THE MANDATE OF HEAVEN:

The Mandate of Heaven is an Asian variation of what students of European history might know as the
Divine Right of Kings.

The Mandate of Heaven was therefore granted by a supernatural community rather than a single
godhead. The Mandate of Heaven could be conferred upon any individual from any strata of society;
the emperor did not have to be of royal or noble birth, he only had to be fit to rule. Thirdly and most
significantly, the Mandate of Heaven held the emperor accountable to certain standards; he was
indirectly answerable to the Chinese people. If the emperor and his regime failed to meet their
responsibilities, mistreated the people or abused their power, their authority to rule could be
withdrawn. Signs that Heaven had withdrawn its mandate could include natural disasters such as floods,
droughts, famines or pandemics. Peasant rebellions could also be construed as evidence that the
emperor had lost the support of the gods. The Mandate of Heaven was integrated with and reinforced
by the teachings of Confucianism. This social and political philosophy was derived from the writings of
Chinese scholar Confucius or Kong Fuzi, who lived between 551BC and 479BC.

After overthrowing the Mongol Yuan dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty (1368-
1644), proclaimed that he had obtained the Mandate of Heaven (Tianming), enabling establishment of a
spiritual orientation and social agenda for China. Zhu, emperor during the Ming's Hongwu reign period,
launched a series of social programs to rebuild the empire and define Chinese cultural identity. To
promote its reform programs, the Ming imperial court issued a series of legal documents, culminating in
The Great Ming Code (Da Ming l), which supported China's legal system until the Ming was overthrown
and also served as the basis of the legal code of the following dynasty, the Qing (1644-1911).
ITS EFFECT ON CHINESE CULTURE:
The Code served as a cosmic instrument and moral textbook to ensure "all under Heaven" were aligned
with the cosmic order. By promoting, regulating, and prohibiting categories of ritual behavior, the intent
of the Code was to provide spiritual guidance to Chinese subjects, as well as to acquire political
legitimacy. The Code also obligated officials to obey the supreme authority of the emperor, to observe
filial behavior toward parents, to care for the welfare of the masses, and to maintain harmonious
relationships with deities. This set of regulations made officials the representatives of the Son of Heaven
in mediating between the spiritual and mundane worlds and in governing the human realm. This study
challenges the conventional assumption that law in premodern China was used merely as an arm of the
state to maintain social control and as a secular tool to exercise naked power. Based on a holistic
approach, the Ming ruling elite envisioned the cosmos as an integrated unit; they saw law, religion, and
political power as intertwined, remarkably different from the "modern" compartmentalized worldview.
In serving as a cosmic instrument to manifest the Mandate of Heaven, The Great Ming Code
represented a powerful religious effort to educate the masses and transform society.

