CHAPTER 1 Ferdinand and Isabella split spain, but it was united by Growth of lending for interest which had
united by Growth of lending for interest which had been
characteristic of modern civilizations
Technological, military, political, scientific and
economic apparatus
Equality (of religion, class, race, sex, etc.)
Indo-European
The ancient migrants who came from lands like Iran and
India to form the Greeks and Romans and who merged
with and imposed their language on the current
inhabitants
Their languages include Latin, Greek, Germanic, Slavic,
Celtic, and Baltic languages
Caesaropapism
Caesar is a God and is the only sovereign ruler on earth
One man is ruler and Pontiff
successors had spiritual authority
Charelemagne
Frankish king crowned Emperor of the west by the pope
in an attempt to gain back lands lost to Muslims and to
fend off or convert heathen barbarians; unify the lands
Restorations
revive forgotten ancient learning and spread education at
least among clergy
Success
west was slightly united and somewhat more learned
Methods
brought scholars to his palace school
manuscripts were copied
created more reliable coinage based on silver
Limitations
new barbarian attacks
refusal of eastern Christians to recognize western
primacy of pope
Feudalism
Serfdom – peasants “bound to the soil” of the manor of
the lord
Fiefs – parcels of land given to vassals by lords for
service
Oaths – vassals took oaths to serve and to advise him in
his court
Homage
fealty
Manoralism
Self-sufficiency – peasants do farming and simple crafts
in return lord gives protection
Integration with feudalism – two way street of support
from lord to servant
guilds and towns
towns were made by their gaining of political rights
through charters given out by a king
guilds were associations of merchants and craftsmen
men’s guilds were for masonry, smithing, etc
women could also join guilds but mostly in the clothing
industry
medieval economy and survival
survival in towns was set up by the towns folk: guards,
walls, and any other defenses were provided for the
good of the town
economically trade in towns was like the defense it was
mainly to keep the town running; few worked to make a
profit and those that did were mistrusted
Early parliaments
Started when the king had “talks” with representatives of
towns, the clergy and the lords
Called cortes in Spain, diets in Germany, Estates
General or provincial estates in France, and parliaments
in Britain
Used by king to publicize and strengthen their rule;
convenient to explain policies, request money
Had no right to dictate the king and his government
Parliaments allowed to state grievances
Represented not the “nation” or the “people” but the
“estates”: First – Clergy, Second – landed nobles, Third
– the burghers of chartered towns
Church reform
HRE formed in an attempt to preserve and extend
Christian faith
Cluniac monastery in France – Christian ideal to which
all clergy and laity might look up; recognized only
authority of Rome
Pope Nicholas II – future popes to elected by cardinals
Hildebrand (Gregory VII) – no marriage in clergy, no
noble could appoint a clergyman
↑ Lay investiture – process by which the emperor (a
layman) conferred on the bishop the signs of his spiritual
authority; prohibited by Gregory VII
CHAPTER 2
Vernacular bible
Reading in own language hugely liberating from church
Could salvation be achieved without church?
Reformation and institutions of the modern state;
Secularization
Modern views on education, progress
Erasmus
Supported reform through education
Made greek and latin new testament, and encouraged
reading it
Wrote “Praise of Folly” satirizing pretentious clergy
weaknesses of the church – simony, plural benefices
poor education of priests, etc
Simony = selling of church offices
Nepotism = inheriting church offices
Indulgences were sold (Tetzel was notorious for this)
Church unable to reform in 13th century
The aims of liberal education for Renaissance
Separate classes by level of education
Manners were valued
Well roundedness appreciated
Council of Trent
Charles V wanted to have reform council, hampered by
Francis I
Council wanted to define Catholicism without making
concessions to Protestantism
Avoided expanding powers of councils
Justification by a combination of faith and works,
contrary to Luther
Reaffirmed seven sacraments, trans-substantiation
confession, and absolution
Latin was to be the language of the Mass
Priests were to be celibate
Monasticism, purgatory, indulgences, saints, the cult of
the Virgin, images, relics, and pilgrimages were
approved
Ignatius Loyola
Founded Jesuits
Organized, missionary force
Part of catholic revival
New Monarchs" of the 15th century
What they did
Allied with middle class, defusing feudal power
Developed new foot soldier armies with pikes and
longbows
Replaced feudal law with Roman law, and had ultimate
ruler decide law
Tudor rulers in England began with Henry VII, banned
private noble armies
In France Louis XI Valois built army and taxed
Later Francis I secured Concordant of Bologna, trading
money for church offices
was thinking substance and extended substances,
marriage and faith denounced by religion thinking being subjective and extended objective
Religious mystics of northern Europe Rise of mercantilism reasoning). Both believed in the bower of knowledge
Sought religion without church, more personal Edict of Nantes and human progress.
