Hierarchal structure of Proteins.

The primary structure of a protein is the linear arrangement, or sequence, of amino acid residues that
constitute the polypeptide chain.
Secondary structure refers to the localized organization of parts of a polypeptide chain, which can assume
several diferent spatial arrangements. Without any stabilizing interactions, a polypeptide assumes
a random-coil structure. However, when stabilizing hydrogen bonds form between certain residues, the
backbone folds periodically into one of two geometric arrangements an helix, which is a spiral, rodlike
structure, or a sheet, a planar structure composed of alignments of two or more ! strands, which are
relatively short, fully e"tended segments of the backbone.
Tertiary structure, the ne"t#higher level of structure, refers to the overall conformation of
a polypeptide chain, that is, the three#dimensional arrangement of all the amino acids residues. $n contrast
to secondary structure, which is stabilized by hydrogen bonds, tertiary structure is stabilized
by hydrophobic interactions between the nonpolar side chains and, in some proteins, by disul%de bonds.
These stabilizing forces hold the & helices, ! strands, turns, and random coils in a compact internal
scafold. Thus, a protein's size and shape is dependent not only on its se(uence but also on the number,
size, and arrangement of its secondary structures. )or proteins that consist of a single polypeptide
chain, monomeric proteins, tertiary structure is the highest level of organization.
*ultimeric proteins contain two or more polypeptide chains, or subunits, held together by noncovalent
bonds.
+uaternary structure describes the number ,stoichiometry- and relative positions of the subunits in
a multimeric protein.
$n a fashion similar to the hierarchy of structures that make up a protein, proteins themselves are part of a
hierarchy of cellular structures. .roteins can associate into larger structures termed macromolecular
assemblies. /"amples of such macromolecular assemblies include the protein coat of a virus, a bundle
of actin %laments, the nuclear pore comple", and other large submicroscopic ob0ects. *acromolecular
assemblies in turn combine with other cell biopolymers like lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids to form
comple" cell organelles.
Movement through Plasma Membrane
Difusion
1ne method of movement through the membrane is difusion. 2ifusion is the movement of molecules
from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. This movement occurs because the
molecules are constantly colliding with one another. The net movement of the molecules is away from the
region of high concentration to the region of low concentration.
2ifusion is a random movement of molecules down the pathway called theconcentration
gradient. *olecules are said to move down the concentration gradient because they move from a region
of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. 3 drop of dye placed in a beaker of water
illustrates difusion as the dye molecules spread out and color the water.
Osmosis
3nother method of movement across the membrane is osmosis. Osmosis is the movement of water from
a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. 1smosis often occurs across a membrane
that is semipermeable. 3 semipermeable membrane lets only certain molecules pass through while
keeping other molecules out. 1smosis is really a type of difusion involving only water molecules.
Facilitated difusion
3 third mechanism for movement across the plasma membrane is facilitated difusion. 4ertain proteins
in the membrane assist facilitated difusion by permitting only certain molecules to pass across the
membrane. The proteins encourage movement in the direction that difusion would normally take place,
from a region with a higher concentration of molecules to a region of lower concentration.
ctive trans!ort
3 fourth method for movement across the membrane is active trans!ort. When active transport is taking
place, a protein moves a certain material across the membrane from a region of lower concentration to a
region of higher concentration. 5ecause this movement is happening against the concentration gradient,
the cell must e"pend energy that is usually derived from a substance called adenosine triphosphate or 3T..
3n e"ample of active transport occurs in human nerve cells. Here, sodium ions are constantly transported
out of the cell into the e"ternal 6uid bathing the cell, a region of high concentration of sodium. ,This
transport of sodium sets up the nerve cell for the impulse that will occur within it later.
"ndoc#tosis
The %nal mechanism for movement across the plasma membrane is endoc#tosis, a process in which a
small patch of plasma membrane encloses particles or tiny volumes of 6uid that are at or near the cell
surface. The membrane enclosure then sinks into the cytoplasm and pinches of from the membrane,
forming a vesicle that moves into the cytoplasm. When the vesicle contains particulate matter, the process
is called !hagoc#tosis. When the vesicle contains droplets of 6uid, the process is
called !inoc#tosis. 3long with the other mechanisms for transport across the plasma membrane,
endocytosis ensures that the internal cellular environment will be able to e"change materials with the
e"ternal environment and that the cell will continue to thrive and function.
"xoc#tosis$
bulk movement of substances out of a cell by a vesicle merged with the cell membrane ande"pelling its
contents
Fluid%mosaic model of a !lasma membrane$ 3 model conceived by S.7. Singer and 8arth 9icolson in
:;<= to describe the structural features ofbiological membranes.
