TOPIC I: INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY

What is Anatomy?
- Def: The study of internal + external body structures
- relationships between structures
- e.g. bone + muscle
- Subdivisions:
o Gross Anatomy
visible to the eye
Large structures
e.g. bones
o Microanatomy
microscope required
cytology = internal structures of individual cells
histology = study of tissues (groups of cells)

Levels of Organization (simple to complex)
1. Chemical Level
2. Cellular Level
3. Tissue Level
4. Organ Level
5. Organ System Level
6. Organism

Chemical level
- Most basic level
- Atoms are joined to form molecules
- e.g. H + O atoms form H
2
O (water)

Cellular level
- molecules or organelles which form cells
- cell = basic unit of structure and function
- All cells contain chemicals but function may differ

Tissue level
- group of cells with similar structure
- Contain a common function
- 4 major types:
o epithelium (forms barrier and lines surfaces)
o connective (CT. connects)
o muscle tissue
o nervous tissue
Organ level
- 2 or more tissues working together for a common
function
- e.g. stomach
o all four major tissues are present
o function = digestion

Organ system level
- organs working towards a common purpose
- Organs can be related
- e.g. respiratory system
o lungs, trachea, etc.
o function = respiration

Organism
- All systems function together to maintain life

Note: This is a Hierarchy each level contains those below.














Chemical Level of Organization:
1. Atoms:
- Nucleus contains electrons, protons, neutrons
o Subatomic particles orbit the nucleus
o Protons - positive charge
o Neutron - neutral charge
- Orbiting the nucleus is electrons - negative charge
- Atoms are electrically neutral - positives and
negatives cancel each other out
- Protons and electrons are equal but the amount of
neutrons may not be equal to these

2. Ions:
- Ions are not electrically neutral
- Ions are created by losing an electron or gaining an
electron
o Atoms that gain electron become anion
o Atoms that lose electrons become cation
- Ions can also be called electrolytes
- Important ones: Ca2+, Na+, K+, H+, Cl-

3. Chemical bonds:
- Several atoms come together to form molecules
- Ionic bond - two ions are formed
o Complete transfer of an electron from one atom
to another
o Unlike charges attract to each other to form the
bond
o When the molecules are placed in water they
dissociate/separate/ionize into ions
- Covalent bond - sharing an electron between atoms
o Chemical compounds can be categorized into:
Organic compounds - covalently bonded
carbon atoms
Ex. carbs, proteins, lipids, nucleic
acids
Inorganic compound - lack carbon
Eg. Water, oxygen, salt
Exceptions:
o Carbonic acid, bicarbonate,
carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide

4. Water
- Most abundant substance in cells
- Is inorganic
- Different tissues have different amounts of water
within them
- Water is polar - unequal sharing leads to a slight
charge difference
- Has a partial positive and negative charge
- Universal solvent - many substances dissolve in it
- Useful in chemical reactions
- Lubricates around joints and organs
- Maintains body temperature at 37 celcius

5. Acids and Bases
- May be organic or inorganic
- Ex. acetic acid, citric acid (organic)
- Acids:
o When dissolved in water will release H+ ions
o Strong acid will completely dissociate
o Weak acid does not completely dissociate
o Increase in H+ cause a decrease in pH
- Bases:
o Substances which cause the binding of H+ ions
o A strong base will disassociate into ions and the
anion will bind hydrogen
o Neutralization reaction to produce water
o Decrease in H+ cause a increase in pH

6. pH Scale
- 0 (acid) to 14 (base/alkaline)
- Looks at the hydrogen ion concentration within a
solution
- Neutral is 7 pH
- Eg. pH of blood is 7.35-7.45

7. Important Organic Substances:
- Carbohydrates:
o Consist of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
o Formula: (CH2O)n (n=#)
o Functions:
Source of energy for cells
Eg. C6H12O6 glucose
Found within cell structures
Eg. DNA and RNA
o Naming:
Monosaccharaides - simple sugars
Ex. glucose, fructose, galactose,
ribose, deoxyribose
Disaccharides - 2 monosaccharaides
covalently bound
Ex. glucose + fructose = sucrose
Polysaccharides - many monosaccharaides
joined together
Ex. glycogen (animals) and starch
(plants)

- Lipids:
o Consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - ratio
different than carbs
o Eg. Fats, oils, waxes and fatty acids
o Insoluble (nonpolar) in water
o Functions:
Protect organs (padding)
Build cell membranes
Source of stored energy
o Types:
Glycerides
Most common lipid in the body and
diet
Composed of 2 building blocks:
o 1 glycerol backbone
o 3 fatty acid chains (non-polar)
1 glycerol + 1 FA = monoglyceride
1 glycerol + 2 FA = diglyceride
1 glycerol + 3 FA = triglyceride
Phospholipid - diglyceride with a
phosphate head group
3 building blocks
o Phosphorus-containing head
group (polar)
Hydrophillic (soluble) "likes
water"
o Glycerol backbone
o 2 fatty acid tails
Hydrophobic (nonsoluble)
"hate water"
Cholesterol
Used to synthesize steroids
Steroids
Eg. Bile salts, vitamin D, hormones
(testosterone, estrogen, etc)

- Proteins
o Consist of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, AND
nitrogen (sometimes sulfur and phosphorus)
o Functions:
Structural materials
Eg. Collagen - provide tensile strength
Enzymes
Catalysts to speed up chemical
reactions
Many other. Ex. antibodies
o Structures:
Proteins building block is amino acids
There are 20 common amino acids
Ex. glycine
2 proteins - dipeptides joined by
peptide bonds
o Many amino acids = polypeptides
o More than 50 amino acids joined form a protein
- complex folded string of amino acids (multiple
polypeptides)

- Nucleic acids
o Consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
phosphorus, nitrogen
o 2 forms:
DNA deooxy
RNA - ribonucleic acid
o Building blocks are nucleotides
o Each nucleotide contains:
Phosphate (PO4)
Sugar - ribose/deoxyribose
Organic base - adenine, guanine, thymine,
cytosine, uracil
Thymine - DNA only
Uracil - RNA only
Bases bond to form double stranded
helix
o A binds to T
o G binds to C
o DNA functions:
Cellular reproduction
Instructions for building proteins
o RNA structures:
Similar to DNA but substitute Uracil and
Ribose sugar
Single stranded molecules
o RNA function:
Template for protein synthesis

- ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate
o Energy rich molecule that powers cellular
activities
o Make ATP by breaking down glucose and
capture energy from breakdown to be used by
cells
o Structure - 3 PO4 + ribose + adenine
Is a modified RNA nucleotide
Adenine + ribose = adenosine
o There are high energy bonds between the
phosphates
o Phosphates can be cleaved to produce
diphosphates and monophosphates
Breaking bonds produce useable energy
The lost phosphate is inorganic phosphate,
Pi
o Its inorganic because there are no carbon within
the molecule