I4?T !ated at 1)))
dss
BV V = $ Ass'e an effective cond'cting a!ea
of )$2*
2
cm
8 an ove!c'!!ent d'!ation of 1) ic!oseconds8 and a a@i' M'nction tepe!at'!e
of .)) C

$ Use
1%
&
1) n = c
-.
as was s'ggested in P!o&le 2*-* $ -int( Recall that
d' d" C
V
= 8 whe!e
= d'
inc!ease in heat ene!gy8 = d" tepe!at'!e inc!ease8 and =
V
C
specific heat pe! 'nit vol'e$
2*-; Conside! an I4?T and a >O3#5T with the sae
dss
BV !ating and the sae on-state c'!!ent
!ating$ 6hich device has the salle! val'es of
$s
C
and
$d
C
and why<
2*-= An I4?T ci!c'it od'le coplete with its own d!ive ci!c'it has &een ade with the
following pe!fo!ance specifications(
;))
D#%
V V = 1*)
D%
I =
;))
ds
dv V
dt s
<

9 :
)$.
on d on ri fv
t t t t s = + + =

9 :
)$2*
off d off ri fv
t t t t s = + + =
This od'le is to &e 'sed in a step-down conve!te! ci!c'it with a diode-claped ind'ctive load$
In this ci!c'it the f!ee-wheeling diode is ideal8 the dc s'pply voltage is 2))
d
V V = 8 the load
c'!!ent 1))
o
I = 8 and the switching f!e+'ency is *) ,-" with a *)G d'ty cycle$ Dete!ine if
the I4?T od'le is ove!st!essed$
2%-1 Const!'ct an e+'ivalent ci!c'it fo! the powe! U#5T 9no!ally-on 3IT: siila! to the
e+'ivalent ci!c'it of the >O3#5T that can &e 'sed fo! estiating switching ties in ci!c'it
applications$ Ass'e that the U#5T is wo!,ing in the t!iode ode$
2%-2 Design a siple d!ive ci!c'it fo! the no!ally-on #CT$ Conside! an a!!angeent of a
>O3#5T in se!ies with the cathode of the #CT$ P'alitatively desc!i&e the ope!ation of the ci!c'it
and coent on the !e+'i!ed cha!acte!istics of the >O3#5T$
2%-. Conside! a powe! diode s'ch as is shown in #ig$ 2)-1$ The diode is to &e fa&!icated in
galli' a!senide and silicon$ And &oth diodes a!e to have the sae on-state voltage d!op and
!eve!se-&loc,ing capa&ility$ 6hich ate!ial can have the sho!te! ca!!ie! lifetie and &y how
'ch<
2%-0 App!o@iately how thic, does an ins'lating laye! of silicon dio@ide 'sed in a high-voltage
IC have to &e in o!de! to hold off 1)))/<
2%-* An N->CT has 1) cells$ The O##-#5T can cond'ct 1* A &efo!e the d!ain-so'!ce voltage
e+'als )$2 /$ 6hat on-state c'!!ent can &e t'!ned off in this >CT<
2%-% Ass'e the >CT in P!o&le 2%-* is a P->CT &'t is othe!wise identical$ 6hat is the
a@i' cont!olla&le >CT c'!!ent<
2%-2 3how that the specific on-state !esistance of a 3chot,y Diode is given &y
Ass'e that the only significant !esistance coes f!o the d!ift !egion of the diode$
2%-; Use the !es'lt of P!o&le 2%-2 to copa!e the specific on-state !esistance of 3chott,y diodes
fa&!icated f!o 3i$ 4aAs$ 3iC$ And diaond$ Ass'e ?/?D1*))/ in all cases$
2%-= 6hich of the seicond'cto! ate!ials listed in Ta&le 2%-1 is ost s'ited fo! devices which
'st ope!ate at elevated tepe!at'!es$ 5@plain on the &asis of f'ndaental physical p!ope!ties and
not on the &asis of c'!!ent fa&!ication technology$ ?e specific and +'antitative whe!e possi&le$