&u!!lement
The plasma membrane is described to be fuid because of its hydrophobic integral components such
aslipids and membrane proteins that move laterally or sideways throughout the membrane. That means
the membrane is not solid, but more like a >6uid>.
The membrane is depicted as mosaic because like a mosaic that is made up of many diferent parts
theplasma membrane is composed of diferent kinds of macromolecules, such as integral proteins,
peripheral proteins, glycoproteins, phospholipids, glycolipids, and in some cases cholesterol, lipoproteins.
3ccording to the model, the plasma membrane is a lipid bilayer ,interspersed with proteins-. $t is so
because of its phospholipid component that can fold in itself creating a double layer # or bilayer # when
placed in a polar surrounding, like water. This structural feature of the membrane is essential to its
functions, such as cellular transport and cell recognition.
'he role !la#ed b# organelles including ribosomes, endo!lasmic reticulum, (olgi a!!aratus
and associated vesicles in the ex!ort of !roteins.
5elow is the process of protein synthesis and e"port in eukaryotic cells
'ranscri!tion 293 in the nucleus is transcribed into messenger ?93 ,m?93- and then transported to
thecytoplasm.=.
'ranslation m?93 is translated into a polypeptide chain ,protein with its
!rimar# structure- by the ribosomes, using amino acids carried by speci%c transfer ?93 ,t?93-. 3s the
polypeptide chain is being synthesised it begins to form its
secondar# structure.
The m?93 code is read three nucleotides ,a codon- at a time@ anticodons
on t?93 match speci%c codons on m?93 so that the correct amino acid is added to the polypeptide
chain.A.
1nce the polypeptide chain is synthesised it moves into the rough endo!lasmic reticulum ,/?-, which
transports it to the 8olgi apparatus via vesicles.
$n the (olgi a!!aratus the polypeptide chain undergoes further folding into a three#dimensional structure
to form its tertiar# and sometimes )uaternar# structure.
The resultant proteins are then sorted and packaged into vesicles for transport to their ne"t destinations,
e.g.secreted from the cell by e"ocytosis.
5iology S34 = 293 *anipulation Tools and Techni(ues
Molecular (enetics
9ature of genomes 3 genome of an organism is its complete set of genetic instructions, encoded in 293.
)or humans B consists of 293 of haploid set of autosomes, plus se" chromosomes. We have two genomes
each, one copy of our genome from each of our parents. Sperm cell has one copy of a genome, and egg
cells only have one copy. 5oth cells 0oin together to make a cell containing two genomes, and the fertilized
egg then has a complete set of instructions to make a new person. 8enomes are made of a chemical called
293.
9ature of genes 3 gene is a length of 293 that contains genetic instructions that we inherit from our
parents, to make a chemical in your body. The genes are nucleotide se(uences ,3, 8, T, 4-. The 293 in a
gene usually codes for a protein, and a strand of 293 runs from C prime to A prime. They control various
structures and functions in our body. Docation of genes B on chromosomes that are found in the nucleus of
a eukaryotic cell. .osition on chromosome occupied by a gene is its locus. 3verage human chromosome
carries a large number of genes that are arranged in a particular linear order. Darger chromosome E more
genes carried.
8ene e"pression 8ene e"pression is the process by which genetic instructions are used to synthesize
gene products. These products are usually proteins, which go on to perform essential functions as
enzymes, hormones and receptors, for e"ample. 8enes that do not code for proteins such as
ribosomal ?93 or transfer ?93 code for functional ?93 products.
9ature of the genetic code The genetic information in the m?93 is composed of an alternating se(uence
of the four bases adenine ,3-, guanine ,8-, cytosine ,4- and uracil ,F-. This alternating se(uence provides
the uni(ue code specifying each of the =G amino acids naturally found in protein. $n the genetic code each
of the =G amino acids is represented by at least one codon. The genetic code is read by transfer ?93s
,t?93-. /ach t?93 has an anticodon that is complementary to the codon in the m?93.
?ole of ?93 in Transcription Transcription is the process of making an ?93 strand from a 293 template,
and the ?93 molecule that is made is called the transcript.
293 maintains genetic info in the nucleus, ?93 take that info into the cytoplasm where the cell uses it to
construct speci%c proteins, ?93 synthesis is transcription, protein synthesis is translation. ?93 is single
stranded, unlike 293 which is double stranded. $t contains Fracil instead of Thymine and ribose instead of
deo"yribose. *essenger ?93 transmits information in a gene to cellular structures that build proteins. /ach
three m?93 bases in a row forms a codon that speci%es a particular amino acid. ?ibosomal ?93 and
proteins form ribosomes, which physically support the other participants in protein synthesis and help
catalyze formation of bonds between amino acids.
