Spacecraft Systems: STK Orbit Optimisation

1


MACESAT Orbit Optimisation using STK

by
Zayd Hashmi
28th March 2013
Tutor Name: Dr K Smith
Organisation: Spacecraft Systems MACE40342 - Coursework 1
Course: MEng in Aerospace Engineering with Management
Abstract
A 5 year spacecraft mission to obtain data of sea ice melting in the Arctic basin is
intended. The Polar Bear is an endangered species and its preservation is critical.
Geostationary, HEO, Molniya and Polar orbits were evaluated for coverage. A polar
orbit of 98.76 was chosen and iteratively tuned, optimising parameters (RAAN,
apogee/perigee, mean anomaly and argument of perigee) for all coverage, imaging,
access and orbital decay. Entire orbit decay is 34 km requiring minimal correction.
Additional constraints included an optical imaging payload sensor. Kiruna ground
stations gave 34.9% orbit-time access. Constrained by within other requirements, the
orbit was optimised to give 12.64% orbit-time target coverage. Imaging data will
contribute to ice melting simulation research to show change every two weeks.
Synthetic aperture radar will produce 150m
2
area maps and is capable of sub 0.5m
resolution. High storage capacity and data transfer rates provides further
redundancy. This will be used for third party procurement of the MACESAT service,
generating additional funds for the project and future research.



Figure 1 - STK Image showing the HEO, Molniya and Geostationary orbits initially considered and
(inclination, RAAN, apogee, perigee and mean anomaly) iteration of chosen polar orbit


Target
Region
Spacecraft Systems: STK Orbit Optimisation

2

1.0 Introduction
This paper covers an optimised AGI STK orbit which has been optimised for
monitoring and imaging sea ice regions and their shrinkage due to melting. The
motivations for doing this include saving the endangered Polar Bear species that
inhabit and hunt on this land. By obtaining firm evidence of the reduction in the
habitat, understanding of the species threat can also be achieved. Existing
simulation models of ice melting in the polar bear region exist
i,ii
[1, Driesschaert
2007], [2 Rignot and Kanagaratnam 2006]. By adding to this model with the
MACESAT mission, a thorough long-term contribution to the timings, rate,
mechanisms and possible corrective actions can be obtained. Furthermore, by
utilising STK, a bespoke mission model for the most critical areas will be developed.
Due to the urgency of required action, the mission should commence immediately.
Figure 2 outlines the timeline. A precursor feasibility mission must begin. A rapid 3
year to launch is proposed in which the spacecraft should be designed using off the
shelf technologies. Funding should be sought from EU, academic institutions,
advertising entities (such as Redbull) and awareness groups supporting the cause.
2.0. Spacecraft Orbit, Ground Stations and Targets
This section covers the final optimised orbit parameters in relation to the targets and
ground stations which were chosen. A polar orbit was chosen as this specifically
passes over the polar regions of interest. Geostationary and Molniya were also
considered, however reduced orbital percentage coverage in target regions (orbit
efficiency) was noted. Geostationary orbit compromised ground station access due to
its fixed location. Molniya orbit is also subject to high ionising radiation
iii
[3] and STK
modelling showed that two satellites would be required for coverage to the final
chose orbit. HEO similarly gave long coverage times when overhead, yet spent much
time away from the target. Coverage was half of the polar orbits target coverage.
These were also not sun-synchronous. Furthermore, the polar orbit covered all polar
bear habitats. Iterations were then made to meet additional mission requirements.
2.1. Spacecraft Orbital Parameters
The optimum orbit is summarised in table 1 below. Each of parameter was iterated
for target coverage in the order shown and then reiterated a second time. They were
then retuned for ground access, imaging and orbit decay (apogee/perigee; for drag).
Table 1 - MACESAT orbit parameters (using classic J2000 Coordinate system)
(1) Inclination () 98.76
(2) RAAN () 108.45
(3) Apogee Altitude (km) 920.50
(4) Perigee Altitude (km) 850.70
(5) Mean Anomaly () 21.22
Orbit Period (min) 97.50 (found using orbit analysis tool)
2.2. Choice of Ground Stations
ESA mission ground stations at Kiruna, Korou and Perth were analysed for the given
orbit. The most effective ground station is Kiruna; with a superior rendezvous rate,
maximum transition time and time coverage factor. This is explained in section 3.2.
Feasability
analysis
Apr 2013
Concept
Closure
Oct 2013
Design &
Manufacture
Jun 2015
Test
Nov 2015
Launch
Jul 2016
Commence
Data
Acquisition
Aug 2016
Mission
Closure
Jul 2021
Figure 2 - Timeline for the MACESAT mission
Spacecraft Systems: STK Orbit Optimisation