2%-1) 5val'ate 5+s$ 2)-1 and 2)-. n'e!ically fo! 4aAs$ 3iC$ And diaond$
2%-11 Diodes having &!ea,down voltages of 2)) / a!e to &e fa&!icated with 4aAs$ 3iC$ And
diaond$ 7ist in ta&'la! fo! the doping level and d!ift !egion of the diodes fa&!icated with each
ate!ial$
2%-12 Diodes with identical c!oss-sectional a!eas a!e fa&!icated in 3i$ 4aAs$ 3iC$ And diaond$
6hen 'sed in the sae ci!c'it$ 5ach diode dissipates 2)) watts$ In the 3i diode8 the M'nction
!eaches 1*)
o
C$ 6hat is the M'nction tepe!at'!e in the 3iC$ 4aAs$ And diaond diodes< Fo' ay
ass'e that all of the diodes a!e o'nted the sae way and that case tepe!at'!e fo! each diode
is *)
o
C$
2%-1. Conside! the U#5T shown if #ig$ 2%-1$ The diensions shown in the fig'!e have the val'es
given &elow(
611)' O
The doping levels a!e
2%-10 #o! the U#5T desc!i&ed in P!o&le 2%-1.$ ass'e that the!e a!e 2; P
-
gate !egions of depth
61 2)) ' 9diension pe!pendic'la! to the plane of the d!awing:$ #'!the! ass'e that the P
H
!egions a!e each 1) ' wide 9diension pa!allel to the :
2%-1* App!o@iately estiate the &loc,ing voltage capa&ility of the U#5T desc!i&ed in P!o&le
2%-1.$
PART % PRACTICA7 CON/5RT5R D53I4N CON3ID5RATION3
22-1 Conside! the step-down conve!te! ci!c'it shown in #ig$ 20-. witho't the t'!n-on sn'&&e!$
The DC inp't voltage /d is *)) /$ the load c'!!ent Io1*))A8 and the switching f!e+'ency is 1
,-"$ The f!ee-wheeling diode has a !eve!se-!ecove!y tie t!!11)'s $ The 4TO has a c'!!ent fall
tie tft11's a a@i' !eapplied voltage !ate dvCdt1 *)/C's $ and a a@i' cont!olla&le
anode c'!!ent Ia1 1)))A$
9a: #ind the app!op!iate val'es fo! !esistance Rs and capacitance Cs fo! the t'!n-off sn'&&e!
ci!c'it$
9&: 5stiate the powe! dissipated in the sn'&&e! !esistance$
22-2 The 4TO in the ci!c'it of P!o&le 22-1 is to &e p!otected &y a t'!n-on sn'&&e! ci!c'it s'ch
as is shown in #ig$20-.$ The a@i' !ate of !ise of the anode c'!!ent$ diACdt$ Is .)) AC's$ #ind
app!op!iate val'es fo! the ind'ctance and !esistance$
22-. De!ive the e+'ation 95+$ 22-*: fo! the a@i' ove!voltage ac!oss a p'!ely capacitive
sn'&&e!$
22-0 Conside! the fly&ac, conve!te! ci!c'it shown in #ig$ 22-% $The inp't voltage is 1))/ as is the
DC o'tp't voltage$ The t!ansfo!e! has a 1(1 t'!ns !atio and a lea,age ind'ctance of 1) '-$ The
t!ansisto!$ 6hich can &e conside!ed as an ideal switch$ Is d!iven &y a s+'a!e wave with a *)G
d'ty cycle$ The sn'&&e! !esistance is "e!o$ The diode has a !eve!se-!ecove!y tie of )$.'s$
9a: D!aw an e+'ivalent ci!c'it s'ita&le fo! sn'&&e! design calca'lations$
9&: #ind the val'e of sn'&&e! capacitance C that will liit the pea, ove!voltage to 2$* ties the
DC o'tp't voltage$
22-* Repeat P!o&le 22-0 with a !esistance R incl'ded in the sn'&&e! ci!c'it$ #ind &oth the val'e
of sn'&&e! capacitance and opti' val'e of sn'&&e! !esistance$
22-% 5stiate the powe! dissipated in the sn'&&e! !esistance fo'nd in P!o&le 22-0 if the s+'a!e-
wave switching f!e+'ency is 2) ,-"$
