Geology literally means "study of the Earth.

"
Physical geology examines the materials and processes of the Earth.
Historical geology examines the origin and evolution of our planet
through time.
Geology is an evolving science - the theory of plate tectonics was just accepted in
the 1!"#s.

History of Early Geology

Catastrophism $%ames &ssher' mid 1!""s( - He interpreted that the
Earth was created at )"") *.+. ,u-se.uent wor/ers then developed the
notion
of catastrophism' which held that the the Earth s landforms were formed
over very short periods of time.
Uniformitarianism $%ames Hutton' late 10""s( - He proposed that the
same processes that are at wor/ today were at wor/ in the past.
Summarized by The present is the key to the past. Hutton recognized
that time is the critical element to the formation of common geologic
structures. &niformitarianism is a -asic foundation of modern geology.
Although catastrophism was
abandoned, there is certainly
evidence that sudden events do
occur.
1rom space' Earth loo/s small' finite and fragile.
2hat#s the first thing that
you notice a-out our planet
when you see this image3
he Earth is composed of several
integrated parts $spheres( that
interact with one another4
atmosphere
hydrosphere
solid earth $lithosphere(
-iosphere
Hydrosphere: 5ceans are the most
prominent features of our $-lue(
planet. 6he oceans cover 7018 of our
planet.
Atmosphere: the swirling clouds of
the atmosphere represent the very
thin -lan/et of air that covers our
planet. 9t is not only the air we
-reathe' -ut protects us from harmful
radiation from the sun.
Biosphere: includes all life on Earth -
concentrated at the surface. Plants
and animals don#t only respond the
their environment -ut also exercise a
very strong control over the other
parts of the planet.
Solid Earth: represents the majority
of the Earth system. :ost of the
Earth lies at inaccessi-le depths.
However' the solid Earth exerts a
strong influence on all other parts $ex.
magnetic field(.
6heories of the 5rigin of the
&niverse
+ontinuous creation
*ig *ang 6heory the commonly
accepted theory$ given -y Georges
;ema<tre in 1=0(
6he *ig *ang theory
6he theory that the universe was
expanding implies the universe must have
-een smaller in the past than it is today.
9t implies that the universe must have had
a - egin n ing.
>stronomers today -elieve the universe
exploded outward from a single point.
6his idea is /nown as the *ig *ang theory.
6he *ig *ang theory
6he *ig *ang theory says the
universe -egan as a huge explosion
-etween 1" -illion and =" -illion years
ago.
>ccording to this theory' all matter
and energy started in a space smaller
than the nucleus of an atom.
!ig
6echnically'
6echnically'
!ang Theory

there was no bang

galaxies are not moving away
from each other
?eality4 space expands
2hen there are more space -etween galaxies'
they mo"e away from each other
>nalogy4 dots on an expanding -alloon
Evidence for the Big Bang
6heory predicts an expanding universe
+onfirmed -y ?ed ,hift $@oppler effect( in
spectrum
6heory predicts cosmic -ac/ground
radiation
*ac/ground radiation was discovered in
1!) -y >rno PenAias and ?o-ert 2ilson'
who later won the Bo-el PriAe for this
discovery
Doppler Shift
9n the 1C""s' +hristian
@oppler discovered that
when the source of a
sound wave is moving' its
fre.uency changes.
6he change in sound you
hear is caused -y a
@oppler shift.
@oppler shift is related
to the net change
-etween the source of
the waves and the
o-server.
Doppler Shift
@oppler shift also
occurs with
electromagnetic
waves' such as
visi-le light' D-rays'
and microwaves.
6his phenomenon is
an important tool
used -y
astronomers to
study the motion of
o-jects in space.
The expanding universe
6he faster the
source of light is
moving away from
the o-server' the
greater the
redshift.
6he opposite
$-lueshift( happens
when an o-ject is
moving toward the
o-server.
The expanding universe
Edwin Hu--le in 1=
discovered that the
farther away a
galaxy was' the
faster it was moving
away from Earth.
6his concept came to
-e /nown as the
expanding universe.
Evidence for the Big Bang theory
9n the 1!"s' >rno
PenAias and ?o-ert
2ilson were trying to
measure electromagnetic
waves given off -y the
:il/y 2ay.
