ECET412a

ECET412a
Principles of Communications Course

Joel C. Delos Angeles B.S. ECE 2
Course information
Scope of the course
Principles of Communications

Resources
Lectures posted in Yahoo Group
<ecet412a_dlsu_2013_1@yahoogroups.com>
Course Syllabus
Reading Materials
3
Resources
Course material
Course text book:
Carlson, B., Crilly P. (2010). Communications Systems: An
Introduction to Signals and Noise in Electrical
Communication. 5
th
ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Additional recommended books
Electronic Communications Systems W. Tomasi. Prentice Hall, 4th ed
2001 (or 5th edition, 2004)

Material accessible from course yahoo group:
Message Posts
Lecture slides (.ppt, pdf)
Assignments
Joel C. Delos Angeles B.S. ECE Lecture 1: Introduction
4
Scope of the course
Course Outline (May change depending on period
time constraints)

Introduction - (Prelims)
Fourier Series, Fourier Transforms and Continuous
Spectra (Prelims)
Signal Transmission and Filtering - (Midterms)
Linear CW Modulation - (Midterms )
Exponential CW Modulation (Finals)

5
Lecturer
Course responsible and lecturer and giving
tutorials:
Joel C. Delos Angeles
Office: CEAT CTH 214
Tuesday/Thursday
1:00 to 4:00 PM
Email: joeldelosangeles@yahoo.com;
jcdelosangeles@dlsud.edu.ph

ECET412a

Lecture 3
Signal Transmission and Filtering

Primary Reference Book: Carlson Chapter 3
pages 112-124,126-131, 134-136, 137-140,
143-146, 147-151, 153-154,
Midterms
7
In Lec 3, we are going to talk about:
Response of LTI Systems

Signal Distortion in Transmission

Transmission Loss and Decibels

Filters and Filtering

Joel C. Delos Angeles B.S. ECE Lecture 3: Signal Transmission and Filtering
8
Background
Signal transmission - process whereby an
electrical waveform gets from one location to
another, ideally arriving without distortion.
Signal filtering operation which purposefully
distorts a waveform by altering its spectral content.
Most transmission systems and filters have in
common the properties of linearity and time
invariance (LTI).
These properties allow us to model both transmission
and filtering in the time domain in terms of the impulse
response, or in the frequency domain in terms of the
frequency response
9
Objectives
1. State and apply the inputoutput relations for an LTI system in
terms of its impulse response h(t), step response g(t), or transfer
function H(f) (Sect. 3.1)
2. Use frequency-domain analysis to obtain an exact or approximate
expression for the output of a system (Sect. 3.1).
3. Find H(f) from the block diagram of a simple system (Sect. 3.1).
4. Distinguish between amplitude distortion, delay distortion, linear
distortion, and nonlinear distortion (Sect. 3.2)
5. Identify the frequency ranges that yield distortionless transmission
for a given channel (Sect. 3.2).
6. Use dB calculations to find the signal power in a cable
transmission system with amplifiers (Sect. 3.3).
7. Discuss the characteristics of and requirements for transmission
over fiber optic and satellite systems (Sect. 3.3).
8. Identify the characteristics and sketch H(f) and h(t) for an ideal
LPF, BPF, or HPF (Sect. 3.4).
9. Find the 3 dB bandwidth of a real LPF, given H(f) (Sect. 3.4).
10. State and apply the bandwidth requirements for pulse
transmission (Sect. 3.4).
10
RESPONSE OF LTI SYSTEMS
Joel C. Delos Angeles B.S. ECE

Excitation-and-response relationship between input and
output
Energy storage elements and other internal effects may
cause the output waveform to look quite different from
the input
Lecture 3: Signal Transmission and Filtering
11
Impulse Response and Superposition

Assume: no internal stored energy so y(t) is due entirely
to x(t)

Linear (superposition principle applies):

Time-Invariant
12

Define: The systems response to an impulse input

Thus, the superposition integral:

Or, the forced response y(t) is the convolution of the
input (t) and the system impulse response h(t)
13

System analysis in the time domain thus requires
knowledge of the impulse response along with the
ability to carry out a convolution. Alternatively, we may
calculate first the systems step response

where

Define: unit step function
14
Time Response of an nth order system

The order n is equal to the number of energy-storage
elements (below is 1
st
order)