3


2.3. Essential Targets
MACESAT has sufficient redundancy to map the surrounding circumpolar basin.
However, targets have been selected as the most critical areas. These are a
combination of the largest polar bear population and highest risk of decline (see table
4 in Appendix A). Table 2 below shows these
iv
[1, PBSG 2013]:-
Table 2 - Target regions
Region Coordinates Area
Davis Strait (67.0106 N, 58.0289 W); 189,189 km
2

Baffin Bay (73.4083 N, 68.1311 W); 416,000km
2

Lancaster Sound (74.2167 N, 84.0000 W); 1,000,000 km
2

3.0. Orbit coverage and access
This section explains how MACESAT has been tuned to optimise coverage of the
required target regions and access to ground stations.
3.1. Coverage
The percentage coverage access of the three regions was maximised with this orbit
selection. This is the most useful figure of merit, as the mission objective is to obtain
accurate maps over a period of time (there is no time-response urgency). This was
achieved by iteratively tuning orbit parameters and comparing coverage. A coverage
perimeter region of the 3 target regions was geometrically defined. During latter
iterations, a final coverage value (constrained by additional requirements) of 12.66%
was achieved (3.9% overall improvement). Sensor elevation angle was constrained
to above 15 in STK and a nadir swath width was 15km. Inclination, RAAN,
apogee/perigee, mean anomaly and argument of perigee were separately altered
until ideal values (i.e. further change would worsen coverage) were obtained. 100%
of the STK targets (and all surrounding habitats) are covered. Table 3 shows an
example of this process for the final iterations of inclination.
Table 3 - Iterating orbit parameters for covering Davis Strait, Baffin Bay & Lancaster Sound

3.2. Ground Station Access
Kiruna, Kourou and Perth ground stations

were assessed for use. Selection was
based on optimisation of access times (satellite within in line of sight)
v
[4, Sastig
2007]. This ensures constant communication with MACESAT. Details of the ground
stations and corresponding sensors are outlined in table 4 and modelled in STK.
Table 4 - Ground station details
Ground
Station
vi
[4,
Johnson P 1999]
Dish
Diameter
(m)
Sensor
Band
Uplink
(GHz) [6,
Beasley, 1999]
Downlink
(GHz) [6]
Cone
angle ()
Bandwidth
(MHz)
vii
[7,
Freile, 1998]
Mount
Type
Kiruna,
Sweeden
15,6,9 (3
options)
S or X
(2.03-2.11) or
(7.9 - 8.4)
(2.20-2.29) or
(7.25 - 7.75)
45 209 (1dB) or
500
Az-El
Kourou, Fr
Guiana

15 S or X
(2.03-2.11) or
(7.9 - 8.4)
(2.20-2.29) or
(7.25 - 7.75)
45
209 (1dB) or
500
Az-El
Perth,
Australia
15 S or X
(2.03-2.11) or
(7.9 - 8.4)
(2.20-2.29) or
(7.25 - 7.75)
45 209 (1dB) or
500
Az-El
98
Chosen
Value
Iterated Inclination Value /
99
98.5
98.6
98.7
98.8
98.75
98.74
98.77
98.76
Spacecraft Systems: STK Orbit Optimisation

4

The appropriate receivers and transmitter were added to ground stations)
viii
[5, ESA
2004]. A comparison of all three ground sites showed that Kiruna produced the most
frequent access times. This was 37 times in a 3 day interval, as opposed to Kourous
and Perths 12 and 15. Furthermore, the total duration of access was almost 3 times
greater as shown by figures 3-5. Maximum contact time for data transmission is
highest and mean time is also relatively high.