Renaissance characteristics of person… Protestantism was to be allowed among nobles or in modern idea of progress – held by science advocates:
Individual achievement was valued towns “true knowledge is usefull knowledge, the world is
Humans were great, everything focused on us Passed by Henry of Navarre mathematical, we should use these principasl and what
Value of scholarship 30 years war we can empirically verfy to progress society.”
Boniface VIII War of HRE (germany) The Ptolemaic view of the universe- geocentric,
In 1290 Philip IV (France) and Edward I (England) German civil war because of religion and government everything revolves around the earth. All outside plantes
taxed church problems are celestial orbs around the earth. Stars are perfect
Boniface denounced this and declared pope superiority International war between Bourbons v. Habsburgs, points of light (this was challenged by galileo’s
to Kings Spanish v. Dutch observation of the sun’s spots showing imperfection).
Philip IV arrested him Mercenary soldiers benefitted Suggested a belief that these were the heavens.
This led to 70 years of Babylonian Captivity in France, Germany wrecked as a result Copernicus' great contribution – challenged Ptolemaic
reducing church’s reputation defenestration view. Held that the sun was the center of the solar
Great Schism from 1378 to 1414 between those the act of throwing someone out a window system and the whold universe. He tried to explain
following roman and French pope Defenestration of Prague helped start 30 years war when mathematically based upon cycles and epicycles of what
Unam Sanctam protestants attacked catholics he called planets (formerly called heavenly orbs).
Boniface VIII papal bull declaring papal supremacy (see Huguenots John Kepler's laws of planetary motion – kepler
above) French protestants, disliked by Philip II discovered that the orbits of planets were perfect
Ultramontanism Albert of Wallenstein ellipses. Showed the speed at which planets circle the
Catholic interpretation placing pope as really important Led army pillaging in 30 years war sun is relative to their distance from it. (the proof was
Lorenzo Valla Supported Catholicism based on confusing math)
Controversial Italian humanist, rhetorician, and educator Treaty of Westphalia Tycho Brahe- greatest authority on the movement of
Criticized some church higher ups Resolved 30 years war orbs right after copernicu’s generation and never
Book of the Courtier Renewed peace of Augsburg accepted the conpernican theory, his assistant was
Written by Castiglione demonstrating renaissance ideal Made 300 German states sovereign kepler.
person, characteristics being: siglo de oro Galileo- used a telescope to see moon’s craters and
knowledgeable in classical subjects, proficient in sports Spanish Golden Age from 1550 to 1650 similarity to the earth. Noticed jupiter’s moon. Saw
and arms, and able to dance and appreciate music Coincided with Spanish Habsburg dynasty imperfections in the sun. Proved the Copernican theory
Condottiere armanda católica to many. Renounced his learning’s at stake of death my
mercenary soldier leaders Spanish armada defeated by Drake the Catholic church.
Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges Encomiendia Newton's law of universal gravitation – used his
Issued by Charles VII of France requiring General Similar to English feudal system invention of calculus to prove. The reason the planets
Church Council superior to pope to meet once per English landowner (in new world) employed natives move is cause of gravity. Wrote the mathematical
decade trading cities , tolerance and commerce…. principals of modern philosophy.
Opposed by popes (obviously) Tolerance grew from exposure to different cultures the Royal Society of London and the Academy of
virtu Commerce expanded with new trade routes, especially Sciences in France – represent the persuit of knowledge
coined by Machiavelli across continents being institutionalized.
includes pride, bravery, strength Trading cities were colonial centers of trade, bringing the exploration of the world overseas. – helped by
qualities desirable for a man revenue to mother country metwons understanding of force and gravity as
"livery and maintenance" CHAPTER 4 constants. Allowed understanding of latitude,
Livery referred to mercenary soldier’s uniform showing balance of power- Technique used against universal mapmaking, and timepieces. Jesuits showed the
allegiance to lord monarchy, not to preserve peace, but to preserve similarity of people overseas to europeans.
Maintenance was payment or legal favors sovereignty skepticism – newtons theories challenged religious
Star Chamber Bousset- advanced teaching that kings power comes teachings leading to skepticism since religion cannot be
English court of law to convict prominent people from God, if king doesn’t reflect will of God, then proven.
Came to represent corruption people can overthrow king Pierre Bayle- proponent of skepticism. Wrote about
War of the Roses Commercial Code- Colbert- replaced much of the local hayle’s comment. Wrote the historical and critical
Picked up where 100 years war left off (1450’s) customary law with a new model of business and dictionary (sortof an encyclopedia of random stuff).