The step response (input is a step function)

15
Time Response of an 1st order system

The impulse response (when input is an impulse)

One can now find the response y(t) to an arbitrary
input x(t)

16
Time Response of an 1st order system

Let x(t) = A for 0 < t < , then the response is

17
System Gain and Phase Shift

Since A
y
/A
x
= |H(f
0
)| and any frequency f
0
, then H(f) is
the amplitude ratio as a function of frequency or the
amplitude response or gain

arg H(f) represents the system phase shift since
y

x
= arg H(f
0
)
Plots of |H(f
0
)| and arg H(f
0
) versus frequency gives the
systems frequency response

ECET412a

Lecture 4
Linear Continuous-Wave Modulation

Primary Reference Book: Carlson Chapter 4
Midterms
Joel C. Delos Angeles B.S. ECE Lecture 4: Linear CW Modulation
19
In Lec 4, we are going to talk about:
Bandpass Signals and Systems

DSB Amplitude Modulation

Modulators and Transmitters

Suppressed-Sideband AM

Frequency Conversion and Demodulation

20
Background
Modulation - the systematic alteration of one
waveform, called the carrier, according to the
characteristics of another waveform, the modulating
signal or message, to produce an information-
bearing modulated wave with properties best suited
to the given communication task.

CW modulation systems the carrier is a
sinusoidal wave modulated by an analog signal
(e.g. AM, FM)

Linear CW modulation involves direct frequency
translation of the message spectrum
Background - Modulation
Modulating Signal + Carrier Wave

22
Modulation Benefits and Applications
Joel C. Delos Angeles B.S. ECE Lecture 1: Introduction
1) For Efficient Transmission antennas for line-of-
sight requires at least 1/10 of signal wavelength
2) To overcome hardware limitations minimize cost
if fractional bandwidth (absolute bandwidth /
center frequency) is kept within 1 to 10%
3) To reduce noise and interference (wideband noise
reduction using much greater transmission
bandwidth than the bandwidth of modulating
signal)
4) For frequency assignment
5) For multiplexing / multiple access

23
Objectives
1. Given a bandpass signal, find its envelope and
phase, in-phase and quadrature components, and
lowpass equivalent signal and spectrum (Sect. 4.1).
2. State and apply the fractional-bandwidth rule of
thumb for bandpass systems (Sect. 4.1).
3. Sketch the waveform and envelope of an AM or DSB
signal, and identify the spectral properties of AM,
DSB, SSB, and VSB (Sects. 4.2 and 4.4).
4. Construct the line spectrum, and find the sideband
power and total power of an AM, DSB, SSB or VSB
signal with tone modulation (Sects. 4.2 and 4.4).
5. Distinguish between product, power-law, and
balanced modulators, and analyze a modulation
system (Sect. 4.3).
6. Identify the characteristics of synchronous,
homodyne, and envelope detection (Sect. 4.5).
24
BANDPASS SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
Applying Fourier frequency translation or
modulation property:

Most long-haul transmission systems have a
bandpass frequency response.
The properties of the transmission system are
similar to those of a bandpass filter, and any signal
transmitted on such a system must have a
bandpass spectrum.
Arbitrary message waveform x(t) with
spectrum X(f):

Fall-back position for ease of analysis is tone
modulation:

What is the spectrum of a tone message signal?

25
Analog Message Conventions
In general, multiplying the message by cos 2f
C
t in the time
domain translates its spectrum to frequency fc
Note how the shape of X(f) is preserved in the graph of
X
bp
(f); the modulated signal occupies B
T
= 2W Hz of
spectrum.