22-2 Conside! the step-down conve!te! ci!c'it of #ig$ 22-10 with a p'!ely capacitive sn'&&e!
having C 1 C $ Ass'e I 12*A$ and inp't voltage /d12))/$ and a !eve!se-!ecove!y tie t!!1)$2
's fo! the f!ee-wheeling diode$
9a: Calc'late the !ed'ction in the t'!n-off losses in the ?UT d'e to the 'se of sn'&&e! capacito!$
Ass'e a switching f!e+'ency of 2),-" and a c'!!ent fall tie tf of )$0 's$
9&: Calc'late the inc!ease in ?UT losses d'!ing t'!n-on d'e to C$ Ass'e that d'!ing the t'!n-on
dicCdt1*)AC's$
22-; Repeat P!o&le 22-2 22-2 &'t now 'se a pola!i"ed Rs-Cs sn'&&e! s'ch as is shown in
#ig$22-12$
22-= >odify the single-phase line f!e+'ency diode !ectifie! in #ig$ 22-;a &y !eplacing the diodes
with thy!isto!s$ Replacing Cdc &y a DC c'!!ent so'!ce of val'e I8 and conside! the th!ee ind'cto!s
in se!ies with the %) -" so'!ce / as a single st!ay ind'ctance of val'e 7$ Ass'e that the line
voltage is 2.) / !s$%) -" and that the st!ay line ind'ctance 7 has a agnit'de given &y w7
1)$)*9/CI: whe!e /s is the !s phase voltage and I is the !s val'e of the f'ndaental ha!onic
of the phase c'!!ent$ The thy!isto!s have a !eve!se !ecove!y tie of 1) 's$
9a: 5@plain how a single se!ies RC ci!c'it connected ac!oss the line will se!ve as a t'!n-off
sn'&&e! fo! all fo'! thy!isto!s$
9&: De!ive e+'ations fo! the p!ope! val'es of sn'&&e! capacitance C and sn'&&e! !esistance R as
f'nctions of /8I t!! and othe! ci!c'it pa!aete!s given a&ove$
9c: #ind val'es fo! C and R that will liit the ove!voltage to 1$. ties the pea, line voltage$
22-1) The t'!n-off sn'&&e! fo! a thy!isto! does not incl'de a diode as it does fo! the ?UT and
>O3#5T$ 5@plain why$
22-11 An I4?T ci!c'it od'le coplete with its own d!ive ci!c'it!y has &een ade with the
following pe!fo!ance specifications( /ds1;))/ 8Id11*)A8d/dsCdtQ;))/C's8 ton1td9on:
HtfvHt!i1)$.'s$ toff1td9off:HtfiHt!v1)$2*'s$ This od'le is to &e 'sed in a step-down conve!te!
ci!c'it$ In this ci!c'it the f!ee-wheeling diode is ideal$ The DC s'pply voltage /d12))/$ the load
c'!!ent Io11))A8 and the switching f!e+'ency is *),-" with a *)G d'ty cycle$
9a: 3how that a t'!n-off sn'&&e! is needed fo! the I4?T$
9&: Design a t'!n-off sn'&&e! that will p!oved a facto! of safety of 2 to dvdsCdt$
2;-1 A >O3#5T is to &e 'sed in a step-down conve!te! ci!c'it$ The powe! s'pply voltage
d
/
fo! the ci!c'it is 1))/8 and the load c'!!ent 1)) I
o
= A$ Tote-pole d!ive ci!c'it of #ig$ 2;-%& is
'sed to d!ive the >O35#T$ The ?UTs can &e conside!ed as ideal switches$ Coplete the design of
the d!ive ci!c'it &y specifying the val'es o! a !ange of val'es fo!
+ 00
V 8
00
V and
0
R $ The
!ate of !ise and fall of
D#
v 8 dt dv
D#
'st &e liited to *)) /C
s
o! salle!$ The >O3#5T
pa!aete!s a!e
1))) =
$s
C
p#
0)) =
$d
C
p# 2)) =
D%
I A
2)
9a@:
=
0#
V
/
2)) =
D##
BV /
0
: 9
=
th 0#
V
/ %) =
D
I A at 2 =
0#
V /
2;-2 The step-down conve!te! of #ig$ 2;-1% eploys an #CT with a &loc,ing gain$