Private baron armies (see livery and maintainance) regulation. Built roads and canals, assured quality of witches – ability to understand nature based on science
Jacqueries products. Subsidies, tax exemptions, monopolies was seen as many as the makr of a wtich. These witch
French peasant revolt during hundred years war conflict between the secular and the sacred in the trials eventually stopped due to the rising empahsis on
Catholic Reformation 17th century- France=secular, secular wins in history evidence and verifying claims of guilt.
Initiated by Charles V After Luther’s split Corneille's plays , their themes and the Age of the Sun paleontology. – supported the earth being much older
Council of Trent King than the church claimed. Forced people to reconsider
New orders (eg. Jesuits) Declaration of Indulgence- Charles II announced the religion’s stance on the history of the world and
inquisition nonenforcements of laws against dissenters. Chuck creation.
John Calvin's theology favored toleration, but really to support Catholics chronology. – new emphasis that came with more
Similar to Lutheranism but more strict Diggers- occupied and cultivated common lands, or scholarly historical accuracy. Many doubted word of
Believed in predestination with “elect” going to heaven lands privately owned. In general a repudiation of mouth based history and the motives of historians so
Honest work was pleasing to God property. they had to back up their claims about history, which led
Sisters and brothers of the common life fast swords" and Richlieu to chronology as well.
Took no vows Glorious Revolution of 1688-portrayed as vindicating Biblical criticism- sparked by people such as simon and
Helped the poor, emphasized Christian values the principles of parliamentary government the rule of Spinoza. Simon wrote critical history of the old
Charles V law and even the right of rebellion against tyranny. testament. He was the first to concluded that Catholicism
His reign constitutes the pinnacle of Habsburg power Great Tax Farms- a tariff union set up in France, was still upheld by the symbolic meaning of the bible,
Ruler of HRE from 1519 to 1556 Levelers- radical political democrats, John Lilburne, but that genisis and other books were clearly historically
Opposed protestant reformation and council of trent appealed to natural rights, universal manhood sufferage, inaccurate and not true. He was an othrodox catholic.
Machiavelli written constitution Spinoza was a jew who said that god didn’t really exist
Wrote “The Prince” Long Parliament-Charles I created it when English except that we contain him in ourselves. (i.e. that all is
Aimed to convince Italians of need for unity parliament wouldn’t help him raise funds to put down an aspect of God). He denied devine inspiration and all
Stated that “men act in their own political interest” Scottish rebellion that any gov was just. Bassed his teaching on a strict
“The end justifies the means” Louis XIV-expansionist, wanted to get Spain for code of intellectual ethics.
One of many brilliant men in florence himself John Locke- wrote about two things: about knowledge
CHAPTER 3 Navigation Acts- Cromwell, in effort to further English and society. He claimed that all are born with blank
interestsBarred dutch ships from carrying goods between minds at Tablua Rasa. He said you are shaped by
Vasco de Gama other countries and England or its colonies. society. He said that society is about the pursuit of life,
Portuguese man that pioneered trade around Africa with Oliver Cromwell-Protestant, organized liberty, and property. Property being the big emphasis,
indies ironsides(badasses) in New Model Army 1640, most he was all about indivdual rights and in some sense was
Traveled around cape of good hope in 1498 powerful political force in parliament one of the most modern philosophers. He influenced
Albuquerque Parlements- French courts of law, each being the American revolution as well. He believed in democracy
First governor general of Portugal supreme court for a certain area of the country. upheld type government.
Developed trade stations, very important for Portugal certain “fundamental laws” that the king could not The philosophy of natural law- all are born with
Fugger overstep natural rights that aren’t granted by or stripped by the
Family of European bankers Presbyterian- As the price of support from the Scottish government or society. Based on the powers of
reasoning and unserstanding. Justified cosmopolitanism
Replaced Medici army in Eng civil war, Solemn League and Covenant
Calvin said that religion in England, Scotland and Ireland (i.e. everyone should be helped, not just the USA)
Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf- wrote about law
When Philip II inherited Netherlands Calvinists revolted should be best of reformed religions, thus Presb.
See below for reaction Pride's Purge and rump- Cromwell drove out of nations. Govs should protect common good, that’s
why they exist.
Duke of Alva parliament leaving about 50-60 left, a rump
Executed thousands of rebelling calvanists, confiscated Roundheads-English parliamentary forces that had Relativism- pretty much the same thing as skepticism,
just says morality is relative to culture and not to some
estates close haircuts b/c were Puritan. Gained military victories
Resulted in unity against spain with New Model army over arching good. Says that things are verfyable.
