ElE 374 Lab

Chowdhury Raiyeem Farhan ee08u205
School of Electronic
Engineering & Computer
Science
ELE 374: Signals & Systems Theory
Formal Report on:

Fourier Analysis &
Synthesis of
Waveforms
Chowdhury Raiyeem Farhan
ID No: 089609202
Email:
ee08u205@elec.qmul.ac.uk
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Contents
➢ Abstract
➢ Introduction
➢ Background Theory
➢ Description of the Experiment
➢ Discussion & Conclusion
➢ Glossary
➢ Reference
Abstract:
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The Experiment: Fourier Analysis and Synthesis of
Waveforms is all about learning the basic of Signals and Systems
Theory, which is Signal. Here we analyze different signals with the
help of Fourier Series Java Applet[1] and explore the properties of
them. This special java applet enables us to characterize a real
signal in the Time domain[2] to its spectrum in Frequency
domain[3].
The experiment consists four parts with guide lines for each one.
These let us to learn more about signal spectrum[4],
bandwidth[5] , waveforms, effects of distortion[6] and limitations
of signals. In brief the entire experiment allows us to learn about
signals with help of Fourier Series[7] in communication system.
Introduction:
Communication system is a system that includes exchange
of information among entities, this entity might be human,
company or computer. Among human this is done by spoken or
written language but in communication system engineering point
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of view information is exchanged through signals (analogue or
digital).Now what is signal? Signal, as defined in Signals &
Systems-models & behavior by M.L. Meade and C.R. Dillon, the
variation of any measurable quantity that conveys information
concerning the behavior of related system. And as this ELE 374
Module is concerned about to give participants an understanding
of basic signal and system concepts this entire experiment is to
learn about signal, how it propagates through a network or
process, properties & behavior of different signals using Fourier
Series.
The experiment is designed in four different parts with elaborated
guidelines:
A. Observing the effects limiting the bandwidth of a real
signal
B. Deciding the bandwidth needed to support a binary
representation of an analogue signal[8] using Fourier
Analysis
C. Using Fourier Analysis to look at an “Unusual” signal
D. Examining Noise[9] using Fourier Analysis
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For these experiments we used Fourier Series Java Applet and
theoretical calculation of Fourier Analysis to compare the results
we found.
For part A: we used Square wave [10], Sawtooth wave [11], phase
shift and rectifier options in Java applet and recorded the behavior
as stated in the guidelines.
In part B: we again used Sawtooth wave but this time quantizer
and cosine option.
Part C: this time option clip and Triangle wave[12] was used.
And in Part D: Noise was observed.
The fundamentals are clarified in the Background Theory section
and explanation for each part of the experiment is provided in the
Experiment & Interface section. And all the data gathered from
the parts of the experiment was recorded in the log book for
observation and comparison.( in the applet the white line
represents the real signal, and the red line represents the
spectra).
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Back Ground Theory:
Signal:
Basically signal is a wave form of voltage or current which varies
with time and carries data or information.
Figure 1: A random signal
Spectrum (spectra- in plural):
Spectrum is a summation of infinity number of sinusoids having a
particular amplitude and phase. Signals and signal networks are
analyzed in terms of spectral representation. The spectrum of a
signal indicates the aspect of the signal which would not have
been obvious when looking at the time domain representation.

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Figure 2: Audio Spectrum
Classification of signals:
As signal is time dependent it is classified in two categories
according to characteristics and time variable:
1) Continuous –time signal:
It is a varying quantity (a signal) whose domain, which
is often time,
is a
continuum.
That is, the

Figure 3: Continuous-time signal
function's
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domain is an uncountable set. The function itself need not be
continuous. The graph
of a continuous-time signal x(t) is thus defined at each and every
instant over a measurement interval
extending from t = t1 and t = t1+TM(where t= time and TM=
max time )
Generally it’s called analogue signal. Good example of
analogue signal is speech or music signals.
1. Discrete-time signal:
Is a time-series consisting of a sequence of quantities.
In other words, it is a time series that is a function over
a domain of discrete integers. Each value in the
sequence is called a sample. A discrete-time signal is
not a function of a continuous argument; however, it
may have been obtained by sampling from a
continuous-time signal.
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Perfect example is the signal
transmitted or received by
computers.
Figure 4: Discrete-time signal(red line

represents the discrete values)
According to the time period signals can be classified as Periodic
signals and Aperiodic Signals.
Periodic signals:
That signal which repeats itself after a period of time T is called
Periodic signal. This period T can be defined as the time to
complete 1 full cycle.
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Figure 5: Periodic Signal as a function of t