$ of 0)$ The
load c'!!ent 2)) =
o
I A and the dc inp't voltage 1))) =
d
V /
9a: 6hat sho'ld &e the val'es of
1 0
R and
2 0
R in o!de! to ens'!e p!ope! ope!ation of the
#CT< Ass'e = + % R R
0 0
1
2 1
and incl'de a 25 facto! of safety in the &loc,ing voltage
capa&ility of the ci!c'it$
9&: Desc!i&e the cha!acte!istics the >O3#5T in this ci!c'it sho'ld have8 incl'ding &!ea,down
voltage and a@i' ave!age c'!!ent capa&ility$
2=-1 Calc'late the the!al !esistance of c'&es with the sae vol'e as the heat sin,s given in
#ig$ 2=-%$ Copa!e the calc'lated
cube
R
$
with the

R given in the fig'!e$ 5@plain why heat

sin, n'&e! = is only a little &ette! than a c'&e8 while heat sin, n'&e! 1 is 'ch &ette!$
2=-2 #ind the val'e of
conv
R
$
8 ass'ing 1)) = " and A11)
2
8 fo! * $ 1 =
vert
d 8 and 2)
$ Plot a g!aph of the !es'lts$
2=-. #ind the val'e of
conv
R
$
8 ass'ing * $ 1 =
vert
d and A11)
2
8 fo!
"
1%)8 ;)8 and
12) $ Plot a g!aph of the !es'lts$
2=-0 #ind the val'e of
conv
R
$
8 ass'ing 12) =
s
" and A11)
2
8 fo!
a
" 11)8 2)8 and
0) $ Plot a g!aph of the !es'lts$
2=-* #ind the val'e of
conv
R
$
8 ass'ing
a
" 10) and A11)
2
8 fo!
s
" 1;)8 1))8 and
10) $ Plot a g!aph of the !es'lts$
2=-% A >O3#5T 'sed in a step-down conve!te! has an on-state loss of *)6 and a switching loss
given &y 1)
-.
fs 9in watts: whe!e fs is the switch f!e+'ency in he!t"$ The M'nction-to-case the!al
!esistance R
$Mc

is 1C6 and the a@i' M'nction tepe!at'!e
a@ $ &
"
is 1*) $Ass'ing the
case tepe!at'!e is *),estiate the a@i' allowa&le switching f!e+'ency$
2=-2 The >O3#5T of p!o&le 2=-% is o'nted on a heat sin, and the a&ient tepe!at'!e
a
"
1.* $If the switching f!e+'ency is 2*,-" 8what is the a@i' allowa&le val'e of the case-to-
a&ient the!al !esistance
ca
R
$
of the heat sin,$Ass'e all othe! pa!aete!s given in P!o&le
2=-% !eain the sae e@cept the case tepe!at'!e which can change$
.)-1 A co!e s'ch as shown in #ig$ .)-* is ade f!o agnetic steel lainations whose o'te!
diensions a!e 0 on a side and whose inne! diensions 9the winding windows: a!e 2 on a
side$ The lainations a!e )$2* thic, and the stac,ing facto! is )$=*$ #o!ty s'ch lainations a!e
'sed to a,e the co!e$ The !esistivity of the co!e cm
core
= .) and the !elative
pe!ea&ility is =))$ An ind'cto! winding wo'nd on the co!e p!od'ce!s a sin'soidal fl'@ density
* $ )
Z
= B
T at a f!e+'ency of 1))-"$
9a: 6hat is the s,in depth in the co!e<
9&: 6hat a!e the total ave!age co!e losses d'e to the eddy c'!!ent<
.)-2 Ass'e that the a@i' s'!face tepe!at'!e
s
" of the co!e of P!o&le .)-1 cannot
e@ceed 1)) and that the a&ient