William the Silent Ship money- money raised without parliamentary CHAPTER 7
Also called William of orange consent by Charles I to pay to modernize navy. Alarmed asymmetrical relationship
leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off property owners who didn’t want to pay for policies they Elites could share in popular culture by attending public
the 80 Years' War didn’t support amusements/ interacting with servancts
supported freedom of religion Test Act- officeholders must take communion in church Populars could not share in elite culture without
Mary, Queen of Scots of England, anit-dissenters, especially Catholic exceptional transformation- marriage/eduction- rare
Allied with William/Netherlands The Asiento -granted privledge of providing spanish Asia market
Many plotted for her to be queen of England america with african slaves. much wealth was built on Gold drain – Asians rejected European manufactured
Catherine de'Medici slave trade. permitted one shipload of british goods to be goods, all Asians wanted was gold in exchange for their
Widow of Henry II in France brough to Panama spice, china, cotton, rugs, silks
Ordered St. Bartholomew’s day massacre killing CHAPTER 6 plantation system of the 18th century
hugonauts science became modern- intellectual revolution of the economic unit : land + capital investment + forced/slave
Sir Francis Drake seventeenth century. Science now predicated upon truth, labor = cheap sugar
renowned pirate awarded knighthood in 1581 by Queen mathematics, varification, and evidence (distinct from The transmission of culture
Elizabeth I things like alchemy and astrology that were purely bs Elites – books, word of mouth within favored family and
hero to English, pirate to Spaniards “science”. social circles
Admiral de Colingny The scientific revolution of the seventeenth century Popular- oral – difficult to reconstruct- more resistant to
Huguenot leader in the French Wars of Religion had repercussions- increasingly affected practival change perspectives
Gustavus Aldophus affairs, intering into health, wealth, and happiness. African slaves trade
Founder of Swedish empire Changed size of populations and use of materials, Increased rapidly with development of plantation
Led his armies as king, eventually dying in 30 years war revolutionized methods of production, transportation, economy (sugar, cotton)
Colbert etc. Changed the ideas of God and religion. Helped Slaves reached Virginia before pilgrims
French minister of finance from 1665 to 1683 under the spread certain very deep-seated believes, such as that the 610,000 slaves brought to Jamaica 1700-1786
rule of King Louis XIV physical universe is essentially orderly and harmonious. Dominated by Britain and New England
Brought the economy back from the brink of Laid foundation for democracy and better social Fundamental economic institution that led to the rapid
bankruptcy relations (people cite phycholgy of freud). growth of trade within the Britiish empire and the
Richlieu Leonardo da Vinci – renaissance man: he was an artist, phenomenal rise of British capitalism
After Henry IV was assassinated, was advisor to widow as well as a scientist. His science was not published. He Education after 1550
Marie is a human example of how science requires on Met by wide outburst of philanthropy
Discouraged private warfare and dueling transmission of thought and experimentation. Wide range of social classes
politiques Francis Bacon and René Descartes- the two were In terms of religion
Moderates seeking peace to save France from anarchy, prophets of a scientific world. Both asked how is is Religion served as equalizing agent
Henry of Navarre was one possible for human beings to know anything with Everyone subject to same moral obligations that
The Wars of Religion in France certainty, shared in doubts of their day, branded former transcended social class
Protestants led by Admiral de Coligny and Henry of thought (w/ exception of religion) as wrong, attacked Differences existed where separate churches based on
Bourbon earlier methods of seeking knowledge, rejected class
Catholics led by Guise family shoolmen and scholastics, rejected Aristotle. Bacon: Elite- becoming skeptical
St. Bartholomew’s day massacre pioneer of inductive reasoning (only make conclusions Popular- internal mission work, limited access in some
Commercial Revolution upon fact, not based upon unsupported assumptions areas
Steady population growth sucha s deductive reasoning). Wrote the Great Renewal South Sea Bubble refers to
Rising prices and was an advocate of empiricism. Wrote new atlantis Formed to exploit asiento and other commercial
Putting out system about scientific utopia (ruled by science). Said that true privileges extorted from Spain
Distributing labor to rural workers knowledge was useful knowledge. Descartes: brilliant Held government debts
Avoided restrictive guilds mathematician. Invented geometry and wrote Discourse Stocks overvalued