26
Analog Message Conventions
Bandpass signal

27
Bandpass Signals
envelope
phase
envelope
phase phase phase
envelope
phase
bandpass
condition
Simplest bandpass system

or immediately from y
lp
(t)

28
Bandpass Transmission
Voltage Transfer Function H(f)

where the resonant frequency f
0
and quality factor Q
are related to the element values by

29
Bandpass Transmission Tuned Circuit
3-dB (half-power) bandwidth

since practical tuned circuits typically have 10 < Q < 100
then 0.01 f
0
< B < 0.10 f
0

Antennas in radio systems produce considerable distortion
when the frequency range is small compared to the carrier
frequency f
C
.
Designing reasonably distortionless bandpass amplifier is
difficult if B is too small or too large compared to f
C
.
Thus rule of thumb for fractional bandwidth

30
Bandpass Transmission Tuned Circuit
Otherwise, the signal distortion may be beyond the scope of
practical equalizers.

31
Bandpass Transmission
32
Bandpass Signals - Bandwidth
1. Absolute bandwidth. This is where 100% of the energy is confined
between some frequency range of f
a
-> f
b
. (If we have ideal filters and
unlimited time signals)
2. 3 dB / half-power bandwidth. The frequency(s) where the signal power
starts to decrease by 3 dB.
3. Noise equivalent bandwidth. Equal to the total signal power over all
frequencies divided by the value of the power spectral density at f
C
.
4. Null-to-null bandwidth. Frequency spacing between a signal spectrums
first set of zero crossings.
5. Occupied bandwidth. This is an FCC definition, which states, The
frequency bandwidth such that, below its lower and above its upper
frequency limits, the mean powers radiated are each equal to 0.5
percent of the total mean power radiated by a given emission. In other
words, 99% of the energy is contained in the signals bandwidth.
6. Relative power spectrum bandwidth. This is where the level of power
outside the bandwidth limits is reduced to some value relative to its
maximum level. This is usually specified in negative decibels (dB). For
example, consider a broadcast FM signal with a maximum carrier power
of 1000 watts and relative power spectrum bandwidth of -40 dB (i.e.,
1/10,000). Thus we would expect the stations power emission to not
exceed 0.1 W outside of f
C
100 kHz.

33
Bandpass Transmission - Bandwidth
34
DOUBLE-SIDEBAND AM
Two types of DSB
Standard AM
DSB-Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)

AM Signals and Spectra
The envelope of the modulated carrier has the same
shape as the message or modulating signal x(t)

where A
C
is the unmodulated carrier amplitude
and is the modulation index

35
The signals
envelope is then

36
1
A
C
[ 1 + x(t) ] does not go negative

100% modulation
= 1
A
min
= 0; A
max
= 2 A
c

Overmodulation ( > 1)
causes phase reversals and envelope distortion

37
Frequency Domain (positive-side only)

NOTE: Transmission bandwidth is twice the baseband
bandwidth. B
T
is an important consideration in comparing
modulation systems

38
Average transmitted power of AM signal

from

we have

assuming the message has zero dc component, the
average of x(t) =0; carrier average is also equal to zero

bandwidth

0 0 0 0
39
If the average power of the message or modulating
signal is

then

In terms of power of each sideband (upper and lower)

where

bandwidth

40
P
C
= power of the unmodulated carrier
(note when = 0; no modulation)
P
SB
= power of each sideband

The modulation constraint |x(t)| 1 makes

bandwidth

At least 50% (often
close to 2/3) of the
total transmitted
power is wasted
carrier power

41
DSB-SC Signals and Spectra
The wasted carrier power can be eliminated by
setting = 1 and suppressing the unmodulated
carrier-frequency component

42
For standard AM, x
C
(t) has no time-varying phase
(i.e. the value of x
C
(t) is always positive and (t) is
zero
Its in-phase and quadrature components are

However for DSB-SC:

43
The envelope takes on the form of |x(t)| rather than
x(t) as in standard AM
Full recovery of the message requires knowledge of
the phase reversals a simple envelope detector
will not suffice (circuit complexity)
The trade-off is that all of the average transmitted
power goes to information-bearing sidebands
(efficiency), thus

DSB conserves power but requires complicated
demodulation circuitry whereas AM requires
increased power to permit simple envelope
detection.

