STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS

AIM:
To study the basic principle and working of Electronic Components and
equipments.
THEORY:
DEFINITION OF RESISTOR:
Resistor is a device that will convert electric energy (via electric current) into heat
energy. nlike a capacitor! then! a resistor does "#T store energy. Resistor is a device
which opposes the flow of current. $t consumes it at a rate of
(%)
where the $&' relation for a resistor (known as ((#hm)s *aw.+)
(,)
has been used. -retty much all materials have resistance! which is given by
(.)
/here
is the length of the resistor is! is the cross&sectional 0rea of the resistor! and

is the
resistivity of the resistor material. 1ifferent materials have different resistivities.
TYPES OF RESISTOR:
%
E2p."o3
1ate 3
There are two types of ad4ustable resistors3 the potentiometer (usually called a ((pot+) and
a rheostat. sually a potentiometer is smaller and ad4ustable with a small screwdriver.
Rheostats are much larger and are capable of using large currents.

RESISTOR COLOUR CODING:
Typically! a resistor will have 5 colour bands on them which represent the resistance
values of the resistor. Each colour of the ((Resistor Colour Code+ represents a numeric
value3
"umeric Representation Colour
6 7lack
% 7rown
, Red
. #range
5 8ellow
9 :reen
; 7lue
< 'iolet
= :ray
> /hite
&% :old (.rd band)
9? :old (5th band)
%6? @ilver (5th band)
,6? "o Colour (5th band)
,
The resistance is determined by the first three colors on the resistor via the formula
(5)
Thus! a resistor with the first three colours of
red & white & blue
would have a resistance of ! or ,> . Aor resistance values of less than %6
! a gold third band is used. Thus!
brown & red & gold
would represent ! or %., .
.
Resistor values can vary greatly! and so the 5th colour band represents the tolerance for
the resistor. $f there is no 5th band! then one can only be assured that the resistance value
is within ,6? of the value represented by the first . colour bands.
Two resistors in parallel! and ! have a net resistance of the product over the sum of
the resistances
(9)
Two resistors in series! and ! have a net resistance of the sum of the resistances
STUDY OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE:
0 cathode ray oscilloscope! CR# or scope! is a versatile electronic instrument
used in many fields of basic and applied research to measure time&dependent voltage
signals. 0 CR# consists of a cathode ray tube! CRT (similar to a television picture tube)!
and associated circuits. 7ecause an oscilloscope has very high resistance inputs (like a
voltmeter)! it draws very little current and thus usually does not disturb the circuit being
studied. The oscilloscope is an essential part of several e2periments in our introductory
physics courses. #ur scopes are not simplified for teaching but are versatile models
suitable for use in research physics! engineering and medical laboratories.
5
B. Components:
Aigure % shows the basic components of the cathode ray tube. The principal parts
of the tube are3
Fi!"e #: Components o$ % &%t'o(e "%) t!*e.
%. AilamentBheats the cathode with a current of a few amperes.
,. CathodeBa metal surface coated with a metallic o2ide which emits electrons when
it is heatedC emission currents of a few m0 are typical.
.. Control :ridBcontrols the electron current and consequently the brightness of the
image. The potential applied to it can be varied by ad4usting the $"TE"@$T8
control. 7y the time the electron beam reaches the screen! it is reduced to a few
D0 1o not make the spot brighter than necessary as this may damage the screen.
9
$f the spot has a halo around it! turn down the intensityC the intensity required for
a spot is less than that required for a line.
5. Aocusing 0nodeBpermits sharpening the image. Aocus is controlled by the
A#C@ knob.
9. 0cceleration 0nodeBaccelerates the electrons toward the screen so that they strike
it with enough energy! several k'! to give off light. There is no e2ternal control to
ad4ust this voltage.
;. 'ertical 1eflection -latesBtwo horiEontal plates parallel to the beam. The beam
can be deflected by a potential difference between these plates! usually derived
from the amplified signal being studied.
The 'ERT$C0* -#@$T$#" control applies a 1C voltage to offset or center the
beam vertically.
<. ForiEontal 1eflection -latesBanalogous to the vertical deflection plates. 0 sweep
voltage is usually applied to these plates to cause the electron beam to sweep
across the screen at a controlled rate! and then rapidly return to its starting
position. The sweep rate is controlled by the T$GEH1$' switch. 0 I1$'J is
generally a cm marking on the screen. The T$GEH1$' often varies from % sec
down to % Ds. The F#R$K#"T0* -#@$T$#" control is used to offset the beam
horiEontally! usually so that the sweep starts at the left hand edge of the scale.
=. Aluorescent @creenBthe screen has a phosphor coating which produces light when
struck by a charged particle. 0 grid is marked on the outside of the screen! usually
with cm spacing and small marks every , mm.
C. P"in&ip+e o$ Ope"%tion:
The operation of the tube depends on the fact that charged particles such as
electrons can be deflected! accelerated! and focused by suitably applied electric fields.
7ecause the electron has little inertia! it can be deflected quickly! making possible the
study of high frequency and transient effects. The filament (%) heats the cathode (,)
which emits electronsC these are focused (5) into a beam by an electric fieldC the beam
strikes a fluorescent screen at the end of the tube and causes the screen to emit light.
;
7efore it hits the screen! the beam is deflected by the electric fields on the plates (;! <).
This deflection causes the beam to move vertically andHor horiEontally across the face of
the screen. (Television tubes use magnetic deflection. This permits greater deflection in a
shorter distance! thus larger screens! but gives up response time.)
D. Ho"i,ont%+ S-eep:
7uilt into the oscilloscope is a sweep generator which generates a time&varying
sawtooth voltage something like the signal illustrated in Aigure ,. The sweep circuit
applies this voltage to the horiEontal deflection plates. 0s the applied voltage increases!
the electron beam moves from left to right (as viewed on the screen). The sudden drop of
the potential to Eero causes the beam to return rapidly to its initial position on the left. 0
blanking circuit cuts off the beam during this part of the cycle so that no visible retrace is
seen. This sequence of events repeats regularly and automatically at frequencies