Greater international trade on Method. Wrote about Cartesian dualism (that there Stockholders began to sell, panic
Collapse of company – people lose all their money
Fairs, carnivals (farewell to meat) were expressions
of popular culture
Contact with outside world – goods and information
from outside
Entertainment
Place for drinking, merrymaking
“World turned upside down”- role reversal  men
wearing women’s clothes, servants ordering masters
Revolutionary attitudes possible expressed
Proceeded Lent
Large tariff-free internal markets;
France and Britain had huge tariff- free internal markets
Great deal of economic activity domestic, exchange
between towns
Foreign trade becoming increasingly important
The Dutch
Lost political power
Remain middle men in trade
Led commerce, shipping, finance
Lowest shipping rates in the world
Financed everything
British and French won the commercial rivalry of
18th century
Shows need for diplomatic, military, capital, and naval
support
British and French had high levels of domestic
production and national governments that protected
mercantile interests
Led to immense profits- France leader in Europe and
Middle East, Britain in America and Asia
New wealth of Western Europe in the 18th century
Married with aristocrats
Mainly happened if you were a merchant
Ex. Thomas Pitt in England, Jean-Jospeh Laborde in
France
The relationship between the wealthy and national
governments during 1700’s
If wealthy supported government by taxes and loans, it
was strong (Britain)
If wealth did not support government, it failed(France)
Merchants who grew wealthy in the global trade of
the 18th century
Thomas Pitt in England – worked in India – interloper –
traded in defiance of legal monopoly of East India
Company
Bought diamond which sold for many time its value
got seat in House of Commons
prominent children – Wiliam Pitt
Jean-Jospeh Laborde in France
Built vast plantations in Santo Domingo- raised huge
amounts of money to pay for revolutions (American,
French)
guillotined
Louis XV
Got throne at young age, nobles took advantage of weak
regent – Duke of Orleans
Reemergence of aristocracy
Indolent, selfish
Parliament
Different from parlements of France
Effective machine for conduct of public business
Corrupt, slow, expensive- but effective
House of Lords, House of Commons- made up of the
wealthy and mainly representing money interests
The global economy of the 18th century
dominated by Dutch, British and French
Companies such as the East India Company:
Set up to trade internationally
Became holders of government debt and received
monopolies
British and French companies succeeded
Cardinal Fleury ;
Came to power after bubbles in France
Aimed at peace like Walpole, drawn into small war
Repudiated debts
George I
House of Hanover
King of Britain
Supported by Whigs who feared that they would lose
money that they had lent to government if James III
came and took over
Also feared they might lose principles of Glorious
Revolution
Walpole- Britain
Became principal minister to George I
Saved principle institutions
Did not default on debts- established a sinking fund by
which government regularly set aside the money to pay
interest and principal on its obligations, and ultimately
paid all debts
“Let the sleeping dogs lie”
Called first prime minister and architect of cabinet
government- cabinet responsibility to majority in
parliament
Saw to it that majority supported him by rigging
Avoided sticky issues
Supported Bank, trading compnies, financial interests
John Law
Scottish financier
Founded Bank of France
set up Mississippi Company – founded New Orleans,
absorbed other trading companies- monopoly of colonia
trade
shares rose rapidly, confidence was lost and a crash
followed
picked up entire French government debt – proposing to
pay debts by colonial profits and the right to collect all
French indirect taxes
working cabinet government
Set up by Robert Walpole
Cabinet government- a system in which the prime
minister and the ministers who head the cabinet
department are also members of the legislative body
The Whig and Tory parties
Parties tended to dissolve after 1714
Whigs – government and Anglican bishops close to
government, supported George I of Hanover
Tories- against government, suspicious
"Mississippi" bubbles
See John Law
In the aftermath of the "bubbles"
Indignation
Development of joint stock financing slowed down
In France –
Bank of France ended
Growth of capitalism retarded
Government repudiated debt  discouraged people
from lending to government, lost credit. Could not tap
wealth of subjects
Tax reform prevented
Britain responded better-
Walpole saved institutions
Did not default on credit – British government gained
trust and confidence of lenders
Bubble Act- forbid all companies except those
specifically chartered by the overnment to raise capital
by sale of stock
Trading monopoly
Government got money by chartering companies, giving
them monopokies, and then receiving large cash reserve
as a loan – happened with companies that had bubbles
and collapsed for most part. Ex. South Sea Co.
