9.

1 Transport in the xylem of plants

>> Transpiration is the inevitable consequence of gas exchange in the leaf

Plant leaves are where the process of photosynthesis occurs. It involves the
assimilation of carbohydrates(glucose-C6H12O6) using light energy. Carbon
dioxide is used as a raw material and oxygen is a waste product. Gas exchange is
essential for photosynthesis to occur.
Absorption of CO2 is essential for
photosynthesis, as the waxy cuticle has low
permeability, it needs pores on its surface known
as stomata.
A common problem among plants and
other organisms is having gas exchange without
water loss. This loss of water vapor from the
leaves and the stem of the plant is known as
transpiration.
Water loss is minimized using guard cells.
Theyre found in pairs on either side of the
stoma. The guard cells control the opening of the
stoma and can adjust it.
A group of plants without any stomata are known as liverworts.

>>> Plants transport water from the roots to the leaves to replace losses from
transpiration

The water leaving through stomata by transpiration is replaced by the water
from the xylem.
The water in the xylem climbs the stem through the pull of transpiration
combined with the forces of adhesion and cohesion.
Water moves from the soil into the roots by osmosis due to the active transport
of minerals into the root.
Once the water is
in the root it travels to the
xylem through cell
walls(apoplast pathway)
and through the
cytoplasm(symplast
pathway)












>> The cohesive property of water and the structure of the xylem cells allow transport
under tension

The plants are able to transport water very efficiently due to the structure of the
xylem vessel.
Water molecules are cohesive, they are closely stuck together. Theyre not
broken down by negative pressure or suctions. This is caused by the hydrogen
bonding.



Properties/Structure of the xylem vessel

The xylem walls are thickened. The reason they can withstand low
pressure without collapsing is that the thick walls are
saturated with a polymer known lignin.
Xylem vessels are formed from files
of cells, lined end to end. Sometimes in flowering
plants the cell wall material in areas between
adjoining cells is largely removed. The cells contents
and plasma membrane breakdown.
Mature xylem cells are non-living, so
the flow of water along is a passive process. The
atmospheric pressure is higher than the pressure
inside the xylem cell, but the tube doesnt collapse
due to the rigid structure.






>> The adhesive property of water and evaporation generate tension forces in leaf cell
wall

Pulling forces(tension) causes the water to move up to the leaves.
These forces are generated by leaves and are due to the adhesive property of
water.
Water strongly adheres to the cellulose in plant cells
When water evaporates from mesophyll cell walls in the leaf, more water is
drawn through narrow cellulose-lined pores in leaf cell walls from the nearest
xylem vessels to replace it, generating the tension.












>> Active uptake of mineral ions in the roots causes absorption of water by osmosis



>> Adaptation of plants in deserts and in saline soils for water conservation
Desert
- Succulence - Succulent plants are water hoarders. They store water in stems,
root or fleshy leaves; special structures
good at moisture retention.
- Toleration
- Evasion
Saline
- Salt excretion - These plants have leaves
with glands that excrete salt.
- Leave dropping - The plants store the salt
in some leaves and if the load becomes too
high, they drop the leaves.
- Stomata control - The plants can restrict
the stomata opening allowing them to
conserve fresh water.
- Turned leaves - The plants usually turn the
leaf to reduce the surface area exposed to
the hot sun and to capture evaporating
water and increase humidity.








9. 2 Transport in the phloem of plants

>> Plants transport organic compounds from sources to sinks.
The transport of organic solutes in a plant is called translocation
Examples of Sources
- Mature green leaves
- Green stems
- Storage tissues in germinating seeds
- Tap roots or tubers at the start of the growth season.
Examples of Sinks
- Growing roots
- Developing fruits
- Developing seeds
- Growing leaves
- Developing tap roots or tubers

>> Active transport is used to load organic compounds into phloem sieve tubes at the
source



Sieve Plate: These are the remnants of
cell walls that separated the cells. The
perforated walls in combination with the
reduced cytoplasm means that resistance to the
flow of phloem sap will be lower.
Companion cells: These cells perform
many of the genetic and metabolic functions of
the sieve tube cells and maintain the viability of the sieve tube cell.
Sieve Tube Elements: Sieve tubes are formed by living cells known as a sieve
tube element. They form rigid walls which allow for the establishment of
pressure necessary to achieve the flow of phloem in the sieve tube cell.
Cytoplasm: This viscous liquid is used for movement in the cell.