The noise these
scientists found was the
cosmic microwave
-ac/ground radiation
predicted -y the *ig *ang
theory.
Evidence for the Big Bang theory
6he proportion of hydrogen to helium is
consistent with the physics of the *ig *ang.
9f the universe were significantly older' there
would -e more heavy elements present
compared with hydrogen and helium.
Planetary systems
> star with or-iting planets is called a
planetary system.
,cientists now -elieve that planets are a
natural -y-product of the formation of stars.
How the solar system formed
Neular Hypothesis
Scientists thin! that the solar system was formed out of
the same neula "vast cloud of dust and gas that created
the Sun#
$ diffuse% spherical slowly rotating neula
egins to contract
$s a result of contraction and rotation% a flat rapidly rotating
disc is formed with matter concentrated at the centre
Enveloping gas and dust form grains
that collide and clump together to form
protoplanets
,&B
The Sun is the ,olar ,ystem#s star' and -y far its chief component. 9ts
large mass $EE='"" Earth masses( produces temperatures and
densities in its core great enough to sustain nuclear fusion which
releases enormous amounts of energy' mostly radiated into space as
electromagnetic radiation. #lso known as $yellow dwarf sun is one of
the -rightest stars. @immer and cooler stars are /nown as red dwarfs.
CF8 ,tars are red dwarfs.
6errestrial or inner planets4 :ercury' Genus' Earth' :ars
Mercury: smallest planet' no satellite' large iron core' no atmosphere
Venus:close in siAe to Earth' $".C1F Earth mass( and li/e Earth' has a
thic/ silicate mantle around an iron core' a su-stantial atmosphere' it is
much drier than Earth and its atmosphere ninety times as dense' no
natural satellites' hottest planet' with surface temperatures over
)""
"
+ most li/ely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
Earth:the largest and densest of the inner planets' is the only place
in the universe where life is /nown to exist' hydrosphere is uni.ue
among the terrestrial planets. Earth#s atmosphere is radically
different from those of the other planets' having -een altered -y
the presence of life to contain =18 free oxygen' has one natural
satellite' the moon' the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in
the ,olar ,ystem.
Mars: smaller than Earth and Genus $".1"0 Earth masses(' an
atmosphere of mostly+5=' surface' peppered with vast volcanoes
such as 5lympus :ons' red colour comes from iron oxide $rust( in its
soil' has two tiny natural satellites(.
Asteroid elt: occupies the or-it -etween :ars and %upiter'
thought to -e remnants from the ,olar ,ystem#s formation that
failed to coalesce -ecause of the gravitational interference of
%upiter. +eres is the largest -ody in the asteroid -elt
!uter solar system: Gas giants or "o#ian planets: not composed of
roc/ or other solid matter' mainly composed of hydrogen and helium
"upiter:at E1C Earth masses' composed largely of hydrogen and helium.
%upiter#s strong internal heat creates a num-er of semi-permanent
features in its atmosphere' such as cloud -ands and the Great ?ed spot.
%upiter has !E /nown satellites.
Saturn:distinguished -y its rings' has several similarities to %upiter'
such as its atmospheric composition. >lthough ,aturn has !"8 of
%upiter#s volume' it is the least dense planet in the ,olar ,ystem. 6he
rings of ,aturn are made up of small ice and roc/ particles. ,aturn has
!= satellites
$ce Giants: +omposed of water ammonia and methane ice
Uranus: lightest outer planet' 1) earth masses' =0 /nown satellites'
or-its the sun on its side with axial tilt over " degree.
%eptune: smaller -ut denser' 10 earth masses' 1E satellites
&nside the Earth
'omposition "(hat it is made of)
'rust
*antle
'ore
Earth+s ,ayers
How are the earth+s
layers similar to an
egg-
Shell.crust
Egg white.mantle
/ol!.core
Average de n s i t y o f the earth: 5.52
grams/cm
3
.
Continental Crust: 2.7 to 3.0
Oceanic crust: 3.0 to 3.3
Mantle (silicates): 3.3 to 5.7
Outer Core (liquid): 9.9 to 12.2
Inner Core (solid): 12.6 to
13.0
Ho& do &e 'no& aout the interior of the earth (
)* Seismology studies
+* Gra#ity measurements
,* Magnetic studies
6ypes of seismic waves
1. P waves $compressional waves(
=. , waves or shear waves
P waves travel 1.0 times faster than , waves.
