ASSINGNMENT OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE LAW

ON
PAYMENT OF INTERNATIONAL SALES

SUBMITTED BY-
ANKITA SINGH

ENROLLMENT NO.
A8111110058
BATCH 2010-2015

YEAR OF STUDY 4
TH
YEAR (8
TH
SEMESTER)
AMITY LAW SCHOOL
LUCKNOW CAMPUS (U.P.)



Index
Acknowledgement
Introduction
Letters Of Credit
Definition
Availability of Letter of Credit
Parties in Letter Of Credit transaction
The flow of Letter Of Credit
Need for checklists and flowcharts
Role of Bank
Bills Of Exchange
Nature of Bills Of Exchange
How Bills Of Exchange are used
Definition
Essentials of a Bill Of Exchange
The parties to a Bill Of Exchange
Bibliography

Acknowledgement

It is great privilege to express deep gratitude to my learned and
esteemed International Trade Law teacher, Mr. Mohammad Atif
Khan, for his wise and accurate suggestions, careful and reasoned
criticism and keen interest.
I would also thank my institution and faculty members without
whom this project would have been a distant reality. I also extend
my heartfelt thanks to my family and friends.

Ankita Singh
B.A., LL.B.(Hons.)
8
th
Semester
Enroll. No.-A8111110058


Introduction

To succeed in todays global marketplace, exporters must offer their customers attractive
sales terms supported by the appropriate payment method to win sales against foreign
competitors. As getting paid in full and on time is the primary goal for each export sale, an
appropriate payment method must be chosen carefully to minimize the payment risk while
also accommodating the needs of the buyer.
Key Points:
International trade presents a spectrum of risk, causing uncertainty over the
timing of payments between the exporter (seller) and importer (foreign buyer).
To exporters, any sale is a gift until payment is received.
Therefore, the exporter wants payment as soon as possible, preferably as soon as
an order is placed or before the goods are sent to the importer.
To importers, any payment is a donation until the goods are received.
Therefore, the importer wants to receive the goods as soon as possible, but to
delay payment as long as possible, preferably until after the goods are resold to
generate enough income to make payment to the exporter.

Cash-in-Advance
With this payment method, the exporter can avoid credit risk, since payment is received
prior to the transfer of ownership of the goods. Wire transfers and credit cards are the
most commonly used cash-in-advance options available to exporters. However, requiring
payment in advance is the least attractive option for the buyer, as this method creates
cash flow problems. Foreign buyers are also concerned that the goods may not be sent if
payment is made in advance. Thus, exporters that insist on this method of payment as
their sole method of doing business may find themselves losing out to competitors who
may be willing to offer more attractive payment terms.

Letters of Credit
Letters of credit (LCs) are among the most secure instruments available to international
traders. An LC is a commitment by a bank on behalf of the buyer that payment will be made
to the exporter provided that the terms and conditions have been met, as verified through
the presentation of all required documents. The buyer pays its bank to render this service.
An LC is useful when reliable credit information about a foreign buyer is difficult to obtain,
but you are satisfied with the creditworthiness of your buyers foreign bank. An LC also
protects the buyer since no payment obligation arises until the goods have been shipped or
delivered as promised.
Documentary Collections
A documentary collection is a transaction whereby the exporter entrusts the collection of a
payment to the remitting bank (exporters bank), which sends documents to a collecting
bank (importers bank), along with instructions for payment. Funds are received from the
importer and remitted to the exporter through the banks involved in the collection in
exchange for those documents. Documentary collections involve the use of a draft that
requires the importer to pay the face amount either on sight (document against payment
D/P) or on a specified date in the future (document against acceptanceD/A). The draft lists
instructions that specify the documents required for the transfer of title to the goods.
Although banks do act as facilitators for their clients under collections, documentary
collections offer no verification process and limited recourse in the event of nonpayment.
Drafts are generally less expensive than letters of credit.
Open Account
An open account transaction means that the goods are shipped and delivered before pay-
ment is due, usually in 30 to 90 days. Obviously, this is the most advantageous option to
the importer in cash flow and cost terms, but it is consequently the highest risk option for
an exporter. Due to the intense competition for export markets, foreign buyers often
press exporters for open account terms since the extension of credit by the seller to the
buyer is more common abroad. Therefore, exporters who are reluctant to extend credit
may face the possibility of the loss of the sale to their competitors. However, with the use
of one or more of the appropriate trade finance techniques, such as export credit
insurance, the exporter can offer open competitive account terms in the global market
while substantially mitigating the risk of non payment by the foreign buyer.

