GENERAL GEOLOGY

Unit - I
External agencies
Weathering
Wind
River
Sea
Landslide
Internal agencies
Earthquakes
Plate tectonics
Groundwater
River
Running water is the most important geologic agent in
eroding, transporting and depositing sediment
Nearly every landscape on Earth shows the results of
stream erosion or deposition
Running Water
Hydrologic Cycle
Hydrologic cycle- the movement and
interchange of water between the sea, air, and
land
Evaporation
Solar radiation provides energy
Precipitation
Rain or snow
Transpiration
Evaporation from plants
Runoff
Water flowing over land surface
Infiltration
Water soaking into the ground
Source of Stream Water
Run Off
Precipitation
Glacial melt
Streams and Stream Systems
Streamorders
Small streams join larger ones
Relationship called stream
orders
First order versus second and
third order
Smaller numbers in stream
order are more frequent
Larger numbers are longer in
length and watershed order
River profile
Streams flow in well-defined channels
developed and modified by the water itself
1-3 Stages of development
Longitudinal profile Transverse profile
Old stage
LIFE HISTORY OF RIVERS
Youthful stage
Matured stage
Geological work of River
The water flowing from head to mouth the streams are
greatly modifying the topography of the region through
which they are flowing.
This is three type
I. Erosion
II. Sediment Transport
III. Deposition
I. River Erosion
1. Methods of River erosion
2. Rate of River Erosion
3. Features / landforms of River Erosion
1. Methods of River erosion
Hydraulic action
Cavitation (sudden high velocity)
Abrasion
Attrition
Corrosion (chemical action of the stream)
2. Rate of River Erosion
Depends upon the
Velocity of stream
Lithology
Load (volume of sediments)
3. Features of River Erosion /
Erosional Landforms
Potholes
River valleys
Water falls
Potholes
Depression of soft rock is pot holes
It is done by hydraulic action
Ranges from few cm to many meters indecent
Potholes are eroded
into streambed by the
abrasive action of the
sediment load in the
stream
River valleys
depressions formed by streams
a) Origin of valleys
(Gullies)
(Ravines)
(Valleys)
Start with gullies pass to ravines and end with valleys
b) Valley deepening
It is achieved by all the
erosional processes such as
hydraulic action, abrasion
and chemical action
(Example: Gorges and canyons)
Base level of erosion:
The lowest level up to which a river can erode its channel.
c) Valley Lengthening
L1 = initial length
L2 = Length after tributary capture
stream receives a Number of tributary extending
the valley length known as lengthening
River capture / piracy
d) Valley Widening
V
1
- v
1
1
= initial width
V
2
- v
2
1
= next width
M - W = mass watering
River contribute valley widening through the
processes of mass wasting
Valley profile
Transverse profile
Longitudinal profile
P
1
= present P
1
-P
5
= imaginary
Escarpment
Dip slope
Cuesta
Hogback
Mesa and Butte
Step like Escarpment
(Iguassu Falls, Brazil)
WATER FALLS (Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada)
Water falls
Sediment transport by River
1. Types of Load
2. Grading of Streams
1. Types of Load
Suspended load - sediment that is
small/light enough to remain above
the stream bottom
Bed load - large or heavy particles
that travel on the streambed
It consist of heavier particles of sand
pebbles gravel & cobbles
Dissolved load - dissolved ions
produced by chemical weathering
of soluble minerals
Bed load
2. Grading of Streams
Degrading streams
Under loaded streams
Fast flowing
Cutting down their bases
Graded streams
Mature and balanced
Velocity is sufficient to carry their load
Aggrading streams
Old aged streams, dont have sufficient velocity
Part of their load gets deposited
Degrading streams
Graded streams
Aggrading streams
Deposition by Rivers
The process:
Dropping down of its load by any moving natural
agent is technically called deposition
Type of Fluvial deposits
The deposits that are laid down by running
water are called alluvial or fluvial or fluviatile
deposits
Alluvial fans & cones
Flood plain
Deltas
Channel Deposits
1. Alluvial fans & cones
Alluvial fan: slope is below 10
Alluvial cone: slope is from10 - 50
ALLUVIAL FAN
IRS 1D IRAN
Alluvial Fan
2. Flood plains
There may come periods of high-water level in a
stream during which it over flow on banks and
spreads over vast area on its sides
Such a process get repeated year after year
The low lying areas surrounding major rivers are
made up of the layer of mud deposit laid after a
number of floods - called flood plains
Convex F.P Flat F.P
when the river floods its plays the loose sediments on either
banks called Flood plains.
It will have loose un consolidated sediments
Retain more moisture
Accumulate better Ground water
Better recharge zone from river
Natural Levees
Long lens shaped sand bodies at the bank of
rivers.