Strictly Periodic Signals:
This kind of signal has a property which can be explained
mathematically.
If, X(t)=signal (as a function of “t” (time)),
T0= Period of signal,
Then
X(t)= X(t+ T0),for all t.
Such kinds of signals are Square wave signals, Sawtooth signals.
For these signals the range of t is:
|t|< T0 /2 and the function X(t) can be represented as:
X(t)= 2t/T0;
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Figure 6: Strictly Periodic Wave (Sine wave, Square wave,
Triangle wave, Sawtooth wave from top to bottom)
Representation of Wave form:
Signal and wave forms are represented in time and frequency
domain.
Time domain:
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The time-amplitude axes on which the sinusoid is
shown is called time-plane. The way of representing the signal as
a varying function of time is said Time-domain representation. In
this method the graph is plotted with amplitude [] taken as the Y-
axis and the time in X-axis.
Figure 7: waveform represented in time domain
Frequency domain:
Frequency domain representation is a signal representation in the
form of a function having frequency as the independent variable

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and amplitude as dependent variable. The distance along the
frequency axis is the frequency of the sinusoid, which is equal to
the inverse of the period of the sinusoid.
Figure 8: Waveform in Frequency Domain
Energy and Power signals:
The following assumes a 1 OHM resistance (if we are considering
a voltage signal, and the convention is that this is the physical
signal type we assume).
Total energy in a (continuous) signal is: Etot = t=0∞xt2dt[volts2
seconds]
The total energy is often infinite in signals.
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Power (measured over interval T) in a continuous signal is: Pav =
1/T t=oTx(t)2dt[volts2]
Signals which have finite total energy are classified as energy
signals, e.g. an isolated rectangular pulse. Signals, e.g. sinusoids,
for which the total energy would be infinite, are classified as
power signals. 0Atimeamplitude
Figure 9: An isolated pulse: example of an energy signal
Averaging of discrete and continuous signals
For a discrete signal, the average of the first N samples is:
A = 1/N n=0N-1x(n.T)
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Where T = the sampling interval, 1/T = the sampling frequency.
For a continuous signal, the average over a period 0 to T is:
A = 1/T t=0Tx(t)dt
Odd and Even signals
If x(t) = x(-t) the signal is EVEN, e.g. a cosine wave.
If x(t) = -x(-t) the signal is ODD, e.g. a sine wave.
Note the PRODUCT rule:
ODD . ODD = EVEN
EVEN . EVEN = EVEN
EVEN . ODD = ODD
ODD . EVEN = ODD
Note also that:
S = t=-t't'x(t)dt = 0 always if x(t) is ODD
= 0 sometimes if x(t) is EVEN
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Figure 10:Integrating across the origin of an odd signal (a
sinewave).
Even Function:
If f(x) is to be a real-valued function of a variable, then f is even if
equation ‘
f(x) = f( − x)’ holds for all x in the domain of f.
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Geometrically, an even function is symmetric with respect to the
y-axis, which means that its graph remains unchanged after
reflection about the y-axis. The Cosine wave is an example of
even functions
If f(x) is to be a real-valued function of a variable, then f is even if
equation ‘
f(x) = f( − x)’ holds for all x in the domain of f.
Geometrically, an even function is symmetric with respect to the
y-axis, which means that its graph remains unchanged after
reflection about the y-axis. The Cosine wave is an example of
even functions.
Odd function:
A function is odd if it is symmetric with respect to the origin,
meaning that its graph remains unchanged after rotation of 180
degrees about the origin. For example if
x(t) = -x (-t) then this function is odd.
The sine wave is an example of an odd function.
A function f (n) is odd if f(n)=-f(-n).
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Figure 11: Even funtion,cosine(left side), Odd
Function,sine(right side)
Orthogonality
Orthogonality is fundamental to almost everything that is
subsequent in signals and systems theory. The definitions are:
Discrete signals:
If the product of two signals averages to zero over the period T,
then those two signals are ORTHOGONAL in that interval (T).
Continuous signals:
If the product of two signals integrates to zero over the period T,
then those two signals are ORTHOGONAL in that interval(T)
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Figure 12: Example of orthogonality
Linearity and Time Invariance
Linearity is one of the most important properties defined in
engineering. If the input to a linear system is the weighted sum of
several signals, then the output of that system is the weighted
sum of the responses of the system to each of the signals
separately. Formally:
additivity property
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if x1(t) → y1(t) (“input x1(t) produces output y1(t)”)
and x2(t) → y2(t)
then x1(t) + x2(t) → y1(t) + y2(t)
homogeneity (scaling) property
if x1(t) → y1(t)
then a.x1(t) → a.y1(t) (where ‘a’ is any complex constant) If a
system has both these properties, then the system is a linear
system. This can be summed up as:
a.x1(t) + b.x2(t) → a.y1(t) + b.y2(t) continuous time
a.x1[n] + b.x2[n] → a.y1[n] + b.y2[n] discrete time
A system is time invariant if the performance of the system
does not change over time, i.e. if x1[n] produces y1[n] then x1[n -
n0] produces y1[n - n0]: the same input at a different time
producing the same output.
Typically not all systems are time invariant: circuits using
analogue electronics are notoriously prone to varying
performance as they (a) warm up, (b) wear out, and this is one of
the major considerations in favor of using s/w based systems.
Examples:
y(t) = sin(x(t)) is an example of a time invariant system

