Section1, Lecture 2 Equation of State, Review of Thermodynamics, Isentropic Processes Anderson: Chapter 1 pp. 19-39 A c dx A c p v p v- dv !q work performed by piston on system with heat addition Ff Ff 2 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Review Key Concepts: i) High Speed ows often seem counter-intuitive when Compared with low speed ows ii) Flow regimes Subsonic - All ow everywhere on the aircraft less than local speed of sound. Transonic - Some ow is subsonic and some is supersonic. Supersonic - All ow everywhere on the aircraft is supersonic. Hypersonic - Fluid ows that are Much Higher than sonic velocity iii) Mach number - ratio of true airspeed to local speed of sound iv) Mach Angle angle of shock wave generated by point object v) Sonic Velocity in a gas c = !p !" # $ % & ' ( )s=0 sin ( ) = 1 M 3 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Equation of State for a Perfect Gas Relationship Between pressure, temperature, and density derived empirically in Modern form by John Dalton Theoretically derived by Ludwig Boltzmann using statistical Thermodynamics In perfect gas intermolecular (van der Waals) forces are neglected John Dalton p V = n R u T p - pressure acting on gas V - volume of gas in system n - Number of moles of gas in system R u - Universal gas constant T - Temperature of gas 1-mole --> 6.02 x 10 23 Avagadro's number p v T n 4 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Equation of State for a Perfect Gas (contd) Re organizing the equation of state p - pressure acting on gas V - volume of gas in system n - Number of moles of gas in system R u - Universal gas constant T - Temperature of gas M w - Molecular weight of gas R g - Gas Specic Constant M - Mass of gas contained in volume
p = M V n M R u T = ! R u M / n T = ! R u M w T = !R g T Useful working form for Gas Dynamics M V ! v = 1 " M n ! M w " R g = R u M w p = !R g T 5 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Equation of State for a Perfect Gas (contd) Numerical Values for Universal Gas Constant R u = 1545.40 ft-lbf/R-(lbm-mole) R u = 49722.01 ft-lbf/R-(slug-mole) R u = 8314.4126 J/K-(kg-mole) Molecular of various gases Gas Specic constant is Universal constant divided by the average molecular weight of the gas (steam) 6 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Equation of State for a Perfect Gas (concluded) Numerical Values for Air Specic Gas Constant R g = 53.355 ft-lbf/R-(lbm) R g = 1716.658 ft-lbf/R-(slug) R g = 287.056 J/K-(kg) Molecular weight of Air Average molecular weight of the gases in the atmosphere. Air on earth at sea level is a mixture of approximately 78% nitrogen, 21%oxygen, with the remaining one percent a mix of argon, carbon dioxide, neon, helium and other rare gases, ~ 28.96443 kg/kg-mole 7 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Specic Heats, Internal Energy, and Enthalpy (contd) e is the internal energy per unit mass The total kinetic and potential energy associated with the motions and relative positions of the molecules a gas, solid, or liquid. An increase in internal energy results in a rise in temperature or a change in phase . h is the enthalpy per unit mass The measure of the heat content of a chemical or physical system; equivalent to the sum of the internal energy of the system plus the product of its volume multiplied by the pressure exerted on it by its Surroundings i.e. h = e + p v h is the specic enthalpy, (SI - joules/kg) e is the specic internal energy, (SI - joules.kg) P is the pressure of the system, (SI - pascals) v is the specic volume, (SI cubic metres/kg) = 1/! Symbols e --> u often Used interchangeably In scientic literature 8 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Specic Heats, Internal Energy, and Enthalpy (contd) Specic heat denitions: - Constant Volume: - Constant Pressure: c p = dh dT ! " # $ % & p c v = de dT ! " # $ % & v Universal relationship applies to all perfect gases c p = dh dt ! " # $ % & p = d dT e + pv ( ) = de dT + d dT R g T ( ) = c v + R g c p = c v + R g 9 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow First Law of Thermodynamics Change in internal Energy = heat added + work performed+ Energy dissipated A c dx A c p v p v- dv !q work performed by piston on system with heat addition Ff Ff de = dq + dw rev ! dw irrev dw rev = 1 m F " dx = ! 