Better Groundwater pockets
Heavy Minerals
Back Swamp
Levee
Levee
Unpaired
Flood Plain
Back Swamp
3. Channel Deposits
Many streams are forced by some natural causes to
deposit some of their load along their riverbeds.
Great of economic use:
Source of sand and gravels : suitable for construction
materials.
Sandbars:
Narrowridge sand deposits in the riverbed
Temporary in nature
Lensoid sand bodies within the river
Due to loss of bed load
Nearing of coastal zone
4. River Meandering
The process of development of zigzag course by
streamis known as river meandering
Development of Meandering:
E = Erosion
D = Deposition
Oxbow Lakes
The advanced stages of a meandering
Having loops or completely detached
The isolated area often contains water
fromthe same river are called OXBOW
LAKES
5. Deltas
Deltas are defined as
alluvial deposit of roughly
triangular shape that are
deposited by the rivers at
the paints where they
enter into the sea
The bottomset
It is formed at the base of
the delta by a gentle sea
ward inclination
The foreset
shows very steep
inclination towards sea and
made up of thick layers of
sand & clay
The topset
It is a thin layer with gentle
slope
LOBATE DELTA
CONTENENTAL DELTA - VAIGAI
Bay of Bengal
The Ganges and Brahmaputra
Rivers combined have formed
one of the largest deltas in
the world, comprising
approximately 105 640 km
2
.
THE CYCLE OF EROSION
Depends on
Humid environment
Arid environment
Stream and Drainage pattern
Consequentn Streams
First streams, developed with the
topography
Subsequent Streams
Tributaries to the consequent
streams
Lithology (rocks)
Obsequent Streams
Tributaries to the subsequent
streams
Prevailing slope
Insequent Streams
Irregular streams
Formed due to either slope or
lithology
Dendritic
DRAINAGE PATTERNS
Pattern Origin Characteristics Geology
Dendritic
Insequent
Random,
Acute-angle junctions
Homogeneous,
Horizontal beds
Trellis
Subsequent
Parallel streams,
High-angle junctions
Heterogeneous,
Tilted beds
Rectangular
/ angular
Subsequent
High-angle junctions,
High-angle bends in
Tributaries
Jointed rocks
Annular
Subsequent
Circular patterns
Heterogeneous,
Breached domes
Radial
Consequent
Streams flowing in all
directions from
Central high area
Volcanic or intrusive
domes
Dendritic Drainage
Tree with branches
Homogeneous lithology
Granitic terrain
Softer
lithology
Trellis Drainage
Rectangular drainage
Zones of mutually
Perpendicular Joints
Annular Drainage
Anomalous annularity in
drainages
Indicates surficial and
subsurface domes and
basins
Radial Drainage
(a) Radial centrifugal domes
(b) Radial centripetal basin
Domes and
basins
Superimposed Drainage
The drainages of that are retaining their original character of
the formation in which they were formed but misfit or
super imposed over other formation.
Antecedent Drainage
Gradual uplift of the crustal blocks
Present
course
Old course
Drainage
drainages got deflected due to later tectonic activities, doming,
arching subsidence etc.
Floods
Different Interval times
Dry stage, half-full stage and bank-full stage
Causes
Topography
Lithology
Vegetation
Magnitude and Frequency
Hydrograph (Time Vs Discharge)
Flood control
Afforestation
Check dams
Deepening of channel
Diversion of channels
Flood zonation mapping
Stage Landscape Processes
youthful steep hillsides,
drainage divides predominant
V-shaped valleys
headward erosion,
stream downcutting
mature rounded hills,
valley walls predominant
graded streams
broad floodplains
lateral erosion,
streams adjust to
discharge/load
old age peneplane,
close to base level
very low relief,
sluggish stream flow,
poor drainage
The Cycle of Erosion
WHY TO STUDY FLUVIAL LANDFORMS ?
1. To understand the ongoing erosional and
depositional dynamics of the river systems
2. To fabricate the past fluvial activites of the various
geological basins so as to understand the basin
dynamics and resources.
3. To fabricate the palaeo flood cycle.
4. To understand seismicity status.
5. To understand the areas prone for erosion and
reservoir siltation.
6. To locate placer deposits.
7. To detect Groundwater locales
8. To identify Zones of natural and artificial recharge.
9. To identify vulnerable areas for pollution.
10. To select suitable sites for dams , reservoirs and
bridges.
11. To locate deltas and palaeo shores.
11. To locate deltas and palaeo shores.
12. To locate interdependent forces between marine & fluvial
forces.
13. To locate locales of hydrocarbon.
14. To draw Plans for Command area development
15. Inter linking of Rivers