Granted to East India Company and other companies
that assumed government debt
the national language
national language grammer and spelling regularized
spoken by elites/educated- enabled educated to
participate in elite institutions of government,
commerce, proessions
sign of elite until spread of universal education
Local dialect
Patois in French,Volkssprache in German
Local vernacular
Spoken by populars
Hogarth
Painter of “Gin Lane” depicting popularity and dangers
of alcohol in the lives of Britain’s working classes-
shows public drunkenness in streets of london
Regency
Period of the reign of the Duke of Orleans
Aristocratic reemergence
Non-jurors
Group of Anglican clergy who refused oath of loyalty
Outside official church
Guinea
Gold Coast
Became name of a gold coin minted in England
putting out system
aka domestic system
Entrepreneurs created division of labor
Gave group tool to do specific job, and then passed on to
next specialized group to create finished good- cottage
industry
Lasted till industrial capitalism
Merchants + producers +buyers and sellers
the old aristocracy and the new rich of the merchant
classes:
intermarried
women played essential economic role in carefully
arranged marriage that both protected and increased the
wealth of upper class families
Bourgeois and aristocratic merged
James III
Called the Pretender
Newest in line of exiled Stuart throne
Supported by Jacobites
Attempted to take throne in 1715 and 1745
Chartered private companies
Government chartered companies that helped with debt
like East India Company, etc
Madness of crowds
possibly related to the frenzies during bubbles
18th century warfare
slow, formal, elaborate, indecisive
armies consisted of economically worthless in society
Weaponry- smooth bore muskets, limited cannon
Fought between governments. Fought for power,
prestiegem calculated practical interests, not for
ideologies, moral principles, or ways of life
The War of Austrian Succession:
Frederick the Great of Prussia – invaded Silesia, justified
by “reason of state”, violated Pragmatic Sanction
powers(France, Spain, Prussia) united against Maria
Theresa of Austria, supported by Hungarians, Holland,
British, Dutch
British navy beat French in North America and took
control
Lower class disturbances in this century
French revolution towards end of the century
Otherwise, mostly calm even though peasants had a hard
time and bore the burden of taxes
CHAPTER 8
Philosophes – French “philosopher”; approach any
subject in a critical/inquiring spirit
Popularizers – made ideas of enlightenment accessible to
the growing reading public
Montesquieu Rousseau, Voltaire
Age of “Democratic Revolution” – term used to
describe the revolutions between 1776-1848 in which
modern democratic principles were affirmed
Revolutionary movement expressed as a demand for
liberty and equality
Everything associated with feudalism, absolutism, and
inherent right (save the right to property) was rejected
Frederick the Great – leader of Prussia
Old Fritz
Enlightenment not based on his ruling innovations but
his intellectual prowess
Wanted to enlighten his people and make them happy
Stratified Prussia – taxes and land ownerships were
different for each class
Peasants were considered the lord’s “hereditary
subjects”
Relieved serfdom only on his lands but could do nothing
to that under the Junkers who controlled the armies
Basic education for children of all classes
Limited because he would not allow anyone else to
control any affairs of the state and trained no successor
necessities of wars at hand which forced concentration
and rationalization of government power
Turgot – philosophe and physiocrat contributor to the
Encyclopédie; official who became minister to Louis
XVI; suppressed guilds; abolished Corvee and replaced
it with a tax on all classes
Corvee – decree that certain peasants labor on the roads
a few days each year
Parlement of Paris – opposed Turgot with the support
of the Provincial Estates and the Church
Kaunitz – Maria Theresa’s advisor on foreign relations
greatest good for greatest number of people – meaning
of the state to Joseph II
Maria Theresa – Head of the Empire of Austria; united
her realm in free trade where most lands were affected
by internal tariffs
Systematically attacked serfdom – broke power of
landed nobles, issued laws against abuse of peasants,
limited labor to three days a week
Joseph II
Less patient than his mother, Maria Theresa
Abolished serfdom
Liberty of the press
Toleration of religions
Civil rights for Jews
Tried to nationalize German language
Created secret police
Failed because he tried to everything by himself
Succeeded by brother Leopold
enlightened monarchs – rulers who based right to rule
not on the sacred but rather as reasonable and useful
Montesquieu
Aristocrat who held a seat on the Parlement of Bordeaux
Shared aristocratic and antiabsolutist ideals; but beyond
self-centered class philosophy
Spirit of the Laws
First principal idea – gov’ts vary in accordance with
climate and circumstances; despotism good for large
empires in hot climates, democracy good for small cities
Second principal idea – separation and balance of
powers; “intermediate bodies” – parlements, provincial