1 m pA c " dx = !p A c " dx m # $ % & ' ( = !pdv !dw irrev = ! 1 m F fric " dx 10 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow First Law of Thermodynamics (continued) Recall from earlier lecture 1) Adiabatic Process no heat loss or addition 2) Reversible Process no dissipative phenomena occur 3) Reversible adiabatic process is referred to as isentropic A c dx A c p v p v- dv !q work performed by piston on system with heat addition Ff Ff dq =0 (adiabatic process) F fric = 0 (isentropic process) de = pdv ! 1 m F fric " dx de = !pdv 11 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow First Law of Thermodynamics (concluded) In terms of Enthalpy - reversible process - isentropic process (reversible, adiabatic)
de = dq ! pdv h = e + pv! > dh = de + vdp + pdv dh = dq ! pdv + vdp + pdv = dq + vdp dh = vdp dh = dq + vdp v = 1 ! dq ! 0 12 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Second Law of Thermodynamics (contd) Thermodynamic entropy, s, is a measure of the amount of energy in a physical system that cannot be used to do work. It is a relative measure of the disorder present in a system. (SI unit of entropy is J/K) Calculate change in entropy: First Law: Second Law: Reversible heat addition Effect of dissipative processes ds = dq T + ds irrev de = dq ! pdv ! dw irrev Tds = dq + Tds irrev 13 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Second Law of Thermodynamics (contd) For a reversible process Writing e in terms of enthalpy (h = e + p v ) de = dq ! pdv Tds = de + pdv dh = de+ pdv + vdp and Tds = de + pdv dh = de+ pdv + vdp dh =Tds ! pdv + pdv + vdp = dh =Tds + vdp Tds = dq Second Law: First Law: 14 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Second Law of Thermodynamics (contd) Solving for ds and integrating between state 1 and state 2 But from earlier denition From the equation of state s 2 ! s 1 = dh T ! vdp T " # $ % & ' 1 2 ( c p = dh dT ! " # $ % & p s 2 ! s 1 = c p dT T ! vdp T " # $ % & ' 1 2 ( p = !R g T = 1 v R g T v = R g T p ds = dh T ! vdp T 15 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Second Law of Thermodynamics (concluded) Substituting equation of state into entropy integral s 2 ! s 1 = c p dT T ! vdp T " # $ % & ' 1 2 ( = c p dT T ! R g T p dp T " # $ $ $ $ % & ' ' ' ' 1 2 ( = c p dT T ! R g dp p " # $ % & ' 1 2 ( for thermally perfect gas c p , R g ~ constant v = R g T p s 2 - s 1 = c p dT T 1 2 ! = c p ln T 2 ( ) " ln T 1 ( ) # $ % & = c p ln T 2 T 1 ' ( ) * + , R g dp p 1 2 ! = R g ln p 2 ( ) " ln p 1 ( ) # $ % & = R g ln p 2 p 1 ' ( ) * + , 16 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Second Law of Thermodynamics (concluded) Substituting into entropy integral s 2 ! s 1 = c p dT T ! vdp T " # $ % & ' 1 2 ( = c p dT T ! R g T p dp T " # $ $ $ $ % & ' ' ' ' 1 2 ( = c p dT T ! R g dp p " # $ % & ' 1 2 ( s 2 - s 1 = c p dT T 1 2 ! = c p ln T 2 ( ) " ln T 1 ( ) # $ % & = c p ln T 2 T 1 ' ( ) * + , R g dp p 1 2 ! = R g ln p 2 ( ) " ln p 1 ( ) # $ % & = R g ln p 2 p 1 ' ( ) * + , Valid for adiabatic Process ("q=0) s 2 ! s 1 = c p ln T 2 T 1 " # $ % & ' ! R g p 2 p 1 " # $ % & ' 17 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Isentropic Process Relationships For an isentropic process, (adiabatic, reversible) dq , ds= 0 ds = dq T + ds irrev = 0 ---> c p ln 2 T 2 T 1 ! " # $ % & ' R g ln p 2 p 1 ! " # $ % & and Solving for p 2 in terms of T 2 T 2 T 1 ! " # $ % & c p = p 2 p 1 ! " # $ % & R g p 2 p 1 = T 2 T 1 ! " # $ % & c p R g = T 2 T 1 ! " # $ % & c p c p 'c v s 2 ! s 1 = 0 = c p ln T 2 T 1 " # $ % & ' ! R g p 2 p 1 " # $ % & ' c p ln T 2 T 1 ! " # $ % & = R g p 2 p 1 ! " # $ % & c p = c v + R g 18 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Isentropic Process Relationships (contd) Dening a ratio of specic heats, p 2 p 1 = T 2 T 1 ! " # $ % & ' ' (1 Applying the equation of state T 2 T 1 = p 2 p 1 ! 1 ! 2 and
p 2 p 1 ! " # $ % & 1' ( ( '1 = p 2 p 1 ! " # $ % & '1 ( '1 = ) 2 ) 1 ! " # $ % & '( ( '1 ' > p 2 p 1 ! " # $ % & = ) 2 ) 1 ! " # $ % & ( ! = c p c v More later ! p 2 p 1 = ! 2 R g T 2 ! 2 R g T 2 " !s=0 19 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Isentropic Process Relationships (concluded) Returning for the expression for sonic velocity Then for a calorically perfect gas
p 2 p 1 ! " # $ % & = ' 2 ' 1 ! " # $ % & ( ) > p = k' ( * p *' + , - . / 0 s = ( k' ( )1 = ( k' ( 1 ' = ( p 1 ' = ( R g T ) > c = ( R g T M = V ! R g T p 2 p 1 = ! 2 ! 1 " # $ % & ' ( ) p 2 = p 1 ! 1 ( * ! 2 ( ) p = k * ! ( ! ! Working expressions! 20 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Thermodynamic properties of a mixed gas Molecular weight: M w = n j j ! M w ( ) j n j j ! " ideal gas law" pV = nR u T "n = p R u T V @constant temperature and pressure "n j # V j M w = V j j ! M w ( ) j V j j ! = V j V k k ! M w ( ) j " # $ $ % & ' ' j ! = V frac j M w j ( ) j ! j --- constituent gases Daltons law V frac j = V j V k k ! 21 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Thermodynamic properties of a mixed gas (condt) Example: air M w = V frac j M w j ( ) j ! Mw air = 2 14 0.78084 ! ! 2 16 0.209476 ! ! 40 0.00934 ! 12 2 16 ! + ( ) 0.000314 + + + + . = 28.96443 kg/kg-mole --> R g = 8314.4126 28.9644 = 287.056 J/K-(kg) 22 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Thermodynamic properties of a mixed gas (condt) Specic heat
c p ' _ = n j j ! c p ' ( ) j n j j ! = V frac j c p ' ( ) j ( ) j ! "c p ' = Molar specific heat ( J kg-mol o K )
c p _ = c p ' _ M w = 1 M w V frac j c p ' ( ) j ( ) j ! "mass specific heat ( J kg o K ) c p j = c p ' j M w c p _ = 1 M w V frac j M w j c p j ( ) j ! Same holds for c v 23 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Thermodynamic properties of a mixed gas (condt) Specic heat example air Gas Molar Property ..c v (J/kg-mol 0 K) Ar 12500 He 12500 CO 20700 H2 20400 HCl 21400 N2 20610 NO 20900 O2 21700 Cl2 24800 CO2 28200 N2O 28500 cv air = 20610 0.78084 ! 21700 0.209476 ! 12500 0.00934 ! 28200 0.000314 ! + + + 28.9541 + . = 717.64 J/kg-K
c p air = R g + c v ( ) air = 287.056 + 717.64 ( ) J/kg- o K = 1004.696 J/kg- o K Data at 15C and 1 atmosphere. = c p /c v = 1007.696/717.64 = 1.400 ! 24 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Ratio of Specic Heats varies as a function of temperature and drops off signicantly at higher temperatures (molecular spin mode) effects become signicant for hypersonic ow For Most Of this classwe will use Careful for rockets (where Combustion occurs) Invariably ! =1.40 Properties For air ! <1.40 ! ! 25 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Ratio of Specic Heats (concluded)
key parameter for compressible ow analysis Approximate Specic Heat Ratio for Various Gases, at moderate temperatures Water (steam) 1.2855 ! = c p c v 26 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Thermodynamics Summary Equation of State: Relationship of R g to specic heats, = (c p /c v ) Internal Energy and Enthalpy