, waves can only travel in a solid medium
AS SE$SM$C -AVES T.AVE/ 0.!M MATE.$A/ !0 !%E S1EE2
A%2 2E%S$T3 T! A%!THE.
THE $%C$2E%T -AVES A.E .E0/ECTE2 A%2 T.A%SM$TTE2
4.E0.ACTE25
B!TH THE A%G/ES A%2 S$6E 4AM1/$TU2E5 !0 THE -AVES
CHA%GE7 2E1E%2$%G !% THE VE/!C$T3 A%2 2E%S$T3
CHA%GE
TH$S E00ECT /ETS US STU23 EA.TH ST.UCTU.E
4A%2 $S USE2 $% /E%SES7 E3EG/ASSES7 ETC* 0!. /$GHT5
Physical Structure of the Earth
"0 ,ayers)
,ithosphere1 rigid outer layer "crust)
$sthenosphere1 solid roc! that flows
slowly "li!e hot asphalt)
*esosphere1 middle layer
2uter 'ore1 li3uid layer
&nner 'ore1 solid% very dense
The Crust
The Earth4s Crust is li!e the
s!in of an apple# &t is very
thin in comparison to the
other three layers# The
crust is only aout 510
miles "6 !ilometers) thic!
under the oceans "oceanic
crust) and aout 70 miles
"57 !ilometers) thic! under
the continents "continental
crust)#
The crust is composed of two roc!s# The
continental crust is mostly granite# The oceanic
crust is basalt# Basalt is much denser than granite#
Because of this the less dense continents ride on
the denser oceanic plates#
1roperties of the Crust
Continental Crust
@epth 4 =" to 0" /m' average E" to )" /m
+omposition4 felsic' intermediate' and mafic igneous' sedimentary' and
metamorphic roc/s
>ge4 " to ) -.y.
,ummary4 thic/er' less dense' heterogeneous' old
!ceanic Crust
@epth 4 70 /m
+omposition4 mafic igneous roc/ $-asalt H ga--ro( with thin layer of
sediments on top
>ge4 " to ="" m.y.
,ummary4 thin' more dense' homogeneous' young
2ceanic and 'ontinental 'rust
The *antle
The Mantle is the
largest layer of the
Earth at 7899 ! m t hi c ! #
The middle mantle is
composed of v ery hot
dense rock that f lo w s
li!e asphalt under a
heavy weight# The
movement of the middle
mantle
"asthenosphere) is the
reason that the crustal
plates of the Earth
The Lithosphere
The crust and the upper layer of
the mantle together make up a
zone of rigid, britte rock caed the
Lithosphere.
The Lithospheric Plates
The crust of the Earth is ro!en into many pieces
called plates# The plates :float: on the soft% semi1
rigid asthenosphere#
The ,ithosphere
,itho s pher e .
t he c rust and
t he upper m o s t
part of m antle
The $sthenosphere
>sthe n osphereI the flu id li/e portion of
th e man tle th at lies j ust -e low
lithos phere. The lithos phere f loats
on
the asth en osphere
'onvection 'urrents
6he middle mantle "flows" -ecause of convection
currents. Con#ection currents are caused -y the
very hot material at the deepest part of the
mantle rising' then cooling and sin/ing again --
repeating this cycle over and over.
The 2uter 'ore
6he core of the
Earth is li/e a -all
of very hot
metals. 6he
outer core is
so hot that the
metals in it are all
in the li.uid state.
6he outer core is
composed of the
melted metals of
nic'el and iron#
The &nner 'ore
6he inner core of
the Earth has
temperatures and
pressures so great
that the m e t a ls are
s.ueeAed together
and are not a-le to
move a-out li/e a
li.uid' -ut are
forced to vi-rate in
place li/e a solid.
$nner core:
The 'ore
6he inner core is solid and unattached to the mantle'
suspended in the molten outer core. 9t is -elieved to
have solidified as a result of pressure-freeAing which
occurs to most li.uids when temperature decreases or
pressure increases.