Letters of credit

In any business transaction there are risks. When trading internationally, these risks
increase considerably as in addition to customer risks, exporters may also be exposed to
country and foreign exchange risks.
Frequently in international trade activities, buyers and sellers find themselves at opposite
ends of the spectrum, where the buyer may not wish or may not be permitted to remit
payment in advance for goods, and the seller may be reluctant to ship goods without any
guarantee of payment.
To overcome this impasse, parties may agree that a Documentary Letter of Credit is the
most appropriate method of payment, as this provides security for both parties to the
transaction.
Definition:
A written commitment to pay, by a buyer's or importer's bank (called the issuing bank) to
the seller's or exporter's bank (called the accepting bank, negotiating bank, or paying bank).
A letter of credit guarantees payment of a specified sum in a specified currency, provided
the seller meets precisely-defined conditions and submits the prescribed documents within
a fixed timeframe. These documents almost always include a clean bill of lading or air
waybill, commercial invoice, and certificate of origin. To establish a letter of credit in favour
of the seller or exporter (called the beneficiary) the buyer (called the applicant or account
party) either pays the specified sum (plus service charges) up front to the issuing bank,
or negotiates credit. Letters of credit are formal trade instruments and are used usually
where the seller is unwilling to extend credit to the buyer. In effect, a letter of
credit substitutes the creditworthiness of a bank for the creditworthiness of the buyer.
Thus, the international banking system acts as an intermediary between far flung exporters
and importers. However, the banking system does not take on any responsibility for
the quality of goods, genuineness of documents, or any other provision in the contract of
sale. Since the unambiguity of the terminology used in writing a letter of credit is of vital
importance, the International Chamber Of Commerce (ICC) has suggested
specific terms (called Incoterms) that are now almost universally accepted and used. Unlike
a bill of exchange, a letter of credit is a nonnegotiable instrument but may be transferable
with the consent of the applicant.




Although letters of credit come in numerous types, the two most basic ones are
(1) Revocable-credit letter of credit, and
(2) Irrevocable-credit letter of credit, which comes in two versions (a) Confirmed irrevocable
letter of credit and (b) Not-confirmed irrevocable letter of credit.

LC is usually subject to the Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits,
International Chamber of Commerce Publication No. 600 (UCP 600).

Availability of Letter of Credit

Under UCP 600, an LC can be made available with:
Payment Payment at sight against compliant documents.
Negotiation Payment with or without recourse to the beneficiary or bona fide
holder against compliant documents presented under the credit.
Acceptance by a Drawee Bank Payment at a future determinable date against
compliant documents. A tenor draft is normally required for presentation under an
acceptance credit and is drawn on the acceptance bank rather than the issuing bank.
Usance Credit Payment at a future determinable date against compliant
documents. A tenor draft is normally required (but not mandatory) for presentation
under a usance credit and is drawn on the Issuing Bank. Usance credit is available by
Negotiation, Acceptance and Deferred Payment. A tenor draft is not required for
presentation under a deferred payment credit.

Parties in Letter of Credit Transaction

LC Applicant
LC Applicant is normally the buyer under the sales contract and the party that
initiates the request to the Issuing Bank to issue an LC on its behalf. The LC Applicant
normally maintains banking facilities with the Issuing Bank.

LC Beneficiary
LC Beneficiary is normally the seller under the sales contract and the party who will
receive payment under the LC if it can fulfill all the terms and conditions of the
credit.



Issuing Bank
An Issuing Bank (or LC opening bank) is the bank that issues the LC in favour of a
seller at the request of the LC applicant. The Issuing Bank is normally located in the
applicants country with established banking relationship with the applicant. By
issuing an LC, the Issuing Bank undertakes to pay the beneficiary the value of the
draft and/or other documents if all the terms and conditions of the LC are complied
with.