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y[n] = n.x[n] is an example of a time varying system (it has time
dependent gain)
Fourier series:
Fourier series were introduced by Joseph Fourier (1768–1830) for
the purpose of solving the heat equation in a metal plate. The
Fourier series has many applications in electrical engineering,
vibration analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image
processing, quantum mechanics, econometrics etc.
The process of converting a signal into its Fourier series is called
Fourier
Transform. Different types of signals have different representation
of Fourier series. An arbitrary signal can be composed of an
infinite number of sinusoids, with frequencies harmonically
related to the fundamental frequencies. This changes the signal
form from a time domain graph to a frequency domain graph. The
property of sinusoidal waves enables us to analyze and
investigate them easily. One of the most fundamental quantities
is the bandwidth required for signal transmission. The Fourier
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series can also be used to find out the bandwidth and this has
many important applications in systems and signals theory.
It states that any signal can be represented by a series of sine
waves
The formula for the Fourier series:
x(t) = a0 + Σ an.cos(n.ω.t) + Σ bn.sin(n.ω.t)
The term a0 is the zero frequency term. The coefficients an and
bn tell us the
Amplitudes of cosine and sine and indicate how much they are
contributing to the value of x(t). ‘n’ is the number of terms, ‘w’ is
the angular frequency and ‘t’ is the instantaneous time of the
signal. The Fourier series provides frequency domain
representations for periodic signals. We know that real signals are
not periodic;
Fourier transform is used for non-periodic signals. The Fourier
transform allows the representation of a non-periodic signal as an
uncountable infinite number of sinusoids.
The formula used for this transform is
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The Fourier trigonometric series
Any periodic signal, x(t), whose period is T, can be represented by
the appropriate sum of sine and cosine components:
xt=a0+n=1∞an.cosn.w.t+n=1∞bn.sin⁡(n.w.t) (1)
a0 is the mean value, or zero frequency term.
Integrating both sides of eqn (1), between = -T/2 and T/2 :
-T/2T/2x(t)=-T/2T/2a0+-T/2T/2[ n=1∞an.cosn.w.t+n=1∞bn.sinn.w.t] dt
in which all of the a.cos, b.sin terms disappear under integration,
as the limits of the integration represent a whole number of
cycles at the lowest frequency (n=1), and will therefore represent
an integer number of cycles at all values of ‘n’.
-T/2T/2x(t)=-T/2T/2a0+-T/2T/2[ n=1∞an.cosn.w.t+n=1∞bn.sinn.w.t] dt
-T/2T/2x(t)=-T/2T/2a0=a0T
a0 = 1/T-T/2T/2x(t)
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To find a formula for an it is necessary to multiply both sides of
eqn(1) by cos(m.ω.t) and then integrate over the same limits:
⁡
-T/2T/2x(t)cos(m.ω.t)dt= -T2T2ao.cosm.ω.t+-
⁡
T2T2[n=1∞cosm.ω.t.an.cosn.ω.t+n=1∞cosm.ω.t.bn.sin(n.ω.t)]dt
From identities we can find out:
cosα.sinβ=12(sinα+β+-sinα-β)
Where, the odd waveforms disappear under integration.
Now cos.cos terms produce:
cosα.cosβ=12(cosα+β+-cosα-β)
Which will not disappear after integration,because:
-T/2T/2n=1∞cosm.ω.t.an.cos⁡(n.ω.t)= an.12(cos⁡(m+n.ω.t)+cos(m-n.ω.t))[after
integration]
But we are integrating over -T/2 → +T/2 and this represents an
integer number of cycles of the sinusoid, whatever the value of
‘m’ and ‘n’. BUT when m=n, we have a non-zero term after
integration:
-T/2T/2x(t)cos⁡(m.ω.t)dt= -T2T2ao.cosm.ω.t+-T2T2an.12cos0.ω.t+-
T/2T/2[n=1∞cosm.ω.t.an.cos⁡(n.ω.t)+n=1∞cosm.ω.tbn.sin⁡(n.ω.t)]dt
-T/2T/2xt.cosm.ω.tdt=an2t-T2T2=an.T2
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But m=n, so:
-T/2T/2xt.cosn.ω.tdt=an2.t-T/2T/2=an.T2
an=2T-T/2T/2xt.cosn.ω.tdt
And by similar reasoning:
bn=2T-T/2T/2xt.sin⁡(n.ω.t)dt
The exponential form of the Fourier series
This is a way of reducing the amount of ‘writing out’ the Fourier
Series requires:
xt=a0+n=1∞an.cosn.ω.t+n=1∞bn.sinn.ω.t
an.cosn.ω.t=an2.[ejnωt+e-jnωt]
bnsinn.ω.t=bn2.[ejnωt-e-jnωt]
So an.cosn.ω.t+ bnsinn.ω.t=an2.[ejnωt+e-jnωt]+ bn2.[ejnωt-e-jnωt]
[Where, n≠o]
So the Original Fourier Series can be written as:
xt=-∞∞Xn.ejnωt[Where, X0= a0]
Description of Experiment:
In this experiment we firstly we used Fourier Series Java Applet
and then by manual mathematical calculation compared the
results we got from the applet. During the four parts of