>> Incompressibility of water allows transport by hydrostatic pressure gradients
The build up of sucrose and other carbohydrates draws water into the
companion cell through osmosis. the rigid cell walls combined with the
incompressibility of water results in a buildup of pressure. Water will flow from
this area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.
>> Experiments using aphid stylets
Aphids penetrate plant tissues to reach the phloem using mouth parts called
stylets.
If the aphid is anaesthetized and the stylet severed, phloem will continue to flow
out of the stylet and both the rate of the flow and the composition of the sap
can be analysed.
The closer the stylet is to the sinks, the slower the rate at which the phloem sap
will come out.

>> Radioisotopes are important tools in studying translocation
Carbon 14 is an isotope of carbon that is radioactive.
Radioactively-labelled carbon within carbon-dioxide can be fixed by plants
during photosynthesis.
It will release radiation that can be detected using either film or radiation
detectors.
As the carbon is metabolized, it will be found in different molecules within the
plant.
The formation and movement of radioactive molecules can be traced.

>> Identification of xylem and phloem in microscope images of stem and root.


9.3 Growth in plants

>> Undifferentiated cells in meristems of plants allow indeterminate growth.
Most have a determinate growth which stops when it reaches a certain size.
Cells are totipotent (can differentiate into all cells) - important for tissue
cultures.
All growth is confined to meristems (composed of undifferentiated cells that are
undergoing active cell division.)
Flowering plants have meristems at the tip of the root and the tip of the stem.
They are apical meristems as they are at the apex of the root and the stem.
Growth in apical meristems allows roots and stems to elongate. The shoot apical
meristem also produces new leaves and flowers.
In animal embryos, a fixed number of parts develop. This is called determinate
growth.
The growth of plants by contrast is indeterminate, because apical meristems can
continue to increase the lengths of stem and root throughout the life of a plant
and can produce any number of extra branches of the stem or root. They can
also produce any number of extra leaves or flowers.



>> Mitosis and cell division in the shoot apex provide cells needed for extension of the
stem and development of the leaves .

The leaves of a plant are
attached to the stem. The shoot
of the plant is the stem together
with the leaves. At the tip of the
shoot, there is a meristem called
the shoot apical meristem.
The cells in this meristem
carry out mitosis and cell division
repeatedly, to generate the cells
needed for extension of the stem
and development of leaves.
Some of the cells always
remain in the meristem and
continue to go through the cell
cycle producing more cells
This production of new
cells causes other cells to be
displaced to the edge of the
meristem

Cells at the edge stop dividing and under grow rapid growth at differentiation to
become either stem or leaf tissue
Leaves are initiated
as small bumps at the side of
the apical dome. These
bumps are called leaf
primordia and through
continued cell division and
rapid growth they develop
into mature leaves.










>> Plant hormones control growth in the shoot apex
Plant hormones are used to control growth at the shoot tip. The main hormone is auzin,
which acts as a growth promoter. One of the processes that auxin controls is
phototropism.

Tropisms are directional growth responses to directional stimuli. Shoots are positively
phototropic - they grow towards the brightest source of light.

Shoot tips can detect the source of the brightest light and also produce auxin. According
to long-standing theory, auxin is redistributed in the shoot tip from the lighter side to
the shadier side. It then promotes more growth on the shadier side, causing the shoot to
bend towards the light.

>> Plant shoots respond to the environment by tropisms

Light is detected using
several types of
pigment, but the most
important are a group
of proteins called
phototropins. When
these detect
differences in the
intensity of blue light
in the shoot tip they trigger off movements of auxin by active transport. This is carried
out by auxin pumps in the plasma membrane.

>> Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients of auxin in plant tissue.
The auxin pumps in the plasma membranes are efflux pumps as they move auxin from
the cytoplasm out into the cell wall. Auxin molecules in the cytoplasm carry a negative
charge and it is these that are moved by the efflux pumps.

In the cell wall and proton binds to the auxin and it can then diffuse into a cell through
the plasma membrane. Once in a cell the auxin loses its proton again and is trapped in
the cytoplasm until an efflux pump ejects it.

Auxin efflux pumps are moved in response to the differences in light intensity so they
set up a concentration gradient of auxin from lower on the lighter side to higher on the
shadier side.

>> Auxin influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of gene expression.
Plant cells contain an auxin receptor. When auxin binds to it, transcription of specific
genes is promoted. The expression of these genes causes secretion of hydrogen ions
into cell walls. This loosens connections between cellulose fibres allowing cell
expansion.