The Mandate of Heaven is the right to rule claimed by ancient Chinese rulers and supposedly bestowed
by heaven (; Tian). The Mandate of Heaven postulates that heaven would bless the authority of a just
ruler, as defined by the Five Confucian Relationships, but would be displeased with a despotic ruler and
would withdraw its mandate, leading to the overthrow of that ruler. The Mandate of Heaven would then
transfer to those who would rule best. The fact that a ruler was overthrown was taken by itself as
indication that he had lost the Mandate of Heaven.
The Mandate of Heaven does not require that a legitimate ruler be of noble birth, and dynasties were
often founded by people of common birth (such as the Han dynasty and Ming dynasty). The concept of
the Mandate of Heaven was first used to support the rule of the kings of the Zhou Dynasty, and their
overthrow of the earlier Shang dynasty. It was used throughout the history of China to support the rule
of the Emperors of China, including 'foreign' dynasties such as the Qing Dynasty.
The Mandate of Heaven was a well-accepted and popular idea among the people of China, since it
argues for the removal of incompetent or despotic rulers, and provided an incentive for rulers to rule
well and justly. The concept was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in ancient China as a way to
curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that otherwise offered little other checks to this
power. The Mandate of Heaven had no time limitations, instead depending on the just and able
performance of the ruler. Throughout the history of China, times of poverty and natural disasters were
often taken as signs that heaven considered the incumbent ruler unjust and thus in need of
replacement.
The Shang Dynasty had its prosperous times filled with many outstanding accomplishments. Notably,
the dynasty lasted for a considerable number of years in which 31 Kings ruled over an extended period
of 17 generations. During this period, the dynasty was able to enjoy a period of peace and tranquility in
which citizens could make a good living. The government was originally able to control most of its
internal affairs due to the firm support provided by the people. As time went on, however, the rulers'
abuse of the other social classes led to social unrest and instability. The corruption in this dynasty
created the conditions necessary for a new ruling house to rise. It became the Zhou dynasty. Rebellion
against the Shang was led by Zhou Wu. They explained their right to assume rule as coming from the will
of heaven. They believed that the Shang ruling house had become morally corrupt, and that the Shang
leaders' loss of virtue entitled their own house to take over. The overthrow of the Shang Dynasty, they
said, was in accordance with the mandate given by Heaven.
After the Zhou gained control of the dynasty, they mostly appointed their own officials. However, in
order to appease some of the citizens, they allowed some of the Shang beneficiaries to continue
governing the small Kingdoms in which they had been governing but in compliance with the Zhou rules
and regulations. As the empire continued to expand, much intermarriage became eminent. This was
done because the rulers believed that it was a method of forming strong allies that enabled them to
absorb more countries into the dynasty. In case of a war, the Zhou Dynasty boasted an excellent military
and technology mostly because of influence from annexed countries. They also excelled in shipbuilding,
which made them excellent mariners because of their discovery of navigating their ships to a precise
destination by using the stars as their guide. Intellectually, the Zhou excelled in fields
of literature and philosophy. Many governmental positions were dictated around the intellectual ability
of a candidate. Many of the literature from the Zhou period included the Book of Changes, Book of
History, Book Etiquettes, Book of Song, Book of Odes, and the Book of Rites. Most of these literatures
observed the progress and political movement of the dynasty. In philosophical terms, Confucius and his
followers played an important role in shaping the mentality of the government. These critical thinkers
served as a foundation for the government. Their works primarily stressed the importance of the ruling
class, respect and their relationship with the lower class. Due to the growing size of the dynasty, it
became apparent that a centralized government would lead to a lot of confusion and corruption
because the government would not be able to exert its influence or compromise the needs of everyone.
To address this political barrier, the dynasty formed a decentralized government in which the empire
was broken down into sections. Within these districts were administrators who were appointed by the
government, in return, they had to maintain their allegiance to the main internal government. In effect,
the Zhou dynasty became a collection of districts. Consequently this marked the fall of the dynasty as it
became difficult for the central government to exert influence on all other regions of the empire.
Finally, after the Zhou dynasty became less powerful, it was then wiped out by the Qin because they
believed that the Zhou became weak and unfair in ruling.[citation needed] This transition emphasizes
the customary trend of Mandate of Heaven which provided leeway for the rise of new power. The Qin
initially attempted to capitalize on the mistakes/errors made by the Zhou, by either eliminating the
source of error or reforming it. During this reformation, administrative changes were made and a system
of legalism was developed which stated that the law is supreme over every individual, including the
rulers. Although significant progress was made during the Qin Dynasty, however, the persecution
of scholars and ordinary citizens led to an unstable state.
After the death of Emperor Qin Shihuangdi of the Qin dynasty,who was a very hated man, a widespread
revolt by prisoners, peasants, and unhappy soldiers inevitably led to the fall of the Qin Dynasty due to its
tyrannical practices. The establishment of the Han Dynasty marked a great period in Chinas history. This
period was marked by significant changes in the political structure of China. During the Han dynasty,
significant changes were made in which the government introduced entrance examinations known
as civil service examinations or imperial examinations for governmental positions. Additionally, the Han
dynasty prospered economically through the Silk Road and other trading means. Throughout the reign
of the Han Dynasty, the wealthy elites and the peasants benefited from the wise decisions made by the
brilliant minds of the dynasty.