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experiment we had to answer guided questions, these were jotted
down in the lab book, which helped us completing the discussion
and conclusion section.
Java applet interface:
Finding the java applet was easy, you go to Google.co.uk and type
Fourier series java applet and the link comes up with the applet.
This looks like the picture given below:
Figure 1: Java Applet for Fourier Series synthesis
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Here the applet can compare different kind of real signals with
Fourier analysis. The synthesized signal types are shown in the
tab place on the right corner named: sine, cosine …etc. There are
also two bars to adjust the number of terms in the spectra and
the frequency. In the graph red line represents the synthesized
signal and white line shows the type of synthesized signal. The
real signal is also represented as function of sine and cosine
separately in the applet, this helped us with the analysis.
Here the applet can compare different kind of real signals with
Fourier analysis. The synthesized signal types are shown in the
tab place on the right corner named: sine, cosine …etc. There are
also two bars to adjust the number of terms in the spectra and
the frequency. In the graph red line represents the synthesized
signal and white line shows the type of synthesized signal. The
real signal is also represented as function of sine and cosine
separately in the applet, this helped us with the analysis.
Part A: To use Fourier Analysis to observe the effect of
limiting the bandwidth of a real signal
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• At first the default wave was cleared then the square wave
was selected. As the number of terms was reduced to zero
the red line became flat. The reason was noted on the lab
book.
Figure 2: cleared field with square wave
• In the spectrum of cosine there was a white dot this was also
noted. Then as the guide line showed us to increase the
number of terms were increased accordingly and the
questions were answered in the log book.