44
In practice, transmitters are limited by its peak
envelope power A
2
max

Under maximum modulation conditions, for DSB,
A
max
= A
C
;

for AM A
max
= 2A
C

Thus for AM

and for DSB-SC

yields

If is A
max
is fixed and other
factors are equal, a DSB
transmitter produces 4x the
sideband power of an AM
transmitter.
45
DSB AM : Exercises
1) Consider a radio transmitter rated for S
T
3kW and
A
2
max

8

kW. Let the modulating signal be a tone
with so with A
m
= 1.
a) Find the modulating signal power S
x

b) If the modulation is DSB, find the maximum possible power
per sideband (hint: use both the formula for S
T
and the one
for P
SB
/A
2
max
and choose the smaller value allowed for P
SB

c) If the modulation is AM with 100% modulation, find the
maximum allowed P
SB
(again use the two specifications to
get the lower value)

d) How far will the DSB signal travel compared to the AM
signal?

z
46
DSB AM : Exercises
2) Let the modulating signal be a square wave that
switches periodically between x(t) = 1 and x(t) = -1.
a) Sketch x
C
(t) when the modulation is AM with = 0.5
b) with AM with = 1
c) with DSB

3) Suppose a voice signal has |x(t)|
max
= 1 and S
x
= 1/5.
Calculate the values of S
T
and A
2
max
needed to get
P
SB
= 10 W for
a. DSB
b. AM with = 1

47
Tone Modulation
Tone-modulated DSB waveform

Line spectra for tone-modulated DSB

48
Tone Modulation
Tone-modulated AM waveform

Line spectra for tone-modulated AM

49
DSB-AM: Exercises
1) AM DSBFC signal with carrier 100 KHz and a maximum modulating
signal frequency of 5 KHz
a. Frequency limits of upper and lower sidebands
b. Spectral Bandwidth
c. Draw frequency spectrum
d. Repeat a to c if tone input to AM modulator is 3 KHz
2) Input to a conventional AM modulator is a 500 KHz carrier with amplitude
20 V. Modulating signal input is 10 KHz that is of sufficient amplitude to
cause a change in the output wave of +/- 7.5 V, Determine
a. Upper and lower side frequencies
b. Modulation coefficient /percent modulation
c. Peak amplitude of modulated carrier
d. Upper and lower side frequency voltages
e. Maximum and Minimum amplitudes of the envelope
f. Expression for the modulated wave
g. Draw the output spectrum
h. Sketch the output envelope (i.e. time-domain)
50
DSB-AM: Exercises
3) AM DSBFC signal with carrier 100 KHz and a
maximum modulating signal frequency of 5 KHz with
peak unmodulated carrier of 10 volts, load resistance
of 10 ohms, and 100% modulation

a. Power of carrier, upper and lower sidebands
b. Total sideband power
c. Total power in the modulated wave if index is 0.5
d. Draw the power spectrum
e. Repeat a to d if modulation coefficient is 0.3
51
MODULATORS AND TRANSMITTERS
Time-varying or nonlinear systems since LTI
systems do not produce new frequency
components

Modulators
Product Modulator (low-level)
Square-law Modulator (low-level)
Switching Modulator (high-level)

A modulator is a component inside a
transmitter/transceiver

52
Product Modulators
Product:

Schematic Diagram with Analog Multiplier

53
Product Modulators
Variable Transconductance Multiplier:

Input voltage v
1
is applied to a differential amplifier whose
gain depends on the transconductance of the transistors
which, in turn, varies with the total emitter current
Input v
2
controls the emitter current by means of a voltage-to-
current converter, so the differential output equals Kv
1
v
2

Most analog multipliers are limited to low power levels and
relatively low frequencies (low-level modulator)

54
Low-level AM Modulator
Modulation takes place prior to the output element of
the final stage of the transmitter - less modulating
signal power is required to achieve a high percentage
of modulation

Emitter
modulator

55
The modulating signal varies the gain of the amplifier at a
sinusoidal rate equal to the frequency of the modulating signal

Coupling capacitor C
2

removes the modulating
signal frequency from the
waveform, producing a
symmetrical AM envelope
at V
out

56
For a low-level AM modulator with modulation
coefficient of 0.8, quiescent voltage gain of 100, and
an input carrier frequency of 500 KHz with an
amplitude V
C
= 5 mV and a 1 KHz modulating signal,
determine:

a) Maximum and minimum voltage gains
b) Maximum and minimum amplitudes for V
out
c) The output AM envelope
d) The output signal AM equation
e) The output signal spectrum
57
Square-law Modulators
Field-effect transistor as the nonlinear element and a
parallel RLC circuit as the filter.
Assume the nonlinear element
approximates the square-law
transfer curve

Can be used at higher frequencies
58
Square-law Modulators
We just need a bandpass filter (BPF) with
center frequency = ? and bandwidth = ?
Thus,

The last term is the desired AM wave provided it can be
separated from the rest (A
C
= a
1
and = 2a
2
/a
1
)
59
Balanced Modulators: DSB-SC
Two AM modulators arranged in a balanced configuration
to cancel out the carrier.