estates, organized nobility, chartered towns and the
church
took no stock in church teachings but thought it useful to
undue centralization of gov’t
Admired English Constitution believing England carried
over feudal liberties of the middle ages
Thought to be too conservative; in fact he was a
reactionary
Admired barbarous Middle Ages
Adam Smith
Wrote Wealth of Nations (1776)
Increase national wealth by reducing barriers
Prophet of free trade
Gov’t should provide for defense, security, reasonable
laws and fair law courts
"intermediate bodies" – parlements, provincial estates,
organized nobility, chartered towns, and the church;
provide for separation and balance of powers
Rousseau
Born to lower class; no social status, no money and no
feel for money; paranoid and felt he could trust no one
Criticized French women especially those of salons –
“they do not know anything, although they judge
everything”
Detested civilization calling it a source of evil and that it
would be better in a “state of nature”
Wrote 2 discourses – Arts and Sciences (1750) and
Origin of Inequality Among Men (1753)
Social Contract (1762) – seemed to contradict his “state
of nature” sentiments; good men could only be produced
by improved society; men submitted their natural liberty
to one another
general will – concept of Rousseau in which all
individual will submitted to the general will (fusing of
all individual wills) as the final word sovereign over all
kings and emperors
Voltaire
Born into the Bourgeoisie
Never objected to aristocracy on principle
Royal historian of Louis XV and personal friend of
Frederick the Great
Interested mainly in freedom of thought and an admirer
of England
Wrote Philosophical Letters on the English (1733) and
Elements of the Philosophy of Newton (1738) –
introduced inductive philosophy of Bacon, physics of
Newton, and psychology of sensations of Locke
Preacher of religious toleration
“natural religion” and “natural morality” – God and
difference between good and evil lie in reason alone
Politically neither liberal not democrat; if gov’t is
enlightened its strength is inconsequential; by
enlightened gov’t he meant one that promoted freedom
of thought and religion; basically supported enlightened
despotism
"Ecrasez l'infame!" – “crush the infamous thing”
Voltairean war cry against religious intolerance
"Maupeou parlements" – new parlements set up by the
Chancellor Maupeou after Louis XV had the old ones
ended; judges confined to purely judicial function and
were paid salaries as government officials
Pugachev's Rebellion
Pugachev, a former soldier, claimed to be the true tsar
Peter III
Many followed him: serfs, miners, Cossacks, etc
Were formidable until famine struck the force
Pugachev betrayed and taken to Moscow
Most violent peasant uprising in Russia
Ended up being worse off for serfs since nobles gained
power and peasants became more constrained
" secret police" – created by Joseph II to monitor
nobles, clergy, gov’t officials, or any others from whom
he might expect trouble
Catherine the Great – tsarina of Russia (1762-1796)
Domestic Program
Restricted the use of torture, had a certain support of
religious toleration, codified legal principles in Russia
Foreign Affairs
Defeated Turkish forces
Divided Poland among Russia Prussia, and Austria
Decidedly expansionist
Potemkin Villages – fake villages set up before
Catherine’s arrival so that it looked as though her
subjects were happy and at piece
Steven Razin
lead a peasant uprising in 1667, proclaiming war on
landlords, nobles, and priests;
captured and executed in 1671;
result of uprising was a firmer hold on serfdom in
Russia;
ideological symbol for Pugachev’s rebellion
Diderot's Encyclopedia – most serious of all
philosophe enterprises
Full of scientific, technical, and historical knowledge;
represented the skeptical, rational, scientific spirit of the
age
Strong undertones criticizing existing society and
institutions
Contributors – Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau,
d’Alembert, Buffon, Turgot, Quesnay, etc.
Edward Gibbon – philosophe who attacked
Christianity in Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
David Hume – Scottish skeptical philosopher counted
as a philosophe
"Eastern Question" – general contradictory feelings
between Russia and Polish-Turkish tract
Russia was an enemy of both Poland and the Ottoman
empire but felt religious ties to the Greek Orthodox
Christians of those lands
George III – “patriot king”; wished to heighten the
influence of the crown and overcome factionalism of
parties; created essentially a new faction the “king’s
friends” to gain control in the Commons
Faith in Progress – the belief that every generation is
better off than the last generation and that by its efforts it
will set up the foundations for the next generation to be
better than itself
"king's friends" – faction of Whigs created by George
III that he gained power over with pensions, favors,
promises and deals
Religious fervor and Pietism – an opposing religious
movement to the theory of the “watchmaker God”;
pietism said that inner spiritual experience was more
profound than that of doctrine; sought inner illumination
Physiognomy – supposed science created by J.C.