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Figure 3: Number of terms increased(accordingly)
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• Then the number of terms were increased until the signal
looked like original signal
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• Then number was observed when it took almost original
signal’s shape.
• After taking the notes we again refreshed the whole thing by
clicking and then chose squarewave and put the number of
terms tab to the half of the bar. Now we used phase-shift
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option, firstly one time then one by one to 10 times and
noted down the incidents happened.
Figure 4: Phase shift few times
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Figure 5: Phaseshift after 5 times
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Figure 6: Phase-shift after 10 times

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• The effects of phase shift was noticed and kept in the log
book
• Then all the steps from 1-6 in the guide line was done for
squarewave but this time with rectify option.
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Figure 7:steps from 1-6 for squarewave with rectify option
• Then clearing the screen we’ve selected sawtooth wave
form and done steps 1-6 and then phaseshift just like before
and recorded our observation.
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Figure 8:steps 1-6 for sawtooth
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Figure 9: phaseshift for saw tooth
Calculation for part A:
• Sqarewave:
an=2T-T/20-cosn.ω.tdt+2T0T/2cosn.ω.tdt
a1=1πsinπ+sin-π
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∴a1=1-1=0
Similarly,1π[sin2π+sin(-2π)]=1π[1-1]= 0
bn=2T-T/20-sinn.ω.tdt+2T0T/2sinn.ω.tdt
bn=1nπ[(1-cosnπ+(1-cosnπ]
b1=1π[(1-cosπ+1-cosπ=1π2+2=4π=1.27324
So,
b2=12π[(1-cos2π+1-cos2π=12π1-1+1-1=0
b3=13π[(1-cos3π+1-cos3π=13π[1-cos3π+1-cos-3π=13π2+2=43π=0.4244
b4=14π[(1-cos4π+1-cos4π=14π[1-cos4π+1-cos-4π=14π.0=0
b5=15π[(1-cos5π+1-cos5π=15π[1-cos5π+1-cos-5π=15π2+2=45π=0.25463
• Square wave with rectifier:
a0=1T0T/2xtdt=1TT2-0=0.5[without rectify this value would be zero]
an=2T0T2cosnωtdt=2Tnω[sinnωπ=1Tπf*0
∴a1=0
So the 1st term of the cosine is zero. Likewise, as sinπ=0 all the
terms of cosine terms will be zero.
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Now,
bn=2T0T2sinnωtdt=1nπ1-cosnπ
So
b1=1π1-cosπ=2π=0.636618
As we’ve seen from the previous calculation even terms of b
becomes zero,hence
b3=13π1-cos3π=23π=0.212206
And,
b5=15π1-cos5π=25π=0.1273236
Part B: To use Fourier Analysis to decide on the bandwidth
needed to support a binary Representation of an analogue
signal:
• For this part we cleared the field and chose the option
sawtooth then increased the number of terms as far as
possible to make the synthesized signal close to sawtooth.
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• Then after clicking the qunatize button 3times the wave
formed like staircase as given in the picture below
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• After that taking the reading we cleared the screen and
selected cosine and repeated steps 1-4, which were given in
the guidelines.
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• The applet was refreshed and the field was cleared. Then
step 1-2 was repeated which had sawtooth wave form with
5quantisatoin levels and 5 samples/period. After that all the
steps were repeated but the quantize button was used only
twice.
Part C: To use Fourier Analysis to look at an unusual
signal.
• Here we cleared everything and put on triangle option. Then
the slider was moved until it looked like the original signal.
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• Now we used clip button 1-15 times and observed how the
spectra changed.
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Figure 10: After 5 clicks
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Figure 11: After 15 clicks
• Later on the slider was moved to the farthest to the left until
few harmonics were left, this had a very poor representation
of the desired signal.
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• The effects were written down in the log book copy.
Part D: To use Fourier series to analyse noise.
• For this part field was cleared then noise option was
introduced. Then the slider was taken to the right side one
click at a time. The change was observed for the cosine and
sine part of the spectra.
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Figure 12: At zero number of terms
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Figure 13: for a large number of terms.
Discussion:
In discussion we’ll talk about the observation and the questions
we face during the whole experiment. Observations are described
separately for each section.
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Observation of part A:
 Question: Why is the red line flat?
The spectrum is represented by the number of terms. In the 0th
term there is no spectrum so the red line is flat. But we can find a
dot in the cosine part because,
cosine 0=1, but sine 0=0. So there is no dot in sine part.
Moreover, when the frequency spectrum of the periodic wave is
set to the average, a0 of the Fourier series, the red line is flat
representing the average of the square wave, which remains
constant throughout the time. The average has a cosine
component with no sine component as the argument of the
functions is (nωt) =0
 The values we got from the java applet and from the
calculations were exact same.
 Question: The red line is the bandwidth-limited version of
the white line. Now the question is: ‘At what point does the
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red Line looks enough like the white line to be an acceptable
compromise’?
The red line represents the limited amount of the bandwidth
while the white line is the ideal signal. From the experiment, we
can say the red line looks like the white line when the number of
terms of the spectrum is quite large. After observation we decided
to keep number of terms: 120 to get the replica of original
waveform.
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 Phase shift:
When the phase shift button was pressed, the wave form
changed. At time of 5th time the wave shifted 90⁰ and after
10th time the wave shifted 180⁰. So each click of phase-shift
shifts 18⁰ in the wave form.
 Question: Has the requirement for bandwidth been altered
in terms of the magnitudes of the Components as the
spectra moves to the right? What is the possible importance
of this shift for a communications system?
From the observation, the more the number of harmonics used to
represent the square wave, or a discrete signal, the better is the
interpretation of the signal. So the number of harmonic sinusoids
used is important in any transmission of signal. Therefore
implying better understanding of the information transmitted at
the receiver end, i.e. better quality of transmission. But for more
harmonics we need higher bandwidth. Higher bandwidth costs