determined by the setting of the T$GEH1$' switch. The face of the cathode tube is clearly
marked in centimetre divisionsC a setting of l msecHcm means that it takes 6.66% s for the
spot on the screen to traverse l cm , Rather you set it up so that it will start each sweep
only when a trigger input allows it. This trigger control makes it possible to start each
sweep on the same part of a repetitive signal so that each successive sweep overlaps the
previous sweepC otherwise a sine wave! for e2ample! would start at random phases each
time. #n the screen you might see a 4umble of %66 sine waves all shifted randomly with
respect to each other. Fowever! if the signal is triggered! they all start with the same
phase and you see one sine wave.
E. T'e Cont"o+s:
<
Refer to the picture. The function of each switch! if itLs not obvious! has been described
earlier or is described below.
%. -ower switch
,. -ower lamp
.. Aocus control
5. Trace rotation control & although the CRT is magnetically shielded! it is still possible
for magnetic fields to distort the beam. This control lets you level the trace.
9. $ntensity control
;. Channel % $nput ($n M&8 mode! this becomes the M&a2is input.) These are 7"C&type
connectors! which are a type Aigure , @awtooth @weep 'oltage of coa2ial connector. The
signal is at the center pin while the outer metal casing is a ground (for this scope).
<. Channel , $nput ($n M&8 mode! this becomes the 8&a2is input. )
=! >. $nput coupling switches (0C&:"11C) 0C blocks any 1C component! using a
capacitor! so that only changes in the signal may be seen. :"1 shorts out the input to
help you determine where the trace is with Eero input. 1C shows you everything.
%6! %%. 'oltsH1iv selector
%,! %.. '0R (-** 29 :0$") Aine ad4ustment of vertical input gain.
%5. -osition control
%9. -#@$T$#" (-** $"'ERT) $nverts the trace of Channel % when pulled out.
=
%;. Gode select switch & CF%! CF,! 0*T! CF#-! 011. This switch selects which signal
you can view on the CRT. 0*T and CF#- let you see both. 0*T completes one sweep of
channel % and then one sweep of channel ,! etc. CF#- moves quickly back and forth
between the two channels many times on each sweep. This happens too fast to see and is
better when viewing slow signals that donLt complete a sweep in less than %66 msec.
011 is generally used with $"'ERT to see the difference between two signals.
%<. 1C 7al attenuator ad4ustments (1o not ad4ust these.)
%=. TimeH1iv select switch
%>. @weep 'ariable control
,6. -#@$T$#" (-** 2%6 G0:)
,%. Trigger @#RCE select switch. This determines what is used for triggering the scope.
$f @#RCE is set on $"T! it triggers with a change in the vertical input voltage. $f it is set
on *$"E! it triggers with the 0C line frequency (;6 hertE). The EMT setting is for an
e2ternal trigger signal. 8ou will generally use an internal trigger! derived from the signal
itself.
,,. $nternal Trigger. @elects the internal triggering signal source! channel %! etc.
,.. E2ternal Trigger (or M&$" connector $nput for e2ternal trigger).
,5. *evel Control @ets the voltage level at which the sweep starts or triggers. /hen it is
set to N! the Lscope triggers on the rising edge (positive slope) of the waveformC when set
to &! it triggers on the falling edge.
,9. Trigger Gode select switch. 8ou will generally use 0T#! which lets the scope free&
run if it is not triggered. #n G0"0*! the scope will 4ust go blank if itJs not triggered.
Aigure .3 CR# controls
,;. Calibrate 6.9' (O% kFE at 6.9'.)
,<. :round
F. B"ie$ Inst"!&tions:
>
Aollow these instructions to measure the period and amplitude of a periodic
signal. ("umbers in parenthesis refer to the controls in Aig. ..)
a. -lug in the scope and turn on the power (%).
b. Connect the input signal to the Channel % input (;).
c. @et the trigger @#RCE (,%) selection switch to $"T (for internal triggering).
d. @et G#1E(,9) to 0T#.
e. @et the $"T TR$:(,,) selection switch to CF%.
f. 0d4ust the level control to obtain a stable image.
F.#. Me%s!"in % Pe"io(:
0d4ust the TimeH1iv switch until you see a sequence of a few oscillations on the
screen. Gake sure the @weep 'ariable control (%>) is locked (inner knob fully clockwise).
#therwise! any measurements will be meaningless. Geasure as large an image as possible
to obtain the highest precision in your time measurements. $f there are 5 full periods on
the screen! measure the time for the 5 periods and divide by 5. 0lternately! ad4ust the
T$GEH1$' (%=) so that only %&, periods appear on the screen.
F... /o+t%e Me%s!"ement:
0d4ust the 'oltsH1iv switch so that your waveform nearly fills the screen
vertically. Gake sure the 'ar :ain (%,!%.) is locked. Geasure the amplitude of the signal
in screen divisions and multiply by the setting of the 'oltsH1iv switch to obtain the signal
amplitude in volts.
F.0. Liss%1o!s Fi!"es %n( D!%+ T"%&e:
The oscilloscope is often used to compare the time dependence and amplitudes of
two signals. Aor this purpose the Iscope has two input connectors and circuits and can
display two signals at the same time with a common time a2is and a trigger derived from
either source. 0n alternative way to compare two signals is to plot one signal on the
horiEontal a2is (2) and the other on the on the vertical a2is (y). This will produce a
*issa4ous figure on the screen. Connect one signal to the 2a2is (CF%) and the other to the
%6
y&a2is (CF,). @elect M8 mode using the T$GEH1$' knob (%=). 0d4ust the input
sensitivities until the signal nearly fills the screen.
RESULT:
Thus the basic principle and working of Electronic Components and
Equipments were studied.
%%
E2p."o3
1ate 3
STUDY OF LOGIC GATES
AIM:
To test of $Cs by using verification of truth table of basic $Cs.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S. No App%"%t!s R%ne Q!%ntit)
% 1igital trainer kit & %
, 0"1 :ate $C <56= %
. #R :ate $C <5., %
5 E2&#R :ate $C <5=; %
9 "#T :ate $C <565
; "0"1 :ate $C <566 %
< "#R :ate $C <56, %
= Connecting /ires & 0s Required
THEORY:
#. AND %te 2IC 34567:
The operation of 0"1 gate is such that the output is F$:F only when all of the
inputs are F$:F. /hen any of the inputs are *#/! the output is *#/. The basic
purpose of 0"1 gate is to determine whether certain conditions are simultaneously true.
0"1 function! KJ0.7
@ymbol Truth Table Pin Diagram
%,
.. OR %te 2IC 340.7:
The operation of #R gate is such that the output is F$:F when any of the inputs
are F$:F. /hen all of the inputs are *#/! the output is *#/. The basic purpose of #R
gate is to determine whether one or more input bit(s) are F$:F.
#R function! KJ0N7
@ymbol Truth Table -in 1iagram