p = !R g T"> R g = R u M w - R u = 8314.4126 J/K-(kg-mole) - R g (air) = 287.056 J/K-(kg-mole) c p = c v + R g h = e + Pv c v = de dT ! " # $ % & v c p = dh dT ! " # $ % & p ! 27 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Thermodynamics Summary (contd) First Law of Thermodynamics, reversible process First Law of Thermodynamics, isentropic process (adiabatic, reversible) de = ! pdv de = dq ! pdv dh = dq + vdp dh = vdp 28 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Thermodynamics Summary (contd) Second Law of Thermodynamics, reversible process Second Law of Thermodynamics, isentropic process (adiabatic, reversible) s 2 ! s 1 = c p ln 2 T 2 T 1 " # $ % & ' ! R g ln p 2 p 1 " # $ % & ' p 2 p 1 = T 2 T 1 ! " # $ % & ' ' (1 p 2 p 1 ! " # $ % & = ' 2 ' 1 ! " # $ % & ( ------> s 2 - s 1 = 0 29 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Thermodynamics Summary (contd) C - dv p + dp p ! ! + d! A c control volume C p 2 p 1 ! " # $ % & = ' 2 ' 1 ! " # $ % & ( ) p 2 = p 1 ' 1 ( ! " $ % ' 2 ( * p = k' ( * +p +' = ( k' ( ,1 +p +' = ( 1 ' k' ( ! " $ % = ( p ' = ( R g T * c = ( R g T But from conservation of mass and momentum .. sonic velocity is 30 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Thermodynamics Summary (contd) Speed of Sound for calorically Perfect gas Mathematic denition of Mach Number c = ! R g T M = V ! R g T 31 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Thermodynamics Summary (concluded) For a mixed gas M w = V j j ! M w ( ) j V j j ! = V j V k k ! M w ( ) j " # $ $ % & ' ' j ! = V frac j M w ( ) j ( ) j !
c p ' _ = n j j ! c p ' ( ) j n j j ! = V frac j c p ' ( ) j ( ) j ! "c p ' = Molar specific heat ( J kg-mol o K ) c p _ = c p ' _ M w = 1 M w V frac j M w j c p j ( ) j ! "mass specific heat ( J kg o K ) Same holds for c v 32 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Supersonic Flow Field Examples Mach Angle Which aircraft Is moving faster? sin ( ) = 1 M 33 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow SR-71 Near Field Shock Wave Patterns Speed of sound across each successive shock wave is Higher (temperature increases) wave catch up and Reinforce each other c = ! R g T 34 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Effect of Local Speed of Sound on Shock Wave Propagation Speed of sound across each successive shock wave is Higher (temperature increases) wave catch up and Reinforce each other 35 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Sonic Boom N-wave By time boom reaches ground, shocks Have coalesced into familiar sounding N-waves boom-boom entirely a result of local sonic velocity changing with temperature Compression (shock wave) Expansion ( P/M fan ) 36 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Speed of Sound Can Tell You a Lot What is the difference? 37 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Homework, Section 1 A sample return Probe is being sent on a 1-year mission from Earth to Mars Via Venus Using aero-gravity assist ( both both gravity And aerodynamics at Venus used to turn the corner to Mars) The aero-assist maneuver at Venus is performed at An altitude of 110 km above the Surface at a peak Atmospheric velocity of 13.09 km/sec At 110 km altitude, the ambient temperature is 147.63k Assume that the Venutian atmospheric Composition by volume is {97% CO 2 , 3% N 2 } Calculate the Probe Mach number at the Venus aero-assist interface c p At -100 C CO 2 ~ 0.845kJ/kg K N 2 ~ 0.995kJ/kg K Note Units! 38 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Homework, Section 1 (contd) Show that for a reversible process and that for a reversible, adiabatic process T 2 T 1 ! " # $ % & = ' 2 ' 1 ! " # $ % & ( )1 s 2 ! s 1 = c v ln T 2 T 1 " # $ % & ' + R g ln ( 1 ( 2 " # $ % & ' 39 MAE 5420 - Compressible Fluid Flow Homework, Section 1 (contd) Show that for an ideal gas the following Useful relationships hold