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more. So as an engineer’s point of view we would check the
resources and try to use all of them to get the optimum
bandwidth for the best quality of service for the communication
system.
The term phase-shift has a great importance in communication
system. Because it is used in multiplexing of various signals, i.e.
various signals can be transmitted through the same medium at
the same frequency at same time by varying their phase angles.
But phase shifting can also be an undesired matter, if it occurs
naturally. This might phase shift the transmitted signal during
transmission hence making demodulation at the receiver end.
Phase shifting can also cause time delay in communication
systems. This can be a real problem in full duplex
communications.
 For sawtooth wave form after great deal of observation we
decided to keep the number of terms as 50 and the
frequency as 540Hz. When we used the phase-shift button
same thing happened for the sawtooth as happed for
squarewave.
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Observation of part B:
 Quantization: there were 5quantizaton on level L, so n per
sawtooth period was 2.32 and the sampling frequency 0.2Hz.
when the cosine was used we found
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f=1Hz
T = 1 sec
1 sample = 3 bits
10 samples = 30 bit
= 30Hz
So the sampling frequency = 30Hz.
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 Problem: a digital communications system which transmits
this quantized sawtooth as a stream of bits. There are 5
levels, so how many bits k will you need per sample?
Ans: Here the number of levels= 5,
Then the minimum number of bits =k
We know, 2k=number of combinations
So, 2k≥5, this means, 23≥5 and 22≤5.
So k= 3.
 The signal of 5 levels shown below is created in the java
applet manually. We can represent our signal using
approximately 35 harmonics.
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 A cosine wave of frequency 1Hz and amplitude 1volt can be
represented in two discrete levels, where an amplitude 1volt
is represented by ‘1’ and an amplitude 0volt can be
represented by ‘0’. The fundamental frequency required to
do this would be 1Hz, same as that of the cosine wave. A
rectified square could be used to analyze the number of
harmonics required to describe this quantized cosine wave,
as this square wave is the worst case representation of the

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quantized cosine wave which would require the most
bandwidth.
 If the cosine wave is only quantized twice the amount of
harmonics required to represent the bit stream would be
lesser, but compromising the quality of transmission, i.e. a
less precise interpretation at the receiver end.
Observation of Part C:
 Question: why the signal requires so many spectra to
represent it accurately?
Ans: the reasons are
I. Triangle wave has only cosine components. The slope
of the wave shows the cosine component of the 1st
harmonic. Then the number of line spectra required to
represent is very few.
II. When the wave is clipped 15 times and when only few
harmonics are used to represent the resultant wave,