0. NOT %te 2IC 34547:
%.
Input Outpu
t
A B Z=A.B
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0"1 :ate
0
7
K
$nput #utput
0 7 KJ0N7
6
6
%
%
6
%
6
%
6
%
%
%
#R gate
7
K
0
%
,
.
5
9
;
<
<
%5
%.
%,
%%
%6
>
=
$
C
<
5
.
,
The inverter ("ot gate) performs a basic logic function called inversion or
complementation. The purpose of the inverter is to change one logic level to opposite
level. $n terms of bits! it changes a % to 6 and vice&versa.
"#T function! KJ0) or KJ0
@ymbol Truth Table -in 1iagram
4. NAND %te 2IC 34557:
The term "0"1 is a contraction of "#T&0"1 and implies an 0"1 function with
a complemented (inverted) output. The logical operation of the "0"1 gate is such that! a
*#/ output occurs when all inputs are F$:F. /hen any of the inputs are *#/! the
output will be F$:F.
"0"1 function! KJ0.7
@ymbol Truth Table -in 1iagram
8. NOR %te 2IC 345.7
%5
$nput #utput
0 KJ0)
6
%
%
6
"#T :ate
0 K
$nput #utput
0 7 KJ0.7
6
6
%
%
6
%
6
%
%
%
%
6
"0"1 :ate
0
7
K
%
,
.
5
9
;
<
%
5
%
.
%
,
%
%
%
6
>
=
$
C
<
5
6
5
%
,
.
5
9
;
<
%5
%.
%,
%%
%6
>
=
$
C
<
6
6
The term "#R is a contraction of "#T&#R and implies an #R function with a
complemented (inverted) output. The logical operation of the "#R gate is such that! a
*#/ output occurs when any of its inputs are F$:F. /hen all of the inputs are *#/!
the output will be F$:F.
"#R function! KJ0N7
The "0"1 and "#R gates are popular logic functions because they are
PuniversalQ functionsHgates3 that is! they can be used to construct an 0"1 gate! an #R
gate! an inverter or any combination of these.
@ymbol Truth Table -in 1iagram
9. E:;OR %te 2IC 34697:
The operation of E2&#R gate is such that the output is F$:F when one of the
input is F$:F. /hen all of the inputs are *#/ (or) F$:F! the output is *#/.
E2&#R function! KJ0 7 N0 7 or KJ07
%9
$nput #utput
0 7 KJ0N7
6
6
%
%
6
%
6
%
%
6
6
6
"#R :ate
0
7
K
$
C
<
5
6
,
%
,
.
5
9
;
<
%5
%.
%,
%%
%6
>
=
@ymbol Truth Table -in 1iagram