Lavater in which a person’s character could be read by
their facial expressions and the play of their features
Essai sur les moeurs “Universal History” – First
purely secular conception of world history written by
Voltaire; began with ancient civilizations rather than The
Creation like previous histories
F.A. Mesmer – an Austrian physician set up séances
and rituals to heal people; discovered early stages of
hypnosis
Publick – the reading masses for whom the philosophes
wrote; enjoyed reading illicit books during the times of
censorship
Salons – well organized meeting places where authors
introduced new works to critical readers and people
discussed ideas
Germaine de Stael – widely read author; she deplored
subordination of women; post revolutionary salon
John Wesley and Methodism
an oxford student who took to doing good works for
poor and prisoners and preaching to large crowds in
public
his followers were called Methodists whom despite is
efforts broke away from the Church of England
earlier absolutism – ruled solely on the basis of
ordination by God and a right to rule through heredity
French censorship – complicated (everyone from the
church to the printers had a say); however, not strictly
enforced; books written with double meanings for
plausible deniability
Edmund Burke
spokesman for Whig leaders who sensed corruption in
parliament when George III and his “friends” took
control;
argued for responsibility and sound judgment in
Commons rather than mathematical representation;
opposed place men
laissez-faire – economic principle of Physiocrats; “let
them do as the see fit”
Freemasonry
Men disposed toward reason, progress, tolerance, and
human reforms, and were respectful to God as he
architect of the universe
Equality among brothers who were clergy, nobles, and
middle classes
Because of its secrecy masonry became distrusted
Physiocrats – “economists”; concerned with fiscal and
tax reform and increasing the national wealth; opposed
guild regulations; laissez-faire as economic principle
no one reasons, everyone executes – philosophy of
Frederick the Great; he believed that he should be the
only one planning and thinking and that everyone else
t
should just operate as his tools and complete he tasks
he set them
CHAPTER 9
Public Debt – precipitated the revolution; debt owed to
the bourgeoisie of the Old Regime and the expenses of
the gov’t
Cahiers – a list of grievances allowed to brought to the
assembly by each estate
Voting by Estates – voting took place with all 3 estates
voting at the same time; 1:1:2 ratio was set up in favor
of the Third Estate which represented the largest group;
deadlock in the Estates General
Great Fear – paranoia of the peasants that “the brigands
were coming”; armed to defend their houses and crops
they worked each other up and attacked the manor
houses, burning some down but mostly destroying
records of fees and dues
Tennis Court oath
the Third Estate claimed itself to be the “National
Assembly”
Louis XVI under pressure from nobles, closed the
meeting hall
The members found an indoor tennis court and took their
oath, affirming that wherever they gathered from then on
they would remain the National Assembly and that they
would not disband until there was a constitution
August 4th, Night – a night meeting of the Assembly at
Versailles where those nobles who showed up (knowing
that few would) surrendered their hunting rights,
banalités, rights in manorial courts, and feudal
seigneurial privileges in general
Rights of man and citizen – a declaration issued on
August 26, 1789
To affirm the principles if the new state
Rule of law
Equal individual citizenship
Collective sovereignty of the people
Man’s natural right held to be liberty, property, security,
resistance of oppression
Freedom of thought and religion; no one might be
arrested or punished except by law; all persons eligible
for the public office for which they met the requirements
Liberty – freedom to do anything not injurious to
another man, determined only by law
Law as an expression of general will
Property might only be confiscated under law and with
fair compensation
Bastille – a stronghold (prison, fortress) for political
prisoners
Parisians in fear of gathering troops stormed the fortress
to arm themselves
Many political officials were killed in the act
Had the effect of showing the power of the Third Estate;
the king assented to a citizen’s committee, and sent
away the troops he had summoned
Playing the mob card – using the power of the masses
to scare the powers in control in to listening or taking a
certain action
Jacobin Club – Society of Friends of the Constitution
Middle class group who used the club as a caucus to
discuss plans and policies
Revolutionaries centered in Paris
Kings, vetoes and constitutions – king was given only
a suspensive veto to postpone legislation desired by the
Assembly; was forced to accept status as a constitutional
monarch
Burke’s reaction – appalled at the thoroughness with
which the French seemed determined to eradicate their
national institutions; he did not see why they needed to
destroy these functioning bodies
Adam Smith and the Revolution – his economic
philosophy of free trade was representative of the
freedom from control that the leaders of the revolution
wanted; the Assembly abolished the guilds
Active and Passive citizens
Both had the same civil rights but only active had the
right to vote
Had the right to choose one elector for every 100 active
citizens
Males over the age of 25 who could pay a small tax were
“active”
assignats – bonds purchased to be traded in for parcels
of confiscated church lands; money to repay debt owed
to the Old Regime
Quarrel with the church
Church viewed as a public authority and as such
subordinate to sovereign power
French bishops jealous of papal power wish to produce a
Civil Constitution on their own authority
Assembly refuses, going to the Vatican to try to coerce
the bishops into acquiescing
Mary Wollstonecraft – English writer; Vindication of
the Rights of Women (1792)
like Olympe de Gouges, asserted women’s rights to:
divorce under certain conditions
to the control of property in marriage
to have equal access to education, careers, and public
employment