Figure 3 - Kiruna & MACESAT access in 72 hours (chosen combination)


Figure 4 - Kourou & MACESAT access in 72 hours


Figure 5 Perth & MACESAT access in 72 hours
MACESAT does not demand high contact time requirements as the Satellite must
downlink images and data of the ice over a long period of time. Thus a contact time
of over 30% of entire orbit time is acceptable
ix
(9, Aguirre

2013). Given the financial
constraints for MACESAT as well as the sufficient coverage percentage of 34.9%
(with suitably long access periods and lack of gaps), the Kiruna ground station was
selected. Ground tracks and satellite-ground communications are shown in figure 6.










All satellite contact elevations were restricted to above 15 deg (defined by a positive
elevation axis), to permit the payload sensor option (a visible wavelength camera).
This is shown in figure 7 below. Use of a Sun-Synchronous orbit makes monitoring
periods consistent in addition to sunlight ratio and allowing mission specific imaging.
[Type a quote from the
document or the summary of an
interesting point. You can
position the text box anywhere in
the document. Use the Text Box
Tools tab to change the
formatting of the pull quote text
box.]
Figure 6 - MACESAT Orbit track and Ground Station access regions

Spacecraft Systems: STK Orbit Optimisation

5


Figure 7 - Contact times for MACESAT & Kiruna over a 3 day interval
3.3. Non-essential Target Regions
STK modelling showed that the orbit covers the entire Arctic basin within a short
period of time. Data contributions to existing ice melt models would require 2 week
interval images at most. This would also validate the accuracy of existing simulations
[2]. Additionally, MACESATs data transfer redundancy (section 4.1.), means that all
polar bear habitats can also be monitored. Hudson Bay, the Chucki Sea, the Beaufort
Sea and other regions (Appendix A) are examinable. If melt rates change in stable
regions (or stabilise in changing regions) the data from MACESAT will prove vital.

4.0. Additional Criteria for the Selected Orbit
This section relates the additional factors considered in optimising the orbit. The
Rokot launch vehicle at the Pletsek is intended due to ideal: cost, performance
margins, success rate and launch opportunities as highlighted in Appendix B.

4.1. Data Transfer
Assuming a realistic downlink rate of 150mb/s
x
[10, Satimaging 2008], with
MACESATs average ground station access time of

seconds each day,

40,816MB of data can be sent to ground each day. Assuming an average image size
of 1.5mb [9], 27,210 images can be transferred each day. For the given imaging a
15km
2
swath, an area imaging capacity of 408150km
2
is given. The purpose of the
mission is to obtain images of the target region over a long period of time which
means that this capacity is free redundancy. Additionally, a terabyte hard drive is
feasible for use (in terms of mass and dimensions) and gives sufficient space for
stored imagery. It is also possible to tag and monitor individual polar bears and asses
population decline (or even changes due to migration). Data handling can be
performed using a standard OBC 750 LEO onboard flight computer
xi
[10, SSTL 2013]
4.1.1. Monetary Income from MACESAT
This redundancy allows the MACESAT imaging service to be purchased by third
parties. This would bring in revenues from a variety of applications such as: natural
disaster rescue, commercial military, forest fires monitoring or intelligence. A financial
payback can be made to investors or funds made available for future research. The
option of a synthetic aperture lens is also feasible, giving sub metre resolutions
xii,xiii

[GeoEye, 11], [12, Chan & Koo 2008]. As the orbit track in figure 5 shows, a large
portion of the Earth is covered each orbit. Furthermore, the entire surface is covered
in 13.8 days, which is the maximum waiting time to have images of any region.
Spacecraft Systems: STK Orbit Optimisation

6

4.2. Imaging
The use of a Sun synchronous orbit ensures a constant sunlight ratio and means that
visual spectrum (optical) images can be taken as well as mission specific synthetic
aperture pulsed images (which do not require visible light). At the orbit altitude of
704km, the proven ESA Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar
xiv
[13, ESA, 2013],
operating in Wide Swath Mode
xv
[14, ESA 2013], images a 405km

strip at medium
resolution of 150m. This is maximised at 34cm (using c-band 5.8cm wavelength
xvi
[15, NASA 1994]), ensuring it will not become obsolete. This can be overlaid and
plotted onto a GPS linked map. At the end of the mission, the spacecraft can be
adapted for use in the in-demand field of ultra-high resolution imaging. A pushbroom
optical payload sensor will also be used for visible-light spectrum imaging. This is
cheaper, more reliable and less distorting than a whiskbroom (see appendix C).