" neve! e@ceed 0)$ >odel the co!e as a solid !ectang'la!

pa!allelpiped whose o'te! diensions a!e whose given in the p!evio's p!o&le and ass'e an
eissivity 51)$=$
9a: what a!e the a@i' allowa&le co!e losses pe! c'&ic centiete!<
9&: 6hat is the allowa&le
B
Z
at a f!e+'ency of ;)) -"<
.)-. 6hat is the !atio of ene!gy sto!ed in the ai! gap to the ene!gy sto!ed in the co!e of the
e@aple ind'cto! analy"ed 3ection .)-0< Ass'e a !elative pe!ea&ility 2)) =
r
fo! the
fe!!ite$
.)-0 Design an ite!ative t!ansfo!e! design p!oced'!e fo! the sit'ation whe!e a coplete co!e
data&ase is not availa&le$ 3how the design p!oced'!e flowcha!t and state !easona&le val'es fo! any
initial val'es of pa!aete!s to get the ite!ation la'nched$ Use the ind'cto! ite!ative design
p!oced'!e as a odel$
.)-* An ind'ctance of 2*) W- is needed fo! a powe! elect!onic conve!te! ope!ation at 1)) ,-"$ A
sin'soidal c'!!ent of * A !s a@i' flows th!o'gh the ind'cto!$ The only co!e availa&le is a
do'&le-5 co!e having a diension * $ 1 = and ade f!o .#. fe!!ite ate!ial$ The
a@i' s'!face tepe!at'!e 12*
s
"
and the a&ient .*

"
$ A co!e data&ase is
shown &elow$ 7it" wi!e is 'sed fo! the winding$
(cm)
2
(cm
2
)
core
(cm
2
)
2
V (cm
3
)
core
V (cm
3
)
sa
R

(C6:
1$* .$1* .$.; .0$1 0*$% .$0
9a: Dete!ine the a@i' ind'ctance
a@
L that can &e wo'nd on the co!e$
9&: Dete!ine the !e+'i!ed ai!-gap length

$
that will !es'lt in the a@i' co!e fl'@
density when the c'!!ent in the ind'cto! is a@i' 9* A !s:$ Ass'e fo'! dist!i&'ted
gaps$
.)-% /e!ity 5+$9.)-12a: fo! coppe! at 1))$ Ass'e
Cu
91)):12$2[1)
-;
Y-$
.)-2 3how that
Cu
91)):12*C f 9: whe!e
f
is in he!t"$
.)-; An ind'cto! that has winding loss and co!e loss can &e odeled with an e+'ivalent ci!c'it
consisting of an ind'ctance
L
in se!ies with a !esistance
R
$ #o! the e@aple ind'cto! e@ained
in 3ection .)-08 find the val'e of !esisto!
R
in the e+'ivalent ci!c'it$ Ass'e that c'!!ent in the
ind'cto! is at the a@i' val'e of 0 A !s$
.)-= 5stiate the +'ality facto!
'
of the ind'cto! of P!o&le .)-;$ Ass'e a f!e+'ency of 1))
,-"8 the sae specified in 3ection .)-0$
.)-1) 6hat is the ac voltage ac!oss the ind'cto! of P!o&le .)-; and .)-= at a f!e+'ency of 1))
,-"<
.)-11 An ind'cto! is 'sed in a ci!c'it that ca'ses the co!e fl'@ to have the waveshape shown in
#ig$ .)-1 with
2)) =
av$
B
T and
B
Z
1.))T$ The !ipple f!e+'ency is 0)) ,-" and co!e
ate!ial is .#. whose loss cha!acte!istic is shown in #ig$ .)-2$ #ind the specific powe! loss in the
ind'cto! co!e$
.)-12 Ass'e that the ind'cto! of P!o&le .)-11 can &e odeled as a c'&e that is 2 c on each
side$ The ind'cto! is &lac, and has an eissivity of )$=$ #ind the s'!face tepe!at'!e
s
" of the
ind'cto! if the a&ient tepe!at'!e