The "Mandate of Heaven" is an ancient Chinese philosophical concept, which originated during the Zhou
Dynasty (1046-256 BCE). The Mandate determines whether an emperor of China is sufficiently virtuous
to rule; if he does not fulfill his obligations as emperor, then he loses the Mandate and thus the right to
be emperor.
There are four principles to the Mandate:
1) Heaven grants the emperor the right to rule,
2) Since there is only one Heaven, there can only be one emperor at any given time,
3) The emperor's virtue determines his right to rule, and,
4) No one dynasty has a permanent right to rule.
Signs that a particular ruler had lost the Mandate of Heaven included peasant uprisings, invasions by
foreign troops, drought, famine, floods and earthquakes. Of course, drought or floods often led to
famine, which in turn caused peasant uprisings, so these factors were often interrelated.
Although the Mandate of Heaven sounds superficially similar to the European concept of the "Divine
Right of Kings," in fact it operated quite differently. In the European model, God granted a particular
family the right to rule a country for all time, regardless of the rulers' behavior. The Divine Right was an
assertion that God essentially forbade rebellions - it was a sin to oppose the king.
In contrast, the Mandate of Heaven justified rebellion against an unjust, tyrannical, or incompetent
ruler. If a rebellion was successful in overthrowing the emperor, then it was a sign that he had lost the
Mandate of Heaven and the rebel leader had gained it. In addition, unlike the hereditary Divine Right of
Kings, the Mandate of Heaven did not depend upon royal or even noble birth. Any successful rebel
leader could become emperor with Heaven's approval, even if he was born a peasant.
The Mandate of Heaven in Action:
The Zhou Dynasty used the idea of the Mandate of Heaven to justify the overthrow of theShang
Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BCE). Zhou leaders claimed that the Shang emperors had become corrupt and
unfit, so Heaven demanded their removal.
When Zhou authority crumbled in turn, there was no strong opposition leader to seize control, so China
descended into the Warring States Period (c. 475-221 BCE). It was reunified and expanded by Qin
Shihuangdi, beginning in 221, but his descendants quickly lost the Mandate. The Qin Dynasty ended in
206 BCE, brought down by popular uprisings led by the peasant rebel leader Liu Bang, who founded
theHan Dynasty.
This cycle continued through the history of China, as in 1644 when the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) lost
the Mandate and was overthrown by Li Zicheng's rebel forces. A shepherd by trade, Li Zicheng ruled for
just two years before he was in turn ousted by the Manchus, who founded the Qing Dynasty (1644-
1911), China's final imperial dynasty.
Effects of the Mandate of Heaven Idea
The concept of the Mandate of Heaven had several important effects on China and on other countries
such as Korea and Annam (northern Vietnam) that were within the sphere of China's cultural influence.
Fear of losing the Mandate prompted rulers to act responsibly in carrying out their duties towards their
subjects.
The Mandate also allowed for serious social mobility for a handful of peasant rebellion leaders who
became emperors. Finally, it gave the people a reasonable explanation and a scapegoat for otherwise
inexplicable events, such as droughts, floods, famines, earthquakes and disease epidemics. This last
effect may have been the most important of all.
A philosophical belief was established by the founders of the Zhou Dynasty () around 1100 B.C.
that Heaven bestowed the divine right of ruling to those who were morally worthy.
This belief, known as the Mandate of Heaven (, pronounced tin mng), is rooted deeply in
Chinese culture and has had a fundamental and enduring influence on Chinese history.
It established that a ruler must be wise and just, follow the Daothe Way of Heavenand be attuned
to destiny.
The ancient Chinese regarded the emperor as a son of Heaven, with Heaven above him.
Lao Zi () expressed his idea of the unity of Heaven and humans in the Dao De Jing (): Man
follows the Earth, the Earth follows Heaven, Heaven follows the Dao, and the Dao follows what is
natural.
Wise and capable rulers in ancient China revered Heaven and cherished, respected, and protected their
subjects. Historians recorded all the words and deeds of the emperor, and the emperors behaviour was
judged by the Confucian classics.
Sage kings had wise and virtuous officials serve as their teachers or advisers. One example is Yi Yin (
), who helped Shang Tang () found the Shang Dynasty () and became its first prime minister.
Jiang Ziya () is another example. He assisted both King Wen () and King Wu () in
establishing the Zhou Dynasty.


Enforcing the Dao on Behalf of Heaven
If a ruler is immoral, he would be criticized by his ministers and the people, and the people may
overthrow him, such as Shang Tangs defeat of Xia Jie (), the last emperor of the Xia Dynasty (),
who was a tyrant.
Another example is King Wus removal of Emperor Zhou (), the last ruler of the Shang Dynasty.
Traditional Chinese culture did not consider these uprisings as violations of loyalty or the Dao, but rather
as enforcing the Dao on behalf of Heaven.
Wise and capable rulers in ancient China revered Heaven and cherished, respected, and protected their
subjects.
The ancient Chinese also believed that natural disasters were Heavens warning signs that the
government had moved away from the Dao.
If the government ignored these rebukes, Heaven would send stronger warnings in attempts to awaken
conscience. If warnings continued to be ignored, calamities would follow.
These patterns were believed to be the ways in which Gods showed their compassion to human beings.
Throughout Chinese history, the Mandate of Heaven is recorded as having influenced changes of
dynasties and emperors, with the rise and fall of dynasties and emperors linked to the morality of
human beings.
























Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
Zhu Yuanzhang
As noted, the Ming (bright) dynasty was the last imperial dynasty ruled by Han Chinese. Once Zhu
Yuanzhang (also known by the reign name Hongwu) ousted the main Mongol forces, he declared himself
emperor. He moved quickly to gain military control of the whole country, in many ways following Yuan
styles of military and government organization. It was not until 1390, however, that the final Mongol
holdouts were driven from southwest China. Occasional Mongol raids still perplexed the Ming even in
the 16th century.
In order to re-staff and reinvigorate the government bureaucracy, Zhu revived the civil service
examinations and set up government-sponsored schools throughout the land to help examinees ground
themselves in the Confucian Classics. He also experimented with new tax policies by introducing a
system by which local gentry were responsible for tax-collection in their local areas; farm households
were organized in groups of ten with mutual responsibility for taxes and labor for public works projects.
Forbidden City, Beijing
Zheng He's ship and Columbus' ship
His grandson, the Yongle Emperor moved the capital from Nanjing, in the south, to the site of the former
Mongol capital, Beijing. Here, he built the massiveForbidden Citybetween 1402 and 1421 that still
stands beside Tiananmen Square. Yongle also led a number of military expeditions into the remaining
Mongol realms as a deterrent show of force. Besides re-furbishing the Grand Canal system to improve
grain transport he commissioned the Moslem eunuch Zheng He on seven voyages across the Indian
Ocean to the east coast of Africa and ports in the Arabian Sea. One detachment of his men actually
made a pilgrimage to Mecca. Although the massive fleets of over 300 ships including several huge
treasure boats ten times the size of Columbus Santa Mariamust have inspired awe and respect in all
who encountered them, for some reason Yongle lost trust in the enterprise (and Zheng He) and ordered
the fleets burned. China thus lost its initiative as a commercial, sea-faring power. Years later in the
dynasty, Japanese pirates would constantly raid the Chinese coast.

Zheng He's seven expedition routes
Other events marked a shift inward. The Mongols again proved a threat, actually capturing the reigning
Ming emperor around 1448. The eventual result was a re-vamping of the Great Wall, which was initially
formed from several existing walls and rebuilt and fortified along the borders of the northern steppe.
Due to relatively stable times and advances in agricultural techniques, by 1600 the population had
reached 150,000,000. New strains of hardier and faster-growing rice were developed and new crops
such as the white potato, sweet potato, maize, peanuts, and hot peppers were arriving from the New
World via the Portuguese, Dutch and other Europeans who were now taking control of the worlds sea
routes.
Jesuit Matteo Ricci, wearing Chinese scholar's clothes
Portuguese Jesuit priests (a highly learned sect of the Catholic Church) were the first sea-faring
Europeans to arrive in China during the Ming, making contact in 1514. By 1582, the famous Jesuit
Matteo Ricci, who (like Marco Polo in the Yuan dynasty) learned Chinese and even wore Chinese
clothing. Chinese intellectuals shared knowledge of astronomy and invention with the Jesuits, who in
turn introduced aspects of European mathematics and science of the day. Printing became even more
widespread than in the past and a wide variety of books, including vernacular short stories and
romances, found ready markets in urban areas.
Eventually the combination of a decline of leadership (coupled with corrupt eunuchs around the
imperial court), a de-stabilization of the economy due to an influx of foreign silver, population growth,
abusive tax policies, and popular rebellion weakened the Ming. Among the rebels was one Li Zicheng,
who in 1644 managed to capture the father of a Chinese commander, Wu Sangui. Instead of submitting
to Li Zicheng, Wu allied himself with Dorgon. Dorgon was a leader of the Manchus, a people who lived in
the rich forests of Manchuriawhat is now northeast China and part of North Korea. For several
generations the Manchus, descendants of the old Jurched peoples, had been scheming to invade China
under capable leaders such as Nurhaci (1559-1626). After Wu Sangui aided the Manchu forces in
breaching the Great Wall they entered and soon took command of all China.