4.3. Orbital Decay
The orbital decay (in the absence of correction) over 5 year mission lifetime is a
critical aspect of orbit selection
xvii
[15, Wentz & Schaber 1998]. Apogee and perigee
were adjusted to improve this. Assuming a spacecraft mass of 100kg, C
D
of 2.2 and
cross sectional area of 4.3m
2
based on similar spacecraft (SpaceEye-10, RapidEye).
Apogee and perigee parameters are a compromise between higher percentage
coverage and less atmospheric drag (which is higher at lower altitudes). Orbital
corrections would be performed by an onboard 10N EADS MMH bi-propellant
thruster
xviii
[16, EADS 2013]. Figure 7 below shows the minimum orbital decay of
34km that was obtained, requiring minimal delta-v correction. xix













5.0.....Conclusion
A MACESAT mission is intended for obtaining data of sea ice melting in the Arctic
basin. STK allowed mission modelling and iterative parameter optimisation of an
ideal 98.76 polar orbit; chosen over HEO, Molniya and Geostationary alternatives.
The Davis Strait, Baffin Bay and Lancaster Sound were identified as critical targets.
These gave long coverage durations when overhead, but spent much time away from
the target (requiring at least two satellites for equivalent coverage). The Polar Bear is
an endangered species and different interest groups should be involved for
sponsorship. The Kiruna station provided maximum access, 34.9% of orbit time. Two
week interval data will contribute to ice melting simulations, aid understanding and
suggest corrective action. Imaging redundancy allows coverage of surrounding
habitats. A rapid 3 year to launch and 5 years of operation is proposed. The entire
Earths surface is covered every 13.8 days, allowing procurement of the MACESAT
imaging service by third parties. Funds for future research can thereby be obtained.


Figure 8 - MACESAT's lifetime orbital decay
Spacecraft Systems: STK Orbit Optimisation

7

5.0. References


i
Driesschaert,1, E. et al. (2007) Modeling the influence of Greenland ice sheet melting on the Atlantic
meridional overturning circulation during the next millennia. GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, 34.

ii
Rignot, E. & Kanagaratnam, P. (2006), Changes in the velocity structure of the Greenland ice sheet,
Sci. 311.

iii
Larson, W. and Wertz, J. (1992) Space mission analysis and design. Portland: Microcosm

iv
Pbsg.npolar.no (2013) PBSG : State of The Polar Bear. [online] Available at:
http://pbsg.npolar.no/en/dynamic/app/ [Accessed: 2 Apr 2013].

v
Satsig.net (2007) Antenna beam width calculator. [online] Available at:
http://www.satsig.net/pointing/antenna-beamwidth-calculator.htm [Accessed: 3 Apr 2013].

vi
Johnson, P. (1999) NASA DIRECTORY OF STATION LOCATIONS . FLIGHT DYNAMICS DIVISION- ,
GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER (GREENBELT, MARYLAND).

vii
Freiley, A. (1998) Simultaneous S- and X-Band Uplink-Downlink Performance at DSS 13. Radio
Frequency and Microwave Subsystems Section, TDA Progress Report (42-94).

viii
ESA (2004) Perth station / Operations / Our Activities / ESA. [online] Available at:
http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Operations/Perth_station [Accessed: 3 Apr 2013].

ix
Aguirre, M. A. (2013). Introduction to space systems design and synthesis. New York, NY, Springer.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-3758-1.

x
Satimagingcorp.com (2008) GeoEye-1 Satellite Imagery and Satellite Sensor Specifications | Satellite
Imaging Corp. [online] Available at: http://www.satimagingcorp.com/satellite-sensors/geoeye-1.html
[Accessed: 4 Apr 2013].