?93 processing in eukaryotes ?93 is often altered before it is active. *essenger ?93 gains a cap of
modi%ed nucleotides and a poly 3 tail. $ntrons are transcribed and cut out, and e"ons are reattached by
ribozymes. $n eukaryotes, the nascent ?93 is called primary transcript#?93 B needs to be processed and
transported to the cytoplasm for translation to occur.
H The processing steps are
B 3ddition of a C' <#methyl guanosine cap ,capping-.
B 3ddition of a poly#3 tail at the A' end ,polyadenylation-
B ?93 splicing to remove intervening se(uences ,remove introns-.
/ukaryotic ?93 .rocessing 4apping
H When the ?93 chain is about AG nucleotides long, the C' ends are modi%ed by the addition of a guanine
group in the opposite orientation
B involves a C'#C' triphosphate linkage.
B Happens before transcription is %nished E co#transcriptionally
H They protect the growing ?93 chain from degradation by nucleases.
/ukaryotic ?93 .rocessing .olyadenylation
H nascent ?93 is cleaved downstream from the 33F333 conserved se(uence. B 5y ribonuclease
H The enzyme poly,3- polymerase adds adenine ribonucleotides B up to =GG bases long at the A' end of the
?93.
H The poly,3- tail
B enhances the stability of eukaryotic m?93 and
B regulates its transport to the cytoplasmic compartment.
/ukaryotic ?93 .rocessing ?93 splicing
,?93 is called hn?93 # Heteronuclear ?93 before splicing occurs-
H Splicing is The mechanism by which introns are removed.
H $ntrons are intervening se(uences # not e"pressed in proteins
H /"ons are retained in the mature m?93 molecules.B e"pressing se(uences
?93 Translation
$n protein synthesis, three types of ?93 participate and play diferent roles
# *essenger ?93 ,m?93- carries genetic information from 293 and is used as a template for protein
synthesis.
# ?ibosomal ?93 ,r?93- ma0or part of ribosomes where protein synthesis takes place.
# Transfer ?93 ,t?93- incorporates a particular amino acid subunit into the growing protein wen it
recognizes a speci%c group of three ad0acent bases in the m?93.
293 Tools and Techni(ues
8el /lectrophoresis used as a methods of visualizing 293, and involves agarose gel. 3garose gel lets 293
move through it, but bigger pieces of 293 get trapped in the gel which makes them move more slowly.
293 has a negative charge which applies a current to the agarose gel and allows the 293 to move towards
the positive end. 3 control called the standard is run in the %rst lane of every gel, and it contains a number
of 293 fragments.
.4? .olymerase 4hain ?eaction B capable of producing enormous ampli%cation ,identical copies- of a
short 293 se(uence.
293 Se(uencing involves determining the se(uence of nucleotides making up a length of 293.
# ?estriction enzymes digest the strands and fragments re isolated by 8./.
# The se(uence is determined by@
2enaturing 293 so it is single stranded, then using it as a template for 293 polymerase to
resynthesis 1? 5y chemicals analysis of the fragments.
.D3S*$2S are small circular 293 molecules found in many bacteria. .lasmids are self#replicating.
?/41*5$939T 293 392 8/9/ 4D19$98 3 293 molecule make in vitro with segments from
diferent organism is known as ?/41*5$939T 293.
The same restriction enzymes are also used to cut open plasmids to ensure the same
complementary sticky ends e"ist on the 293 fragments.
?/41*5$939T .D3S*$2S are those plasmids which took up the human gene ,3re mi"ed with
bacterial cells-. 5acteria are made competent and plasmids can cross cell membranes and enter
cells.
293 .?1)$DD$98 )?1* 293 )$98/?.?$9T$98
3dvantage over 293 %ngerprinting
#$s far more sensitive and re(uires smaller (uantities of 293
#)ragments difering in size by 0ust one base pair can be distinguished
#$t uses several single#locus probes
#much (uicker to perform
8/9/ 4D19$98
*olecular cloning is used to assemble recombinant 293 molecules and to direct
their replication within host organisms. The method involves the replication of a single 293
molecule starting from a single living cell to generate a large population of cells containing identical
293 molecules.
ST/.S
,:- 4hoice of host organism and cloning vector,
,=- .reparation of vector 293,
,A- .reparation of 293 to be cloned,
,I- 4reation of recombinant 293,
,C- $ntroduction of recombinant 293 into host organism,
,J- Selection of organisms containing recombinant 293,
,<- Screening for clones with desired 293 inserts and biological properties.
8ene 2elivery 3 normal gene is inserted into the genome to replace an abnormal disease causing
gene.
5iology S34 A ?evision
Photos#nthesis$
.rocess of converting light energy into chemical energy where it is stored
as glucose.
.rocess takes place in chloroplasts, more speci%cally chlorophyll B green
pigment
.arts include upper and lower epidermis, stomates, vascular bundles ,veins-, and the mesophyll.