0 given 7oolean function may be transformed from an algebraic e2pression into a
logic diagram composed of 0"1! #R and "#T gates.
"ote3 Aor all the above $CLs
-in "o3 < is connected to :"1 and -in "o3%5 is connected to 'cc of N9volts
%;
$nput #utput
0 7 KJ0 7
6
6
%
%
6
%
6
%
6
%
%
6
EM&#R
:ate
0
7
K
%
,
.
5
9
;
<
%5
%.
%,
%%
%6
>
=
$
C<
5
=
;
RESULT:
Thus the $Cs were tested by using verification of truth table of basic $Cs.
SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING PRACTICE
AIM:
To solder and desolder the given components using -C7.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
@. "o 0pparatus Range Ruantity
% @oldering *ead ;6H56 %
, @oldering $ron & %
. @oldering flu2 & %
5 Figh speed drills with bits & %
9 "ose pliers & %
; Cutter & %
< Emery -aper & %
= -C7 7oard & %
> Capacitor %6 SA %
%6 Resistor % TU 5
THEORY:
@oldering is the process for 4ointing of metal parts with the aid of molten
metal(solder) when the melting temperature of solder is below that of materials 4oined and
thereby the surface of the parts is wetted without they being molten.
%<
E2p."o.
1ate 3
TYPES OF SOLDERING:
The usually used solder is an alloy of tin and lead in different proportions.
Composition Gelting Temperature (V C)
Tin *ead
96 96 ,66V
;6 56 %=9V
>6 %6 ,%>V
.9 ;9 ,.<V