Page | 70
the red line would be a very poor representation. The
reason for this is slope of the resultant wave is either
zero or very closer to infinite.
III.When the wave is clipped the amplitude of the wave is
increased keeping the frequency the same and also
representing any amplitude greater that of the original
wave by that of the original wave. Hence if we keep
clipping the wave, it starts to look more like a square
wave.
Observation of part D:
When the slider is moved to right the sine and cosine waves
changes and the change is unpredictable. Because noise is
unpredictable as we slide it to the right side the red signal
becomes like the white line which means it represents noise.
Conclusion:
Page | 71
The whole experiment gives us broader picture of signals and how
it responses to different conditions. Fourier series helps us to
break down the signals to sine and cosine parts. The java applet
helps us more to analyze the waveforms in details as in point to
point. Moreover Fourier analysis converts the signal from time
domain to frequency domain.
The four parts of the analysis stresses about the effect of
rectification, phase-shift, clipping, quantization of different wave
forms like cosine, sawtooth, square and triangle wave form.
Part A: explains about bandwidth required to transmit periodic
signal. The fourier analysis java applet and the manual calculation
made clear how to calculate bandwidth and the importance of
phase-shift.
Part B: This part shows the importance of functions of
quantization and the transformation of the analogue signal into a
discrete signal. And it also emphasis on the concept of number of
bits needed for transmitting a quantized signal.
Part C: This part says more about the function of clip altering the
shape of a triangular waveform into a square wave signal

Page | 72
Part D: This experiment made the fundamentals of white noise
clear and its properties, also the effect of noise.
To sum up, the experiment tells about signal, time domain,
frequency domain, Fourier series & analysis and how we can use
the knowledge in communication system as an engineer.
Glossary:
[1] Fourier Series Java Applet: a special program written in
JAVA language to express an arbitrary periodic function as a sum
of cosine terms. In other words, Fourier series can be used to
express a function in terms of the frequencies (harmonics) it is
composed of.
[2] Time domain: is a term used to describe the analysis of
mathematical functions, or physical signals, with respect to time.
In the time domain, the signal or function's value is known for all
real numbers, for the case of continuous time, or at various
separate instants in the case of discrete time. An oscilloscope is a
tool commonly used to visualize real-world signals in the time
Page | 73
domain. A time domain graph shows how a signal changes over
time, whereas a frequency domain graph shows how much of the
signal lies within each given frequency band over a range of
frequencies.
[3] Frequency domain: is a term used to describe the analysis
of mathematical functions or signals with respect to frequency.
Frequency-domain graph shows how much of the signal lies within
each given frequency band over a range of frequencies. A
frequency-domain representation can also include information on
the phase shift that must be applied to each sinusoid in order to
be able to recombine the frequency components to recover the
original time signal.
[4] Spectrum: an array of entities, as light waves or particles,
ordered in accordance with the magnitudes of a common physical
property, as wavelength or mass: often the band of colors
produced when sunlight is passed through a prism, comprising
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
Page | 74
[5] Bandwidth: Measurement of the capacity of a
communications signal. For digital signals, the bandwidth is the
data speed or rate, measured in bits per second (bps). For analog
signals, it is the difference between the highest and lowest
frequency components, measured in hertz (cycles per second)
[6] Distortion: is the alteration of the original shape (or other
characteristic) of an object, image, sound, waveform or other
form of information or representation. Distortion is usually
unwanted.
[7] Fourier series: a Fourier series decomposes a periodic
function or periodic signal into a sum of simple oscillating
functions, namely sines and cosines (or complex exponentials).
Fourier series were introduced by Joseph Fourier (1768–1830) for
the purpose of solving the heat equation in a metal plate.
[8]Analogue signal: is any continuous signal for which the time
varying feature (variable) of the signal is a representation of some
other time varying quantity, i.e analogous to another time varying
signal
Page | 75
[9] Noise: is fluctuations in and the addition of external factors
to the stream of target information (signal) being received at a
detector.
[10] Square wave: is a kind of non-sinusoidal waveform, most
typically encountered in electronics and signal processing. An
ideal square wave alternates regularly and instantaneously
between two levels
[11] Sawtooth wave: is a kind of non-sinusoidal waveform. It is
named a sawtooth based on its resemblance to the teeth on the
blade of a saw.
The convention is that a sawtooth wave ramps upward and then
sharply drops.
[12] Triangular wave: is a non-sinusoidal waveform named for
its triangular shape. Like a square wave, the triangle wave
contains only odd harmonics. However, the higher harmonics roll
off much faster than in a square wave (proportional to the inverse
square of the harmonic number as opposed to just the inverse.
Page | 76
Reference:
[1] Lecture Notes, Signals and Systems Theory
background notes for academic year 2006-2007 by
John Schormans, Dept of Electronic Engineering,
Queen Mary, University of London
[2] Lab Sheet, Fourier analysis, Signals and Systems,
Dept of Electronic Engineering, Queen Mary,
University of London
[3] Signal and Systems by Meade and Dillon (ISBN
041240110)
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal
[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Even_and_odd_functions
[7] http://www.falstad.com/fourier/
[8]
http://www.see.ed.ac.uk/~mjj/dspDemos/EE4/tutFT.html
[9] http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FourierTransform.html
Page | 77