Advising Bank
An Advising Bank (or sometimes known as notifying bank) is the bank that advises the
LC beneficiary that there is an LC issued in his favour. Advising Bank is normally
located in the sellers country and is either appointed by the Issuing Bank or LC
applicant. Its primary responsibility is to authenticate the LC to ensure that the LC
comes from genuine source.Confirming Bank.A Confirming Bank (normally also the
Advising Bank) is the bank that adds its own undertaking to pay the LC beneficiary if
all terms and conditions of the credit are complied with. Such undertaking is in
addition to that given by the Issuing Bank at the request of the Issuing Bank. The
Confirming Bank will only confirm an LC upon satisfactory evaluation on the
conditions of the Issuing Bank and its domicile country.

Nominated Bank
A Nominated Bank is a bank authorised by the Issuing bank in the credit to pay,
negotiate, issue a deferred payment undertaking or accept drafts under the LC. If the
LC does not specify a Nominated Bank, the LC is deemed as freely negotiable and any
banks that receive documents from the LC beneficiary are qualified to be a Nominated
Bank.A Nominated Bank is not responsible to pay under the credit unless it has added
its confirmation to the credit. In such a case, it will become a Confirming Bank.

Negotiating Bank
A Negotiating Bank is the bank that examines the drafts and/or documents presented
by the LC beneficiary and gives values to such drafts and/or documents. Negotiation
could be in the form of purchasing or agreeing to purchase the drafts and/or
documents presented.

Reimbursing Bank
A Reimbursing Bank is the paying agent appointed by the Issuing Bank to honour claims
submitted by the nominated or negotiating bank.






The Flow of Letter of Credit
Stage 1: Letter of Credit Issuance and Advising/Confirmation





Step 1: Buyer and seller conclude the sales contract and agreed to use an LC as the method
of payment.
Step 2: Buyer approaches the Issuing Bank to issue an LC on his behalf in favour of the seller
with all the terms and conditions specified.
Step 3: Issuing Bank issues the LC and requests the advising bank to advise or confirm the
credit to the LC beneficiary (seller).
Step 4: Advising/confirming bank authenticates the LC and sends the LC to the LC
beneficiary.

Stage 2: Presentation of Documents and Settlement (Sight LC with Reimbursing
Bank)


Step 5: Seller prepares and despatches the goods to the buyers country.
Step 6: Seller presents the drafts and/or documents to the nominated bank.
Step 7: Nominated (nominated as the negotiating bank) Bank checks documents presented
against the LC terms and conditions and seeks instructions from seller on documentary
discrepancies.
Step 8a: Nominated Bank forwards the drafts and/or documents to the Issuing Bank.
Step 8b: If documents are free from discrepancies or discrepancies are supported by sellers
indemnity, nominated bank claims reimbursement from the appointed reimbursing bank.
Step 8c: Reimbursing Bank pays the nominated bank against a valid reimbursement
authority received from the Issuing Bank and statement from negotiating bank that the
documents complied with LC terms.
Step 9: Nominated Bank credits the net proceeds into the sellers account.
Step 10: Issuing Bank checks documents presented against the LC terms and conditions. If
documents are free from discrepancies, Issuing Bank reimburses the reimbursing bank.
Step 11: Issuing Bank presents documents to the buyer for payment.
Step 12: Once payment is received from the buyer, Issuing Bank releases documents to the
buyer for the latter to collect his goods.
Need for checklists and flowcharts

Letters of Credit detail dates by which certain activities must take place, e.g. ship by dates,
presentation of documents date, Letter of Credit expiry date, etc. The seller must be fully
aware of the need to ensure full compliance with these dates. Any failure in adherence will
affect release of payment to him.
The use of a checklist to aid the examination process of a Letter of Credit, and further
supported by a documentation and activity flow chart can be of great benefit in ensuring
that shipment and all other aspects of the Credit conditions are adhered to in a structured
manner.

Role of Banks

Banks play a pivotal role in Letters of Credit transactions, as it is the issuing bank which
makes the commitment to pay, albeit that payment may be channelled through a
nominated United Kingdom bank. This release of funds by the issuing bank is entirely
dependent on the seller providing documentary evidence that he has complied fully with
conditions detailed in the credit.
As compliance with the terms is of paramount importance, sellers who are to be paid by
means of a Letter of Credit, should examine in detail the Letter of Credit on initial receipt
and highlight any discrepancies or issues to the buyer, which may be of concern to him and
affect his ability to fulfill the conditions contained in the credit.
The seller may request that the buyer arranges for amendments to the Letter of Credit
terms. If agreeable, the buyer should request amendments be made by the issuing bank and
notification of amendments by that bank to any other bank involved in the handling of the
Letter of Credit.


Bills of exchange
Nature of bills of exchange:
When goods are supplied to someone on credit ,or services performed for him, then that
person becomes a debtor. The creditor firm would normally wait for payment by the debtor.
Until payment is amde the money owing is of no use to the creditor firm as it is not being
used in any way. The can be remedied by factoring the debtors, which involves padding the
debts over to a finance firm. They will pay an agreed amount for the legal rights to the
debts.
Another possibility is that of obtaining a bank overdraft, with the debtors accepted as part
of the security on which the overdraft has been granted.
Yet another way that can give the creditor affective use the money owing to him is for him
to draw a bill of exchange on the debtor. This means that the document is drawn up
requiring the debtor to pay the amount owing to the creditor, or to anyone nominated by
him at any time, on or by a particular date. He sends this document to the debtor who, if he
agrees to it, is said to accept it by writing on the document that he will comply with it and
appends his signature. The debtor then returns the bill of exchange to the creditor. This
document is then legal proof of the debt. The debtor is not then able to contest the validity
of the debt except for any irregularity in the bill of exchange itself.
How bills of exchange are used:
The creditor can now act in one of three ways:
1. He can negotiate the bill to another person in payment of debt. That person may
also negotiate to someone else. The person who possesses the bill at maturity, i.e.
the date for payment of the bill, will present it to the debtor for payment.
2. He may discount it with a bank. Discount here means that the bank will take the
bill of exchange and treat it in the same manner as money deposited in the bank
account. The bank will then hold the bill until maturity when it will present it to the
debtor for payment. The bank will make a charge to the creditor for this service,
known as a discounting charge.
3. The third way open to the creditor is for him to hold the bill until maturity when he
will present it to the debtor for payment. In this case, apart from having a document
which is a legal proof of the debt and could therefore save legal costs if a dispute
arose, no benefit has been gained from having a bill of exchange. However, action 1
or 2 could have been taken if the need has arisen.

Definition:
A written, unconditional order by one party (the drawer) to another (the drawee) to pay a
certain sum, either immediately (a sight bill) or on a fixed date (a term bill),
for payment of goods and/or services received. The drawee accepts the bill by signing it,
thus converting it into a post-dated check and a binding contract.

A bill of exchange is also called a draft but, while all drafts are negotiable instruments, only
"to order" bills of exchange can be negotiated. According to the
1930 Convention Providing A Uniform Law For Bills of Exchange and Promissory
Notes held in Geneva (also called Geneva Convention) a bill of exchange contains: (1) The
term bill of exchange inserted in the body of the instrument and expressed in the
language employed in drawing up the instrument. (2) An unconditional order to pay
a determinate sum of money. (3) The name of the person who is to pay (drawee). (4)
A statement of the time of payment. (5) A statement of the place where payment is to be
made. (6) The name of the person to whom or to whose order payment is to be made. (7) A
statement of the date and of the place where the bill is issued. (8) The signature of the
person who issues the bill (drawer). A bill of exchange is the most often used form of
payment in local and international trade, and has a long history- as long as that of writing.


Essentials of a bill of exchange:

In order that an instrument may be called a bill of exchange it should satisfy the following
conditions:
1. It must be in writing.
2. It must contain an unconditional order to pay.
3. It must be signed by the drawer.
4. There must be three parties to the instrument and the parties must be certain.
5. The order must be to pay a certain sum of money.
6. The instrument must contain an order to pay money and money only.
7. It must comply with the formalities as regards date, consideration, stamp etc.
A bill of exchange like a promissory note may be written in any language. It may be written
in any form of words provided the requirements of the section are complied with.


The Parties to a Bill of Exchange:
: The Drawer - Is the party that issues a Bill of Exchange in an international trade
transaction; usually the seller.
The Drawee - Is the recipient of the Bill of Exchange for payment or acceptance in an
international trade transaction; usually the buyer.
The Payee - Is the party to whom the Bill is payable; usually the seller or their bankers.






Bibliography

Google.com
PDF: Mechanism of Letter of Credit- UOB
PDF: Documentary Letter of Credit
PDF: Bills of Exchange