#ther categories are braEing solder (also called hard solder)! silver solder and
aluminium solder with trade name P0*C0 -Q -arasol. $t is an alloy of tin! lead! Einc and
cadmium.
Alu23
1uring soldering operation an au2illary medium is mostly used to increase the
flow property of molten solder or to improve the degree of wetting such medium is called
as flu2.
Aollowing characteristics are required in a flu2.
%. $t should provide a liquid cover the material and e2clude air up to the soldering
temperature
,. $t should dissolve any o2ide on the material surface or on the solder and carry such
unwanted materials away.
.. $t should be readily displaced from the metal by the molten soldering operation.
5. Residue should be removable after completion of solder.
%=
SOLDERING TECHNIQUE:
$t depends on
%. "ature and type of 4oint
,. Gelting temperature of solder
.. @oldering flu2 used.
@oldering Equipment3
The equipments used for soldering are blowlamps! soldering iron! soldering pot!
laddle etc.!
7low lamp3
sing blowlamp an open flame is obtained by burning kerosene! petrol or spirit.
@oldering $ron3
"owadays electric soldering iron is used in various types of soldering 4obs. Feat is
obtained from a nichrome wire element in the range of %6/ to ,T/ or bigger and is used
to heat soldering bit. The key to the function of iron is in the bit itself. The bit of the
soldering iron has to perform following functions.
%. $t stores heat and convey it from heat source to work.
,. Conveys molten solder and often flu2 to work. Fowever it is not recommended. $t is
better to apply solder to work piece correctly.
.. $t can be used to remove surplus solder from the 4oints.
5. @oldering bits are made of copper.
1rilling3
1rilling of holes into -C7 to mount components is an important machinery
operation. Aor drilling holes the drills bit diameter is chosen as 6.69 mm higher then the
hole diameter. 1rilling machines for -C7 applications are available in a wide range of
designs. The speeds mostly used are around ,6666&96666 rpm.
%>
Component Gounting3
Components should be properly mounted on the -C7. The leads should be bend
symmetrically. The leads should not be bend to close from the body. The leads should be
thoroughly cleaned before mounting. *ifted mounting and vertical mounting should be
avoided as far as possible. The insulated portion of leads should not e2tend into the holes.
Aig % @oldering practice diagram
PROCEDURE:
Soldering:
%. 1rill holes in the -C7 at appropriate places.
,. -lug soldering iron into the socket
.. Clean the soldering bit. To clean the bit when it is slightly hot apply flu2 and then
solder %6 to %9 @ec. /hen the solder has melt clean the bit with a piece of cloth. 0n
unclean bit will cause dry soldering (Cold soldering).
5. 0ny component or surface! which is to be soldered! should be cleaned with emery
paper.
9. "ow apply a small quantity of flu2 on the surface! which is to be 4oined and melt
solder over the surface.
;. The wires or components that are to be connected are bend if required to fi2 in the
holes properly.
<. Fold the soldering iron on the right hand and keep solder bit on the solder point.
=. 0pply solder. The solder will melt and spread around the point. @ilver like appearance
of the soldered point indicates perfect soldering.
,6
>. Cut the pro4ected part of components after soldering.
Desoldering:
%. -lace the tip of the soldering iron on the 4oints until the solder is melt.
,. sing the desoldering pump (or) desoldering wik remove the molten state
.. #n the component side using tweeter remove the desolderedcomponents.
RESULT:
The given components are soldered onto the -C7 and their working is tested.
,%
MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR FOR HALF <A/E = FULL <A/E
RECTIFIERS
AIM:
To study the half wave W full wave rectifiers with and without capacitive filter
and to measure the ripple factor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

