Transmitters

A typical pressure transmitter consists of two parts: the primary element and the
secondary element. The primary element (which includes the pressure sensor or pressure
element) converts the pressure into a mechanical or electrical value to be read by the
secondary element. It is the part that is most subject to failure since it faces the process
conditions. The secondary element is
the transmitters electronics: basical
ly, a transducer to convert the output from the primary element into a readable sinal such
as !"#$ mA. Typically, electronicbased sensors such as strain aes have a better
response and a hiher accuracy than mechanical" based types such as %ourdons (which
are still acceptable in many applications).
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Thermocouples
A Thermocouple consists of two wires of dissimilar metals, such as iron
and
constantan, electrically connected at one end. Applying heat to the
junction of the
two metals produces a voltage between the two wires. This voltage is
called an emf
) electro-motive force ( and is proportional to temperature .
The process temperature is obtained from the voltage, either by
reading
from a graph or by using thermocouple tables. Thermocouple tables list
the voltages
corresponding to each temperature. A table is required for each
thermocouple type.
The relationship between millivolts and temperature is not linear. n
microprocessor
based equipment, the conversion is done based on the data stored in
the device .
Thermocouples are the most economical temperature measuring
device available and
also provide measurement of the highest temperatures. The emf that
they generate is
independent of the wire length and diameter, however noise can
become a factor.
Thermocouples provide a wide range of temperature measurement but
are not
recommended for narrow span or small temperature di!erence
measurement.
"or critical temperature measurement, an accurate reference junction
temperature
needs to measured and compensated for. This may require the use of
an #T$ .
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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD's)
4.3.1 Basis of Operation
#T$%s are built from selected metals (typically &latinum), which change
resistance
with temperature change .
#T$'s are a little more e(pensive but are quite stable. They are also
very linear,
which ma)es for an easier conversion between the sensing voltage and
measured
temperature .
There are two basic types of #T$'s*
- &T+,,
- &T+,,,
PT100
The -&T% de.nes that the metal is &latinum and the -+,,% is the
resistance in ohms at
ice point (or , o/) .
PT1000
Again, the -&T% de.nes a &latinum metal as the sensing element, but a
resistance of
+,,, ohms can be measured at , o/. These are generally thin .lm
devices and are
more e(pensive .
Measurement - THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE:
There are a number of ways to measure the #T$ resistance. The most
common way
is to use a 0heatstone bridge.
The 0heatstone 1ridge consists of a bridge of three resistors located in
the
instrument housing, with the fourth resistor being that of the #T$. n a
balanced
situation, the balancing resistor is adjusted to give 2ero voltage across
the bridge. n
an unbalanced con.guration, the voltage is measured across the
bridge .
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5.6 Magnetic Flowmeters
3lectromagnetic 4owmeters, also )nown as magmeters, use "aradays%
law of
electromagnetic induction to sense the velocity of 4uid 4ow.
"aradays law states that moving a conductive material at right angles
through a
magnetic .eld induces a voltage proportional to the velocity of the
conductive
material. The conductive material in the case of a magmeter is the
conductive 4uid.
The 4uid therefore must be electrically conductive, but not magnetic .
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Butterfy Valves
6tandard butter4y valves are dampers that are shaped from discs
which rotate in the
4ow path to regulate the rate of 4ow. The disc is quite narrow and
occupies little
space in the pipeline. The shaft is centred on the a(is of the pipeline
and is in line
with the seal .
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Actuators
Actuators provide the driving force that controls a valves position .
Electromechanical
7sing a motor through a gearbo(, this type of actuator is suitable for
applications requiring high torques. t is easily interfaced to control
system but 8ore e(pensive than pneumatic and use high power
electrical source.
Hydraulic
6imple hydraulics are used, where a piston is hydraulically driven and
provides the
necessary movement to position and control the valve. Although a fast
response is
achieved in the stro)e action, an e(ternal hydraulic supply is however
required. As
with most hydraulic devices, they are suitable for very high loads.
Pneumatic - Sprin and diap!ram
6pring and diaphragm actuators are very simple and reliable. The
major advantage is
the spring fail action that provides full shuto! in the event that the
pneumatic air
supply fails. $epending on the construction, the fail mode can either
move the stem
up or down. This provides fail-open or fail-closed operation.
Solenoid
0ith the solenoid actuator, an electric current is applied to a solenoid
coil which
forces a metal plunger. The position of the plunger is determined by
the applied
voltage.
6olenoid actuators give good control but are limited by thrust
capability. They are
more e(pensive than comparative pneumatic actuators, but less
e(pensive than
electromechanical actuators.
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Positioners
n applying a force to an actuator, there is no guarantee that the
actuator is in the
correct position. &ositioners are used to feedbac) position information
and ensure
that the valve is in the correct position regardless of the opposing
forces.
"or pneumatic control, the positioner attempts to put the valve into the
correct
position. The output of the control device is not related to the input
signal, but relies
on the positioner to achieve the correct valve position.
&ositioners can be limited if the correct position is opposed by forces
greater than the
actuator can provide.
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Bourdon "u#e
The 1ourdon tube wor)s on a simple principle that a bent tube will
change its shape
when e(posed to variations of internal and e(ternal pressure. As
pressure is applied
internally, the tube straightens and returns to its original form when
the pressure is
released.
The tip of the tube moves with the internal pressure change and is
easily converted
with a pointer onto a scale. A connector lin) is used to transfer the tip
movement to
the geared movement sector. The pointer is rotated through a toothed
pinion by the
geared sector.
This type of gauge may require vertical mounting (orientation
dependent) for correct
results. The element is subject to shoc) and vibration, which is also
due to the mass
of the tube. 1ecause of this and the amount of movement with this
type of sensing,
they are prone to brea)age, particularly at the base of the tube.
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essential components in a controlled automated system:
l the actuator (which does the wor*)
l the controller (which +tells+ the actuator to do wor*)
l and the sensor (which provides feedbac* to the controller so that it *nows the
actuator is doin wor*)
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