" 10)$93eve!al ite!ations of ass'ing a t!ial val'e of

s
" 8 calc'lating
sa
R

8 and then calc'lating a co!!ected val'e of

s
" ay &e necessa!y$: Ass'e
sp 2 sp c
P P
8 8
=
$
.)-1. The ind'cto! of P!o&le .)-11 is 'sed in a diffe!ent ci!c'it that ca'ses a fl'@ density
: sin9 : 9 t B t B = with .)) = B T and the f!e+'ency
f
11)) ,-"$ The ind'cto! can still &e
odeled as a c'&e as was done in P!o&le .)-12$
9a: #ind the specific co!e loss
core sp
P
8
$
9&: The s'!face tepe!at'!e
s
" is to &e held at =) when the a&ient tepe!at'!e

" 1.)$
The ind'cto! can &e o'nted on a heat sin,8 if necessa!y8 to p!ovide an additional heat flow path
to ,eep the ind'cto! tepe!at'!e at =)$ Dete!ine if the heat sin, is needed and if so8 what the
the!al !esistance of the heat sin, sho'ld &e$
.)-10 An ind'cto! is 'sed in a ci!c'it that ca'ses the a@i' ind'cto! c'!!ent to &e ; =
rms
I A
9sine wave:$ The ind'cto! is identical to that disc'ssed in 3ection .)-0 e@cept that the n'&e! of
t'!ns .. = ) and the coppe! a!ea
Cu
112;
2
$ 6hat is the val'e of the ind'ctance
L
<
Ass'e that the sae type of cond'cto! is 'sed in &oth ind'cto!s$
.)-1* An ind'cto! is to &e designed to have a val'e 1*) = L W#$ The c'!!ent th!o'gh the
ind'cto! is to &e 0 =
rms
I A 9sine wave: at a f!e+'ency of 1)) ,-"$ The ind'cto! is wo'nd on the
sae co!e 9 1 = c: as was 'sed in the e@aple of 3ection .)-0$ Ass'e that the ai!-gap length

$
!eains constant at the val'e

$
1. fo'nd in 3ection .)-0$ #ind the !e+'i!ed
n'&e! of t'!ns ) $
.)-1% Ass'e that the ind'cto! of P!o&le .)-1* has the sae s'!face a!ea as the ind'cto!
disc'ssed in 3ection .)-08 the sae a@i' s'!face tepe!at'!e of 1))8 and that the ave!age
length of each t'!n is the sae as the ind'cto! of 3ection .)-0$ If the powe! dissipated in the
winding 12 $ . =
2
P 6 fo! the ind'cto! of P!o&le .)-1*8 find the following(
9a: The c'!!ent density in the winding of the new ind'cto!$
9&: The !atio of the coppe! weight in the new ind'cto! to that of the ind'cto! of 3ection .)-0$
.)-12 The ind'cto! of P!o&le .)-1* dissipates a total powe! . $ % =
tot
P 6$ The c'!!ent
0 =
rms
I A 9sine wave: at a f!e+'ency of 1)) ,-"$ #ind the following(
9a: The c'!!ent density in the winding of the new ind'cto!$
9&: The !atio of the coppe! weight in the new ind'cto! to that of the ind'cto! of 3ection .)-0$
.)-1; The ai!-gap length