/!- VE/!C$T3 6!%ES
!chematic vie" of the interior of #arth. $.
continenta crust % 2. oceanic crust % 3.
upper mante % &. o"er mante % 5. outer
core % '. inner core % A: (ohor o v i ) i *
d i sc o n ti n u i ty % +: , u te n b er g - i sc o n ti n u i t y
% .: / e h m a n n d i scon ti n u i ty
;. :ohorovicic %iscontinuity or $:oho
!eismic veocities tend to graduay increase "ith depth in the mante due
to the increasing pressure, and therefore density, "ith depth. 0o"ever,
seismic "aves recorded at distances corresponding to depths of around
$11 km to 251 km arrive ater than e2pected indicating a zone of o"
seismic "ave veocity. 3urthermore, "hie both the 4 and ! "aves
trave
more so"y, the ! "aves are "eakened. This is interpreted to be a zone
that is partiay moten. Aternativey, it may simpy represent a zone
"here the mante is very cose to its meting point for that depth and
pressure that it is very 5soft.5 Then this represents a zone of "eakness in
the upper mante. This zone is caed the asthenosphere or 5"eak
sphere.5
*2H2
<utenerg
discontinuity
,ehman
discontinuity
/ehman Siesmic 2iscontinuity
A sudden increase in P wave
velocities at a depth of F1F" /m
indicates the presence of
another discontinuity. 6his
velocity increase is consistent
with a change from a molten
outer core to a solid inner core.
Gutenerg Seismic 2iscontinuity8Core9Mantle Boundary
Guten-erg $11)( explained that as the result of a molten
core -eginning at a depth of around ="" /m' , waves could
not penetrate this molten layer and P waves were severely
slowed and refracted $-ent(.
-hat Causes the Earth:s Magnetic 0ield(
6he outer core is a hot' electrically conducting li.uid within which
convective motion occurs. 6his conductive layer com-ines with Earth#s
rotation to create a dynamo effect that maintains a system of electrical
currents /nown as the Earth#s magnetic field.
6he discovery of the li.uid outer core allowed another hypothesis4 the
geodynamo. 9ron' whether li.uid or solid' is a conductor of electricity.
Electric currents would therefore flow in molten iron. :oving a flowing
electric current generates a magnetic field at a right angle to the
electric current direction $-asic physics of electromagnetism(. 6his
convective motion would displace the flowing electric currents there-y
generating magnetic fields. 6he magnetic field is oriented around the
axis of rotation of the Earth.
Practice =ui> =uestion
'an you lael the following layers-
(hat are the geologic landforms on
the earth -
(hen you thin! of landforms% you might
thin! of mountains or valleys# These are
continental landforms% or landforms on
the continents#
,andforms are also found under the ocean+s
water# These are called oceanic
landforms#
'ontinental vs# 2ceanic ,andforms
'anyon
?alley
?olcano
*ountain range
,ow hills or plains
Trench
@ift
Seamount
*id1ocean ridge
2cean asin and
ayssal plains
Plains
1lains are large flat areas of land that
are relatively low. > plain found in the
ocean is called an ayssal plain*
> mountain has high elevations with
steep sides and pointed tops. 6he top
of the mountain is a pea/' or summit.