xi
Sstl.co.uk (2013) OBC750 LEO flight computer. [online] Available at:
http://www.sstl.co.uk/Products/Subsystems/On-Board-Data-Handling/On-Board-Computer/OBC750-
LEO-flight-computer [Accessed: 14 Apr 2013].

xii
Geoeye.com (2013) GeoEye 101 | Satellite Imagery | High-Resolution Imagery. [online] Available
at: http://www.geoeye.com/GeoEye101/satellite-imagery/high-resolution-imagery.aspx [Accessed: 4
Apr 2013].

xiii
Chan, Y. and Koo, V. (2008) AN INTRODUCTION TO SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR (SAR).Progress In
Electromagnetics Research, 2 (27-60).

xiv
Earth.esa.int (2013) ASAR - Earthnet Online. [online] Available at:
https://earth.esa.int/web/guest/missions/esa-operational-eo-missions/envisat/instruments/asar
[Accessed: 2 Apr 2013].

xv
Earth.esa.int (2013) ASAR - Earthnet Online. [online] Available at:
https://earth.esa.int/handbooks/asar/CNTR3-1-2.htm [Accessed: 2 Apr 2013].

Spacecraft Systems: STK Orbit Optimisation

8


xvi
Southport.jpl.nasa.gov (1994) SIR-C Description. [online] Available at:
http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/desc/SIRCdesc.html [Accessed: 15 Apr 2013].

xvii
Wentz, F. and Schabel, M. (1998) Effects of orbital decay on satellite-derived lower troposheric
temperature trends. Remote Sensing Systems,, NATURE 394.

xviii
Cs.astrium.eads.net (2013) 10 N Bipropellant Thruster. [online] Available:
cs.astrium.eads.net/sp/spacecraft-propulsion/bipropellant-thrusters/10n-thruster.html [Accessed:
27 Mar 2013].

xix
University of Colorado. (2013) Remote Sensing of the Environment Lecture 9. [online] Available at:
http://cires.colorado.edu/esoc/classes/geog5093/Fall2011/Lecture_9.pdf [Accessed: 3 May 2013].

X. Appendix

Appendix A: Satellite Target Selection
Table 5 Polar bear regional populations and decline risk



Appendix B: Launch Vehicle Selection
Table 6 Launch sites and vehicles
Launch Site Coordinate
Location
Launch
Vehicles
Launch
Cost
(M$)
xix,xix

Success
rate
(%)
Launches per
year
xix
(FAS,
2012)
Sea Launch (Oddessy, USA) 0N, 154W Zenit 85 76.9 3
Vandenberg (AFB, USA) 34.7N, 120.6
W
Atlas II, IV
Delta II, IV
Pegasus XL
98
55
14
98.5
96.0
90.9
6
7
6
Guiana (Korou) 5.2N, 52.8W Ariane 5
Soyuz
165
39
95.2
97.5
5
11
Kagoshima (Japan) 31.2, 131.1E M-V 60 85.7 1
Tanegashima, (Japan) 30.4N, 130.6E H-IIA 90 86.4 1
Plesetsk Cosmodrome
(Russia)
62.8N, 40.8E Rokot
Soyuz
19
39
94.4
97.5
15
11
Sriharikota (India) 13.9N, 80.4W PSLV 17.5 91.3 2

Spacecraft Systems: STK Orbit Optimisation

9


Appendix C: Optical payload sensor
A pushbroom sensor was chosen as it is: of lower cost, more reliable/mechanically
simpler, has a longer dwell time and critically less pixel distortion [29, Colorado
University]. This is shown in figure 9 below. For the required 250km resolution and
500nm wavelength light, at the 900km the resolution equation is

. This
gives a 4.4m dish diameter. For a 100km
2
field of view (as modelled for realistic,
optimum coverage in STK), the area equation is
2

. This gives a sensor

scan angle of 41.1, less than many common payload sensors (e.g. Avnir-2, Palsar
etc.).

Figure 9: Pushbroom sensor