@l. "o 0pparatus Range Ruantity
% Gultimeter & %
, CR# .6 GFE %
. Transformer (%,&6&%,) ' %
5 1iode %" 566% ,
9 Resistor %6 T %
; Capacitor ,,6 SA %
< 7read 7oard & %
= Connecting wires & 0s Required
FORMULAE:
Falf&wave Rectifier3
/ithout filter!
0verage 'oltage
dc m
' J ' H
.
RG@ 'oltage
rms m
' J ' H ,
.
Ripple Aactor
,
ac
dc
'
J J %
'
rms
d
!
!

.
,,
E2p."o3
1ate 3
-ercentage Regulation J
"* A*
A*
(' & ' )
%66?
'
"
/ith filter!
pp
dc
r
' %
' J
RC ,
"
#
.
pp
rms
r
r
'
' J
, .
.
Ripple Aactor
rms r
dc
' %
' 5 . #$%
= =
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
H%+$;-%>e Re&ti$ie" -it'o!t $i+te":
H%+$;-%>e Re&ti$ie" -it' $i+te":
F!++;-%>e Re&ti$ie" -it'o!t $i+te":
,.
Aull&wave Rectifier3
/ithout filter!
0verage 'oltage
dc m
' J ,' H
.
RG@ 'oltage
rms m
' J ' H ,
.
Ripple Aactor
,
ac
dc
'
J J %
'
rms
d
!
!

.
-ercentage Regulation J
/ith filter!
"* A*
A*
(' & ' )
%66?
'
"
pp
dc
r
' %
' J
RC ,
"
#
.
pp
rms
r
r
'
' J
, .
.
Ripple Aactor
rms r
dc
' %
' 5 . #$%
= =
PROCEDURE:
/ithout capacitor filter3
,5
%. Test the transformer3 :ive ,.6'! 96 FE source to primary coil of the transformer
and observe the 0C waveform of rated value without any distortion at the
secondary of the transformer.
,. Connect the circuit to the secondary terminals of the transformer.
.. Connect the CR# across the load.
5. Teep the CR# switch in ground&mode and observe the horiEontal line and ad4ust
it to the M&a2is.
9. @witch the CR# into 1C mode and observe the waveform. "ote down its
amplitude! 'm and frequency from the screen along with its multiplication factor.
;. Calculate 'dc using the relation3 'dc J 'mHX.
<. @witch the CR# into 0C mode and observe the waveform. "ote down its
amplitude! 'm and frequency from the screen along with its multiplication factor.
=. Calculate 'ac using the relation3 '
,
rms J '
,
ac N '
,
dc! 'rms J '
,
mH,.
>. Calculate the ripple factor from the given formula3 Y J 'acH 'dc.
%6. Remove the load and measure the output 0C voltage(0C mode) and calculate the
percentage of voltage regulation using the formula3
-ercentage regulation J (('noload B 'load)H 'load) Z %66 ?.
F!++;-%>e Re&ti$ie" -it' $i+te":
TABULATION:

,9
P%"%mete"s H%+$;-%>e "e&ti$ie" Full-wave rectifier
Ripple factor3
/ithout filter
/ith filter
Theoretical -ractical Theoretical Pratial

MODEL GRAPH:

H%+$ <%>e 2<it'o!t $i+te"7:
H%+$ <%>e 2<it' $i+te"7:
,;
F!++ <%>e:
/ith capacitor filter3
,<
%. Calculate the value of R by assuming C J % SA and [ J 96 FE using the formula3
rms r
dc
' %
' 5 . #$%
= =
(0ssume Y as 6.66, or any small value).
,. Connect the capacitor across the load resistance and proceed with the above
procedure as shown above.
RESULT:
Thus the ripple factor were measured for the half wave W full wave rectifiers with
and without capacitive filter.
,=