+ircum-Pacific -elt
>lpine-Himalayan *elt
Shield areasA *ost stale parts of the continents# @oc!s are as old
as 5#6 illion
:ountain range of the ocean 4 5cean ridge system
!F""" /m continuous -elt around the glo-e
*id12cean @idge
2n the ottom of the ocean% there is a
central ridge% or mountain range% that
divides the ocean floor into two parts# This
underwater volcanic mountain is the mid-
ocean ridge# &t is more than 09%999 !m in
length
D&D /2B CN2(-
The Earth+s longest mountain range is underwater -
?alleys
?alleys are low% narrow areas on Earth+s crust#
2n land% valleys are usually formed y erosion#
?alleys in the ocean are called a rift >one% or rift
valley#
The most extensive rift valley is located
along the crest of the mid1oc ean ridge
ww w #i ne w sc a tc he r#c o m Dt i m age sD 8 f7E c aF
G ac8a9
'anyon and Trenches
$ canyon has steep% roc!y walls and is usually formed
y water erosion li!e the <rand 'anyon#
2cean trenches have a much lower elevation than the
surrounding area and is caused y one plate sliding
under another plate#
Trenches
The many steep1sided canyons and deep%
narrow valleys in the ottom of the ocean
are trenches# 2cean trenches are the
deepest part of the ocean asin and are
deeper than any valley found on land#
Did you Cnow-
The *arianas Trench in the Pacific
2cean is the deepest trench in the world# &t is
nearly G miles ";; !ilometers) elow sea level#
*ount Everest is only 0#0 miles "8 !ilometers)
aove sea level#
visual#merriam1wester#comD###Docean1floor#Hpg
catastrophemonitor#comDpulicIhtmlDimagesDart#
$ volcano is a mountain that
opens downward to a pool of
molten roc! elow the surface
of the earth# (hen pressure
uilds up% eruptions occur#
<ases and roc! shoot up
through the opening and spill
over or fill the air with lava
fragments# Eruptions can
cause lateral lasts% lava
flows% hot ash flows%
mudslides% avalanches% falling
ash and floods# ?olcano
eruptions have een !nown to
!noc! down entire forests# $n
erupting volcano can trigger
tsunamis% flashfloods%
earth3ua!es% mudflows and
roc!falls#
Seamounts
?olcanic cone shaped pea!s that dot the
ocean floor are called seamounts# *ost
are found in the Pacific 2cean#
*ost seamounts egan life as volcanoes
formed over hot spots in the ocean floor
Guyots
> guyot JioJ' also /nown as a talemount' is an isolated
underwater volcanic mountain' with a flat top over ="" meters
$!!" feet( -elow the surface of the sea.
Guyots are most commonly found in the Pacific 5cean. Guyots show
evidence of having -een a-ove the surface with gradual su-sidence
through stages from fringed reefed mountain' coral atoll' and finally a
flat topped su-merged mountain. 6heir flatness is due to erosion -y
waves' winds' and atmospheric processes
What are the landforms on the
ocean floor
The ama>ing ocean floor is made
up of three partsA
the continental shelf
the continental slope
the deep lue sea
'ontinental Shelf
6he edges of the continents slope down
from the shore into the ocean. 6he
part of the continent located under the
water is the continental shelf.
9n some places the shelf is fairly shallow
and in other places it -ecomes very
deep.
6he steep slope where the continental
shelf drops to the -ottom of the ocean
floor is called the continental slope.
6he depth of the water increases greatly
here.
=uic! =ui>
;# The ocean is a ig% flat featureless plain#
True or Jalse
false
7# The steep part where the continental shelf slopes
down to the deepest part of the ocean is called the
continental slope#
True or Jalse
true
!. What are the de e pe s t pa r ts of the ocean called
a# Deep1sea trenches
# $yssal plains
c# 'ontinents
d# Seamounts
Deep sea trenches
F# (hat is a seamount-
a# $ scientist who studies the ocean floor
# Deep1sea trench
c# $ fancy seagull
d# $ volcano that formed over a hot spot on the ocean
floor#
How can we classify and illustrate
natural processes as constructive or
destructive-
'onstructive K Processes that create
landforms
Destructive K Processes that destroy
landforms
Natural Processes that can affect
Earth+s oceans and landforms
includeA
(eathering K a term used to descrie
processes that rea! down roc!s at or
near the surface of the earth# (ater is an
important cause of weathering#
Erosion K the movement of sediments and
soil y wind% water% and gravity
Deposition K the dropping% or depositing%
of sediments y water% wind% or ice#
Deposition uilds up new land on Earth+s
surface% li!e a delta at the end of a river or
the pile up of a sand dune in a desert#
,andslides K mass movements of land due
to gravity#
?olcanic Eruptions K ?olcanoes can change the
Earth+s surface# (hen the magma erupts from
the volcano% the top of the mountain can e
changed# The lava and ash can destroy forests
and ury fields# Eruptions can even change
weather patterns#
Earth3ua!es K virations on the surface of the
Earth caused y sudden movement in Earth%
often along a fault line# ,arge earth3ua!es can
cause landslides# Earth3ua!es under the ocean
can cause huge waves% called ts un amis that
destroy land and cause great damage on shore#
Jloods K rapid erosion can ta!e place and move
soil and sediments away# (hen the flood
recedes% new sediment is left ehind and can
uild up rich soil deposits#
(hat are examples of ways natural
processes can e oth destructive
and constructive-
Constructive
forces
!oth
&inds of forces
Destructive
forces
$c!nowledged sources
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