ElE 374 Lab

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Chowdhury Raiyeem Farhan ee08u205

ELE 374: Signals & Systems Theory

Formal Report on:

Chowdhury Raiyeem Farhan

➢ Description of the Experiment

➢ Discussion & Conclusion

The Experiment: Fourier Analysis and Synthesis of

Waveforms is all about learning the basic of Signals and Systems

Theory, which is Signal. Here we analyze different signals with the

help of Fourier Series Java Applet[1] and explore the properties of

them. This special java applet enables us to characterize a real

signal in the Time domain[2] to its spectrum in Frequency

These let us to learn more about signal spectrum[4],

bandwidth[5] , waveforms, effects of distortion[6] and limitations

of signals. In brief the entire experiment allows us to learn about

signals with help of Fourier Series[7] in communication system.

Communication system is a system that includes exchange

of information among entities, this entity might be human,

company or computer. Among human this is done by spoken or

written language but in communication system engineering point

of view information is exchanged through signals (analogue or

digital).Now what is signal? Signal, as defined in Signals &

Systems-models & behavior by M.L. Meade and C.R. Dillon, the

variation of any measurable quantity that conveys information

concerning the behavior of related system. And as this ELE 374

Module is concerned about to give participants an understanding

of basic signal and system concepts this entire experiment is to

learn about signal, how it propagates through a network or

process, properties & behavior of different signals using Fourier

The experiment is designed in four different parts with elaborated

A. Observing the effects limiting the bandwidth of a real

B. Deciding the bandwidth needed to support a binary

representation of an analogue signal[8] using Fourier

C. Using Fourier Analysis to look at an “Unusual” signal

D. Examining Noise[9] using Fourier Analysis

For these experiments we used Fourier Series Java Applet and

theoretical calculation of Fourier Analysis to compare the results

as stated in the guidelines.

In part B: we again used Sawtooth wave but this time quantizer

and cosine option.

And in Part D: Noise was observed.

The fundamentals are clarified in the Background Theory section

and explanation for each part of the experiment is provided in the

observation and comparison.( in the applet the white line

Back Ground Theory:

Basically signal is a wave form of voltage or current which varies

with time and carries data or information.

Figure 1: A random signal

Spectrum (spectra- in plural):

Spectrum is a summation of infinity number of sinusoids having a

particular amplitude and phase. Signals and signal networks are

analyzed in terms of spectral representation. The spectrum of a

been obvious when looking at the time domain representation.

Figure 2: Audio Spectrum

As signal is time dependent it is classified in two categories

according to characteristics and time variable:

1) Continuous –time signal:

It is a varying quantity (a signal) whose domain, which

That is, the

domain is an uncountable set. The function itself need not be

continuous. The graph

of a continuous-time signal x(t) is thus defined at each and every

instant over a measurement interval