$
fo! the ind'cto! of P!o&le .)-1* is !ed'ced to ,eep the co!e
fl'@
core
B
Z
constant at 122 T$ #ind the n'&e! t'!ns ) now needed to !eali"e an ind'ctance
1*) = L W-$
.)-1= Ass'e that the ind'cto! of P!o&le .)-1; has the sae s'!face a!ea as the ind'cto! of
3ection .)-0 and the sae tepe!at'!e diffe!ence
a s
" " $ #ind the following(
.)-2) An ind'cto! is to &e ade 'sing an do'&le-5 co!e siila! to that in #ig$ .)-% whe!e
a d * $ 1 = $ -oweve!8 the window diensions
a a
b h * $ 2 = a!e independent of a$ Ass'e
a Cu
) 2 $ ) = whe!e
2
* $ 2
a a
b = is the window a!ea$ The a@i' c'!!ent density
2* $ % =
rms
. AC
2
8 the pea, fl'@ density 2 $ ) =
ac
B 6&C8 the ind'ctance . $ ) = L -8 and
the a@i' c'!!ent in the ind'cto! is 0 A !s 9sine wave:$
9a: #ind
a
b and
a
h as f'nctions of the n'&e! of t'!ns ) $
9&: #ind a and d as f'nctions of the n'&e! of t'!ns ) $
9c: #ind
2
V and
core
V as f'nctions of ) $
9d: Plot
core 2
V V + as f'nctions of ) $ #o! what val'e of ) is the total vol'e a ini'<
9e: Ass'e that the cost of the 97it": winding coppe! ate!ial pe! 'nit vol'e is twice the cost of
the co!e ate!ial pe! 'nit vol'e$ #o! what val'e of ) is the cost of the ind'cto! ate!ial 9co!e
pl's winding: a ini'<
.)-21 The o&Mective of this p!o&le is to show that the volt-ape!e !ating of a t!ansfo!e!8 given
&y 5+$ .)-**8 is app!o@iately a a@i' when the powe! dissipation density in the t!ansfo!e!
is 'nifo!8 that is8 when
sp 2
P
8
e+'als
sp core
P
8
$ This !es'lt also applies to ind'cto!s$
9a: 3how that
cu 2 2 " rms
k C V P . C : 1 9 = whe!e
n
V is the winding vol'e and
n
C is a
n'e!ical constant$
9&: 3how that
0 $ ) . $$ 1
R C S f VC P B
C " ac
= whe!e
core
V is the co!e vol'e$
c
C is a
n'e!ical constant8
"
c
P
P
=
8 and
c
P is the powe! dissipated in the co!e$
9c: Use the !es'lts of pa!ts 9a: and 9&: to show that # is a a@i' when 00 $ ) = $
9d: 4!aph
a@
C : 9 # # fo! )$1QVQ)$=$ #o! what !ange of V is the !atioX)$=8 that is8 fo! what
!ange of V is : 9 # X)$=
a@
# <
9e: 6hat is V and
sp c sp 2
P P
8 8
C
fo! the t!ansfo!e! designed in 3ection .)-=-.<
.)-22 In the disc'ssion of the t!ansfo!e! design p!oced'!e8 two seeingly diffe!ent ways of
finding the !e+'i!e c!oss-sectional a!ea$
pri Cu

8
of the winding cond'cto!s we!e p!esented 95+s$
.)-.2a and .)-.;:$ Deonst!ate that these two ways a!e e+'ivalent &y showing that each ethod
yields the sae val'es fo! the a!eas$ 9-int( !ecall that t!ansfo!e! is designed s'&Mect to the
const!aint of the volt-ape!e p!od'ct$:
.)-2. An e+'ivalent ci!c'it fo! a t!ansfo!e! is given in #ig$ .-21&$ #ind n'e!ical val'es fo! the
coponents of this ci!c'it 'sing the t!ansfo!e! designed in 3ection .)-=-.8 which 'ses solid
!ectang'la! cond'cto!s$ 3plit the lea,age ind'ctance into two e+'al val'es and ass'e 2)) =
r

fo! the fe!!ite co!e$

.)-20 Repeat P!o&le .)-2. fo! the t!ansfo!e! wo'nd with 7it" wi!e$
.)-2* The t!ansfo!e! designed in 3ection .)-=-. is to &e 'sed at a f!e+'ency of .)) ,-"$
Othe!wise all othe! inp't elect!ical pa!aete!s !eain the sae$ 6hat will &e the tepe!at'!e
s
"
of the t!ansfo!e!< Ass'e 7it" wi!e is 'sed fo! the wingdings<