60
Balanced Modulators: DSB-SC
Ring Modulator

A square-wave carrier c(t) with frequency causes the
diodes to switch on and off.
Functionally, multiplying x(t) with c(t):

We just need a bandpass filter (BPF) with
center frequency = ? and bandwidth = ?
61
Medium-Power AM Modulator
Collector modulator

Consider: without applied
modulating signal
62
Medium-Power AM Modulator
When modulating
signal is applied:
1) The modulating signal
adds to and subtracts
from the DC supply
V
CC
and the output
voltage waveform
swings from a
maximum value
(2Vcc) to a minimum
value Vce(sat) 0
2) The operation is as
before only this time,
there is a slow time-
varying power supply
3) What is the stage after
this?
63
Switching Modulators
The active device, typically a
transistor, serves as a switch
driven at the carrier frequency,
closing briefly every 1/f
C
sec.
The RLC load, called a tank
circuit, is tuned to resonate at
f
C
, so the switching action
causes the tank circuit to ring
sinusoidally.
The steady-state load voltage
in absence of modulation is
then v(t) = V cos
C
t
Adding the message to the
supply voltage, say via
transformer, gives v(t) = [V +
Nx(t)] cos
C
t
64
Switching Modulators
In view of the heavy filtering required, square-law
modulators are used primarily for low-level
modulation, i.e., at power levels lower than the
transmitted value.

Substantial linear amplification becomes necessary to
bring the power up to S
T

But RF power amplifiers of the required linearity are
not without problems of their own, and it often is better
to employ high-level modulation if is S
T
to be large

65
Low-level AM Transmitters
Preamplifier (linear voltage amplifier with high input
impedance) - raises source signal amplitude to a usable level
with minimum nonlinear distortion and as little thermal noise
as possible
Modulating signal driver (linear amplifier) - amplifies the
information signal to an adequate level to sufficiently drive the
modulator
RF carrier oscillator - generates stable carrier signal
66
Low-level AM Transmitters
Buffer amplifier (low-gain, high-input impedance linear amplifier) -
isolates the oscillator from the high-power amplifiers
Intermediate and final power amplifiers (push-pull modulators)
requires linearity with low-level transmitters to maintain symmetry in
the AM envelope
Coupling network - matches output impedance of the final amplifier
to the transmission line/antenna
Applications in low-power, low-capacity systems: wireless
intercoms, remote-control units, pagers and short-range walkie-
talkies
67
High-level AM Transmitters
Addition of power amplifier (To provide higher power
modulating signal necessary to achieve 100% modulation)
The modulator circuit has three primary functions:
Provide the circuitry necessary for modulation to occur
Act as the final power amplifier
Frequency up-converter: translates low-frequency
information signals to RF signals
68
SUPPRESSED SIDEBAND AM
Conventional amplitude modulation is wasteful of
both transmission power and bandwidth
Suppressing the carrier reduces the transmission
power
Either one of the sidebands contains ALL of the
message information
Suppressing one sideband, in whole or part,
reduces transmission bandwidth and leads to
single-sideband modulation (SSB) or vestigial-
sideband modulation (VSB)
69
SSB Signals and Spectra
Time-domain representation is not immediately
obvious save for the special case of tone modulation

Note: Unlike AM and DSB, the amplitude of the modulated
signal is constant. So envelope (peak) detection wont work
to demodulate SSB
For the general case where the input modulating
signal x(t) is not a tone, the modulated signal is
expressed as

where is the Hilbert transform of x(t)
70
SSB is not appropriate for pulse transmission, digital
data, or similar applications, and more suitable
modulating signals (such as audio waveforms) should
still be lowpass filtered before modulation in order to
smooth out any abrupt transitions that might cause
excessive horns or smearing