Fpper and lower epidermis serve primarily as protection for the leaf.
Stomates are holes which occur in the lower epidermis and are for air e"change ,1= and 41=-
Kascular bundles ,veins- are part of the plant's transportation system, moving water and nutrients
around the plant as needed.
*esophyll cells contain chloroplasts and this is where photosynthesis occurs.
4hlorophyll appears green because it absorbs red and blue light, and re6ects green and yellow
light. The energy absorbed from the red and blue light is the energy that can be used for
photosynthesis.
4hemical reaction e(uation *+O, - *H,O .- light energ#/ +*H0,O* - *O,.
$nvolves the synthesis of organic compounds, hence endergonic reaction.
1ccurs in two stages
% 1ight de!endent stage$ splitting of water
% Dar2 &tage .light inde!endent/$ production of carbohydrate.
41= undergoes reduction reaction to produce carbohydrate.
?aw materials enter leaf via
% Water from roots ,"ylem vessels-
% 41= via stomata ,bi#products of cellular respiration-
.roducts leave the leaf
% 1"ygen via stomata ,or used in cellular respiration-
% 8lucose metabolized into other biomolecules stored as starch.
+ellular 3es!iration$
3nimals and organisms obtain the energy available in carbohydrates through the process of cellular
respiration.
Through a comple" series of metabolic processes, cells break down the carbohydrates and release
the energy. This energy is generally not needed immediately@ it is mainly used to combine 32. ,3denosine
2iphosphate- with phosphate ions to form 3T. ,3denosine Triphosphate- molecules. The 3T. can then be
used for processes in the cells that re(uire energy.
4ellular ?espiration B three main stages. 8lycolysis, Lrebs 4ycle, and /lectron Transport.
8lycolysis literally means Msplitting sugars.M 8lucose, a si" carbon sugar, is split into two molecules
of a three carbon sugar. 4n!ut is = 3T. molecules and =932N molecules. $n the process, Out!ut are two
,or I- molecules of 3T., two molecules of pyruvic acid and two Mhigh energyM electron carrying molecules
of 932H are produced. 8lycolysis can occur with or without o"ygen. $n the presence of o"ygen, glycolysis
is the %rst stage of cellular respiration. Without o"ygen, glycolysis allows cells to make small amounts of
3T.. This process is called fermentation.
Lrebs 4ycle begins after the two molecules of the three carbon sugar produced in glycolysis are
converted to a slightly diferent compound ,acetyl 4o3-. 4n!ut$ = pyruvate, I 932, : 4o3, : )32, : 32.. $t
out!uts I 932H, I HN, A 41= , : 3T. and : )32H=. .
9icotinamide adenine dinucleotide ,932-
)lavin adenine dinucleotide ,)32-
The Lrebs 4ycle occurs only when o"ygen is present but it doesn>t use o"ygen directly.
/lectron Transport re(uires o"ygen directly. The electron transport MchainM is a series of electron
carriers in the membrane of the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells. Through a series of reactions, the Mhigh
energyM electrons are passed to o"ygen. $n the process, a gradient is formed, and ultimately 3T. is
produced.
5iolog# &+ 6.0.0
The ?93 .rimers are necessary for 293 .olymerase O to
bind 9ucleotides to the A> end of them. The daughter
strand is elongated with the binding of more 293
nucleotides.
6/ $n the lagging strand the 293 .ol $
#e"onuclease# reads the fragments and removes
the ?93 .rimers. The gaps are closed with the
action of 293 .olymerase ,adds complementary
nucleotides to the gaps- and 293 Digase ,adds
phosphate in the remaining gaps of the
phosphate # sugar backbone-. /ach new double
heli" is consisted of one old and one new chain.
This is what we call semiconservative replication.
J
7/ The last ste! of D8 3e!lication is
the 'ermination. This process happens when the 293
.olymerase reaches to an end of the strands. We can
easily understand that in the last section of the lagging
strand, when the ?93 primer is removed, it is not
possible for the 293 .olymerase to seal the gap
,because there is no primer-. So, the end of the parental
strand where the last primer binds isn>t replicated.
These ends of linear ,chromosomal- 293 consists of
noncoding 293 that contains repeat se(uences and are
called telomeres. 3s a result, a part of the telomere is
removed in every cycle of 293 ?eplication.
*/ The 293 ?eplication is not completed before
a mechanism of re!air %"es possible errors caused
during the replication. /nzymes like nucleases remove
the wrong nucleotides and the 293 .olymerase %lls the
gaps.
Mitosis$ nuclear division B produces two identical
daughter cells. 4hromosomes do not pair up at e(uator.
2iploid =n ,IJ-.
+ell 3e!roduction$
5inar# 9ssion in !ro2ar#otes$ form of ase"ual
reproduction and cell division used by all prokaryotes
,bacteria-. Single 293 molecule replicates and original cell
is divided into two identical cells. 5oth copies attach to cell
membrane, and it begins to grow between the two 293
molecules, then a cell wall forms between them which
divides the original cell into two identical daughter cells.
D8 3e!lication$
0/ The %rst ma0or step for the D8 3e!lication to take
place is the breaking of hydrogen bonds between bases of
the two antiparallel strands. The unwounding of the two
strands is the starting point. The splitting happens in
places of the chains which are rich in 3#T. That is because
there are only two bonds between 3denine and Thymine
,there are three hydrogen bonds between 4ytosine and
8uanine-. Helicase is the enzyme that splits the two
strands. The initiation point where the splitting starts is
called Morigin of replicationM.The structure that is created is
known as M3e!lication For2M.

,/ 1ne of the most important steps of 293 ?eplication is
the binding of ?93 .rimase in the the initiation point of the
A>#C> parent chain. ?93 .rimase can attract ?93
nucleotides which bind to the 293 nucleotides of the A>#C>
strand due to the hydrogen bonds between the bases. ?93
nucleotides are the primers ,starters- for the binding of
293 nucleotides.
:/ The elongation process is diferent for the C>#A> and A>#C>
template. a-C>#A> Template The A>#C> proceeding daughter
strand #that uses a C>#A> template# is called leading strand
because 293 .olymerase P can MreadM the template and
continuously adds nucleotides ,complementary to the
nucleotides of the template, for e"ample 3denine opposite
to Thymine etc-.
b/ :;%7;'em!late The :;%7; tem!late cannot be MreadM
by 293 .olymerase P. The replication of this template is
complicated and the new strand is called lagging strand.
$n the lagging strand the ?93 .rimase adds more ?93
.rimers. D8 !ol#merase < reads the template and
lengthens the bursts. The gap between two ?93 primers is
called MO2a=a2i FragmentsM.
+#to2inesis$ division of the cytoplasm and
the plasma membrane following the division of
the nucleus resulting into two cells, each having
its own nucleus and cytoplasm surrounded by
a plasma membrane.
3ecombination$ 3 process by which pieces of
293 are broken and recombined to produce new
combinations of alleles. .ieces of 293 molecules
are constantly being broken apart and e"changed
with other 293 molecules. $t is the formation of
new allele combinations in a gamete. $t results
from two events in meiosis, independent
assortment and crossing over. $ndependent
assortment occurs in meiosis $ when each pair of
homologous chromosomes lines up on the
metaphase plate. /ach pair lines up
independently of other pairs. $n each pair the
paternal chromosome may be on the left or right.
The number of possible combinations of maternal
and paternal chromosomes in the nuclei produced
by meiosis e(uals = raised to the power of n,
where n is the number of pairs of chromosomes.
)or the =A pairs of human chromosomes this
amounts to over Q million combinations.
Meiosis$ cell division necessary for se"ual reproduction.
4hromosomes pair up at the e(uator. Haploid n ,=A-.
3ceto#orcein Staining for 4hromosomes
# 8ood for the rapid count of chromosomes
.lasma membraneRcell membrane disappears during /arly .rophaseS 9uclear membrane B surrounds
nucleus while .lasma membraneRcell membrane surrounds the entire cell.
+olour staining !attern you would e"pect to see under a 6uorescence microscope
)luorescent dyes used for staining cells are detected with a
6uorescence microscope
'he cell c#cle, or cell%division c#cle, is the series of events that
take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication
,replication- that produces two daughter cells. $n cells without a
nucleus ,prokaryotic-, the cell cycle occurs via a process
termed binary %ssion. $n cells with a nucleus ,eukaryotes-, the cell
cycle can be divided in three periods interphaseTduring which the
cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis preparing it
for cell division and duplicating its 293Tand the mitotic ,*- phase,
during which the cell splits itself into two distinct cells, often called Mdaughter cellsM and the %nal phase,
cytokinesis, where the new cell is completely divided. The cell#division cycle is a vital process by which a
single#celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by
which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are renewed.
3nimal cell cycle
The word Mpost#mitoticM is sometimes used to refer to both (uiescent and senescent cells. 9onproliferative
cells in multicellular eukaryotesgenerally enter the (uiescent 8G state from 8: and may remain (uiescent
for long periods of time, possibly inde%nitely ,as is often the case for neurons-. This is very common for
cells that are fully diferentiated. 4ellular senescence occurs in response to 293 damage or degradation
that would make a cell>s progeny nonviable@ it is often a biochemical reaction@ division of such a cell could,
for e"ample, become cancerous. Some cells enter the 8G phase semi#permanentally e.g., some liver,
kidney, stomach cells. *any cells do not enter 8G and continue to divide throughout an organism>s life,
e.g. epithelial cells.
$nterphase
5efore a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in nutrients. 3ll of the preparations are done during
interphase. $nterphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus,
before it becomes capable of division again. $t is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. .reviously
it was called resting stage because there is no apparent activity related to cell division.Typically
interphase lasts for at least ;GU of the total time re(uired for the cell cycle.
$nterphase proceeds in three stages, 8:, S, and 8=, preceded by the previous cycle of mitosis and
cytokinesis. The most signi%cant event is the replication of genetic material ,293- in S phase.
8: .hase
The %rst phase within interphase, from the end of the previous * phase until the beginning of 293
synthesis, is called 8: ,8 indicatinggap-. $t is also called the growth phase. 2uring this phase the
biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are considerably slowed down during * phase, resume at a high
rate. This phase is marked by the use of =G amino acids to form millions of proteins and later on enzymes
that are re(uired in S phase, mainly those needed for 293 replication. 2uration of 8: is highly variable,
even among diferent cells of the same species. $t is under the control of the pCA gene. We can say that in
this phase, cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles ,such as mitochondria,
ribosomes-, and grows in size.
S .hase
The ensuing S phase starts when 293 replication commences@ when it is complete, all of
the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome has two ,sister-chromatids. Thus, during
this phase, the amount of 293 in the cell has efectively doubled, though the ploidy of the cell remains
the same. 2uring this phase, synthesis is completed as (uickly as possible due to the e"posed base pairs
being sensitive to harmful e"ternal factors such as mutagens.
*itosis ,* phase, mitotic phase-
Main article: Mitosis
The relatively brief M phase consists of nuclear division ,karyokinesis-. $t is a relatively short period of the
cell cycle. * phase is comple" and highly regulated. The se(uence of events is divided into phases,
corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the ne"t. These phases are
se(uentially known as
prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase,
telophase
cytokinesis ,strictly speaking, cytokinesis is not part of mitosis but is an event that
directly follows mitosis in which cytoplasm is divided into two daughter cells-
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two
identical sets in two nuclei.
V=W
2uring the process of mitosis the pairs ofchromosomes condense and attach
to %bers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.
VAW
$t is generally followed immediately
by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells
containing roughly e(ual shares of these cellular components. *itosis and cytokinesis together de%ne
the mitotic .M/ !hase of the cell cycle # the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells,
genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. This accounts for appro"imately :GU of the cell
cycle.
*itosis occurs e"clusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in diferent ways in diferent species. )or
e"ample, animals undergo an MopenM mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the
chromosomes separate, while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae ,yeast-
undergo a MclosedM mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.
VIW
.rokaryotic cells,
which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary %ssion.
5ecause cytokinesis usually occurs in con0unction with mitosis, MmitosisM is often used interchangeably
with M* phaseM. However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming
single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication. This occurs most notably among
the fungi and slime moulds, but is found in various groups. /ven in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may
occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit 6y embryonic development. /rrors in
mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.
Cell Cycle Summary
$nterphase is made up of three distinct phases 8:, S phase, and 8=. The 8: and 8= phases serve as
checkpoints for the cell to make sure that it is ready to proceed in the cell cycle. $f it is not, the cell will
use this time to make proper ad0ustments that can include cell growth, correction or completion of 293
synthesis, and duplication of intracellular components. S phase involves the replication of chromosomes.
3ll three stages of interphase involve continued cell growth and an increase in the concentration of
proteins found in the cell.
5iology S34 A $nheritance
The following key knowledge is the focus of this task
H $nheritance
B the nature of chromosomes, alleles, genotype and phenotype
B the causes of phenotypic variation mutations@ recombination of parental alleles in se"ual
reproduction@ polygenes@ and interactions of environmental factors with genes
B patterns of inheritance involving the monohybrid cross dominance@ recessiveness@ co#dominance@
multiple alleles
B dihybrid crosses as independent
B use of the test cross
4nheritance$
(enes and 4nheritance$
(enes contain info for production of proteins and functional ?93 molecules.
Proteins responsible for physical e"pression of genes as !henot#!ic characteristics or traits, such as
eye colour. Since genes are inherited, traits are also inherited.
4nheritance of 'raits$
&exual 3e!roduction$
$n organisms that reproduce se"ually, traits are inherited though gametes.
(ametes ,sperm and eggs or pollen and ova- are produced by meiosis.
1fspring possess a combination of genes from both parents.
/"ample haploid sperm and egg unite to form diploid zygote.
sexual 3e!roduction$
5arring mutation, ofspring of organisms that reproduce
ase"ually ,without meiosis- are genetically identical clones of the
parent.
$n some e"ceptions, genetic material can be e"changed
between clones. /.g. antibiotic resistance in bacteria can be
transferred via plasmid 293.
/"ample bacteria reproduce ase"ually by binary %ssion.
1ocation of (enes$
.osition of gene on chromosome is the locus.
$n se"ually reproducing organisms, most cells have
homologous !air of chromosomes ,one from each parent-.
4hromosomes from homologous pair have genes that
control the same trait at the same locus.
lleles$
8enes occupying same position ,locus- on homologous chromosomes are
called alleles.
3lleles are versions of the same gene that code for a variant of the
same polypeptide
3ny one individual can only have a ma"imum of two alleles for a
given gene
There may be more than two alleles in a population, e.g. blood
groups 3, 5, 1

5iolog# &+ 6 Pre!aration

Ley Lnowledge
:- 3 (ualitative treatment of changing allele fre(uencies in a population and the conse(uences
The concept of gene pool
(ene !ool refers to the genetic information ,sum of all genes and their particular alleles- present in a
population of organisms, and is e"pressed in terms of the fre(uencies ,proportions- of the various
alleles in a population. The gene pool of a population may change over time as a result of the following
factors listed below.
/nvironmental selection pressures, gene 6ow, genetic drift ,founder and bottleneck
efects-
% &election !ressures .survival of the 9ttest/$
# Migration % also 2no>n as gene ?o>$ can change the allele fre(uencies of a
population. Fnlike selection which re(uires several generations to have an efect,
changes due to migration can occur very (uickly.
/migration can also change allele fre(uencies if the emigrant group is not a representative sample
of the original population. $magine a small population that comprises mainly homozygous 33 but a
few heterozygous 3a and homozygous aa. $f all the heterozygotes and the homozygous aa
organisms emigrate from this population, the allele fre(uencies are altered immediately. The gene
pool now contains only one allele for the trait concerned. When only one allele is present in the
gene pool of a population, the allele is said to be %"ed.
% (enetic Drift @ change in the gene !ool of a !o!ulation over succeeding
generations b# chance$
4hance events can cause allele fre(uencies in a population to change over time. When chance
efects operate, the direction of the change is unpredictable and can vary from one generation to
the ne"t. The resulting pattern of change is known as random genetic drift. The smaller the
population size, the greater the potential impact of genetic drift. $n a very small population, genetic
drift can lead to the decrease, and eventual loss, of favourable alleles from the gene pool. )or this
reason, when a species is reduced to one or a few small populations, the species is at great risk of
e"tinction. $t may become e"tinct in spite of conservation measures.
8enetic drift is important when the size of a population is drastically reduced by a ma0or calamity,
such as a widespread %re or 6ood. The few survivors that reproduce to give the ne"t generation
may by chance be an unrepresentative sample of the original population. This is known as the
bottlenec2 efect. .opulations of macaroni penguins ,/udyptes chrysolophus- live on sub#
3ntarctic islands and on the 3ntarctic .eninsula. *ost have black faces but a small proportion has
white faces. 1n *ac(uarie $sland, however, the population is composed almost entirely of the
white#faced variety. How did this occurS $t may be by chance that the small founder !o!ulation of
*acaroni penguins that %rst occupied *ac(uarie $sland consisted only of the white#faced variety.
So, when a small unrepresentative sample of a population leaves to colonise a new region, this is
known as the founder efect.
9atural selection as a mechanism for biological evolution
8atural &election$ action of any environmental factor that acts on a population in the wild to result in
diferential reproduction. 2iferential reproduction occurs when one inherited phenotype in a population
produces more viable ofspring than other phenotypes, hence making a greater contribution to the
gene pool of the ne"t generation.
Dar>inAs !rocess of natural selection has four components
# Bariation. 1rganisms ,within populations- e"hibit individual variation in appearance and
behavior. These variations may involve body size, hair color, facial markings, voice properties,
or number of ofspring. 1n the other hand, some traits show little to no variation among
individualsTfor e"ample, number of eyes in vertebrates.
# 4nheritance. Some traits are consistently passed on from parent to ofspring. Such traits are
heritable, whereas other traits are strongly in6uenced by environmental conditions and show
weak heritability.
# High rate of !o!ulation gro>th. *ost populations have more ofspring each year than local
resources can support leading to a struggle for resources. /ach generation e"periences
substantial mortality.
# Diferential survival and re!roduction. $ndividuals possessing traits well suited for the
struggle for local resources will contribute more ofspring to the ne"t generation.
=- /vidence for biological evolution over time
"volution is a !rocess of change.
4hanges in the environment lead to living organisms gradually changing and developing new features
,due to a change in the genetic make#up- to better suit the new environmental conditions
,adaptations-.
This process happens slowly over many generations and years.
$t is believed that evolution began in water with a single celled organism that became multi#cellular
due to errors in cell division process.
This eventually lead to cell specialization where diferent cells carried out a particular function and
gradually to the formation of tissues, organs and systems in more comple" organisms.
"volution$ 4hanges over time
'he Modern 'heor# of "volution states that
# 3ll living organisms today share a common origin
# The earliest organism resembled bacteria that are living today
# 1ver time diferent organisms diverged from early forms of life
# Some became e"tinct whilst some evolved
"vidence for 5iological "volution Over 'ime
/vidence for /volution 2e%nition /"amples
)ossil record
Transitional fossils
4omparative anatomy
4omparative embryology
Homologous features
3nalogous features
4ell processes
293 similarity in gene
se(uences
293 hybridization
4hromosomes
8enetic linkage
The geological time scale@ relative and absolute dating techni(ues
(eological time scale$ The geologic time scale ,8TS- is a system of chronological measurement that
relates stratigraphy to time, and is used by geologists, palaeontologists, and other earth scientists to
describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred throughout /arth>s history.
The table of geologic time spans presented here agrees with the nomenclature, dates and standard
colour codes set forth by the $nternational 4ommission on Stratigraphy.
The geological time scale is based on the geological rock record, which includes erosion, mountain
building and other geological events. 1ver hundreds to thousands of millions of years, continents,
oceans and mountain ranges have moved vast distances both vertically and horizontally. )or e"ample,
areas that were once deep oceans hundreds of millions of years ago are now mountainous desert
regions.
bsolute dating techni)ues$ 3bsolute dating is the process of determining an appro"imate
computed age in archaeology and geology. Some scientists prefer the terms chronometric or calendar
dating, as use of the word MabsoluteM implies an unwarranted certainty and precision.V:WV=W 3bsolute
dating provides a computed numerical age in contrast with relative dating which provides only an order
of events.
$n archaeology, absolute dating is usually based on the physical or chemical properties of the materials
of artefacts, buildings, or other items that have been modi%ed by humans. 3bsolute dates do not
necessarily tell us precisely when a particular cultural event happened, but when taken as part of the
overall archaeological record they are invaluable in constructing a more speci%c se(uence of events.
3elative dating techni)ues$ ?elative dating is the science of determining the relative order of past
events, without necessarily determining their absolute age. $n geology rock or super%cial deposits,
fossils and lithologies can be used to correlate one stratigraphic column with another. .rior to the
discovery of radiometric dating which provided a means of absolute dating in the early =Gth century,
archaeologists and geologists were largely limited to the use of relative dating techni(ues to determine
the age of geological events.
Though relative dating can only determine the se(uential order in which a series of events occurred,
not when they occur, it remains a useful techni(ue especially in materials lacking radioactive isotopes.
?elative dating by biostratigraphy is the preferred method in palaeontology, and is in some respects
more accurate ,Stanley, :J<BJ;-. The Daw of Superposition was the summary outcome of >relative
dating> as observed in geology from the :<th century to the early =Gth century.
The fossil record@ biogeography@ comparative morphology@ molecular homology
Fossil 3ecord$ 1ur window to life on /arth in the geological past is through fossils. They provide
evidence of the kinds of organisms that lived on /arth. )ossil evidence may be
# 2irect evidence such as bones, teeth, leaves and shells
# $ndirect evidence such as footprints, tooth marks, tracks, burrows and coprolites
,fossilised shit-.
$ndirect signs are called trace fossils and sets of dinosaur footprints ,trackways- are the best known
among them. When organisms die, microbial action causes their decomposition and a after a period of
time, no trace remains. However every rarely, the remains of the organism are preserved long after
death, and this process of preservation is known as fossilisation.
5iogeogra!h#$ 5iogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic
space and through geological time. 1rganisms and biological communities vary in a highly regular
fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area.
Homology Similar Structures B the %rst mammals appeared about =GG *yr ago and are believed to
have evolved from a reptilian ancestor
A- 2etermination of evolutionary relationships
4omparison of 293 se(uences@ comparative genomics@ mitochondrial 293@
phylogeny
I- .atterns of biological change
3llopatric speciation
2ivergent and convergent evolution
Divergent "volution$ When closely related species become more dissimilar over time, usually in
response to diferent environmental conditions and diferent selection pressures.
+onvergent "volution$ The development of similar features separately in unrelated groups of
organisms, which resulted in the two species, become more alike or converges. /"ample Dlama and
camel, lion and 0aguar.
Parallel "volution$ when related species evolve similar features independently. /"ample bilby and
marsupial mole both have backward opening pouches due to burrowing behaviour.
/"tinctions