71
Time-domain of modulated
output when modulating
signal input is a pulse
A perfect cutoff at f=f
C
cannot be synthesized, so a real
sideband filter will either pass a portion of the
undesired sideband or attenuate a portion of the
desired sideband (the former is Vestigial Sideband)
Fortunately, many modulating signals have little or no
frequency content their spectra having holes at
zero frequency
72
SSB Generation
It may not be possible to obtain a sufficiently high
carrier frequency with a given message spectrum. For
these cases the modulation process can be carried
out in two (or more) steps
73
SSB Generation
An SSB signal consists of two DSB waveforms with
quadrature carriers and modulating signals x(t) and
bypassing the need for sideband filters
74
SSB Generation: Phase-Shift Method
Exercise: Let x(t) = cos
m
t
75
SSB Generation: Weavers Modulator
Consider a modulating signal of very large bandwidth
having significant low-frequency content (analog TV
video, fax, and high-speed data signals
Bandwidth conservation argues for SSB, but practical
SSB systems have poor low-frequency response
DSB works quite well for low message frequencies but
the transmission bandwidth is twice that of SSB
76
Vestigial SB Signals and Spectra
Suppose an AM (DSB-FC) wave is applied to a
vestigial sideband filter the modulation scheme is
termed VSB plus carrier (VSB + C)
Used for television video transmission.
The unsuppressed carrier allows for envelope
detection (an approximation), as in AM while retaining
the bandwidth conservation of SSB.
77
Vestigial SB Signals and Spectra
78
FREQUENCY CONVERSION AND DEMODULATION
Demodulation implies downward frequency
translation in order to recover the message from
the modulated wave.
Types of demodulators
Synchronous detectors
Envelope detectors

Frequency translation, or conversion, is also used
to shift a modulated signal to new carrier frequency
(up or down) for amplification or other processing.
79
Frequency Conversion
Frequency conversion starts with multiplication by a
sinusoid

With appropriate filtering, the signal is up-converted or
down-converted. The operation itself is termed
heterodyning or mixing.
Frequency converter
or mixer
?? Sketch the output
spectrum
cos
1
t
80
Frequency Conversion
Below is a simplified transponder in a satellite relay that
provides two-way communication between two ground stations.
Different carrier frequencies, 6 GHz and 4 GHz, are used on the
uplink and downlink to prevent self-oscillation due to positive
feedback from the transmitting side to the receiving side.
A frequency converter translates the spectrum of the amplified
uplink signal to the passband of the downlink amplifier.

81
Synchronous Detection
All types of linear modulation (AM,DSB,SSB) can be detected by
a product demodulator

Synchronous or coherent assumes that the local oscillator (LO)
is exactly synchronized (in-phase) with the carrier

0
0
General AM equation
82
Synchronous Detection: VSB ??
Baseband and corresponding VSB spectra

Frequency-translated signal prior to filtering shows recovery of
original baseband modulating signal

83
Synchronous Detection: Challenge
The crux of the problem is synchronization synchronizing an
oscillator (LO) in the receiver that is not even present in the
incoming signal if carrier is supressed. Thus, suppressed-carrier
systems may have a small amount of carrier reinserted in x
C
(t) at
the transmitter
This pilot carrier is picked off at the receiver by a narrow bandpass
filter, amplified, and used in place of a LO (local oscillator)
In practice, the amplified pilot serves to synchronize a separate
oscillator rather than be used directly (using a phase-locked loop)

84
Envelope Detection
Synchronous detectors are best for weak signal reception
In most cases, the envelope detector is much simpler and more
suitable (if a carrier is present)

R
2
C
2
acts as a DC block to
remove the bias of the
unmodulated carrier
component.
85
Envelope Detection
Some DSB and SSB demodulators employ the method of
envelope reconstruction. The addition (reinsertion) of a large,
locally generated carrier to the incoming signal reconstructs the
envelope for recovery by an envelope detector.
This method eliminates signal multiplication but does not get
around the synchronization problem, for the local carrier must be
as well synchronized as the LO in a product demodulator.

86
The Superheterodyne Receiver
Intermediate Freq (IF) =
455 KHz (standard for
AM)
Preselectors function is
to reject image
frequencies

ECET412a - Midterm - Lectures 3 and 4

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

ECET412a - Midterm - Lectures 3 and 4

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Principles of Communications Course

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi