APUSH Review

European Exploration and the Colonial Period

Treaty of Tordesillas- In 1943, at Spains r!in!, t"e pope drew a #$ine of %e&ar'ation(
dividin! t"e new world into ) parts*t"at east of t"e line for Port!al and west for Spain+
,e'ase t"is line tended to -e favora-le to Spain, and -e'ase Port!al "ad a stron!er navy, t"e
) 'ontries wor.ed ot t"e Treaty of Tordesillas /14940, -y w"i'" t"e line was &oved frt"er
west+
,al-oa*'rossed t"e ist"&s of Pana&a
1ortes*led e2pedition a!ainst A3te's in 4e2i'o+
Seven 1ities of 5old*fa-le 'reated -y 6a'a+ In response to "is story, t"e Spanis" sent
e2peditions to e2plore t"e interior of 7ort" A&eri'a
Soto*led e2pedition loo.in! for t"e 'ities of !old+ %is'overed t"e 4ississippi River+
1oronado*led an e2pedition fro& 4e2i'o+
8n'o&ienda syste&- Spain ad&inistered its new "oldin!s as an ato'rati', ri!idly 'ontrolled
e&pire in w"i'" everyt"in! was t"e parent 'ontry+ As poplation pressres were low in 19
t"
-
'entry Spain, only a-ot )::,::: Spaniards 'a&e to A&eri'a drin! t"at ti&e+ To deal wit" t"e
'onse;ent la-or s"orta!es, t"e Spanis" developed a syste& of lar!e &anors wit" Indian slaves
rt"lessly &ana!ed fir t"e -enefit of t"e 'on;istadores+ As t"e Indian poplation -e!an to die
fro& overwor. and disease, Spaniards -e!an to i&port Afri'an slaves to spply t"eir la-or needs+
<o"n 1a-ot*sear'"ed nder t"e sponsors"ip of t"e .in! of 8n!land for a 7ort"west Passa!e
1artier*&onted 3 e2peditions in t"e area of t"e St+ $awren'e River, w"i'" "e -elieved was t"e
Sir =alter Ralei!"*trned "is attention to t"e sot"ern part of t"e A&eri'an 'oastline, w"i'" "e
na&ed 6ir!inia+ A !rop of 114 &en, wo&en, and '"ildren landed t"ere in <ly 1>?@+ T"e 'olony
was &ysteriosly deserted+ After t"is failre, Ralei!" was for'ed -y finan'ial 'onstraints to
a-andon "is atte&pts to 'oloni3e 6ir!inia+
T"e Ply&ot" 1o&pany, in 19:@, atte&pted to plant a 'olony in 4aine, -t after winter t"e
'olonists -e'a&e dis'ora!ed and retrned to ,ritain+ T"ereafter t"e Ply&ot" 1o&pany folded+
T"e 6ir!inia 1o&pany of $ondon, in 19:@, sent ot an e2pedition of 3 s"ips wit" 1:4 &en to
plant a 'olony near t"e 1"esapea.e ,ay+
<a&estown* 6ir!inia 1o&pany of $ondon, in 19:@, sent ot an e2pedition of 3 s"ips wit" 1:4
&en to plant a 'olony near t"e 1"esapea.e ,ayA it -e'a&e t"e first per&anent 8n!lis" settle&ent
in 7ort" A&eri'a+ %rin! its early years, t"e &aBority of settlers died of starvation, diseases, and
"ostile a'tion -y Indians+ T"e entire 'olony was owned -y t"e 6ir!inia 1o&pany of $ondon, and
all &e&-ers s"ared t"e profits re!ardless of "ow &'" or little t"ey wor.ed+ 4any of t"e settlers
were !entle&en and ot"ers were si&ply na&-itios and t"s "ad little desire to wor.+
Crt"er&ore, t"e settlers "ad 'o&e wit" t"e a&-ition of findin! old rat"er t"an wor.in! for t"eir
srvival+
<o"n S&it"*led t"e 'olony of <a&estown fro& 19:?-:9 and .ept it fro& 'ollapsin!+
<o"n Rolfe*dis'overed t"at a sperior strain of to-a''o 'old -e !rown in 6ir!inia+ His
dis'overy !ave 6ir!inia a &aBor 'as" 'rop+
Indentre syste&*'reated -y t"e 6ir!inia 1o&pany to pro&ote t"e i&&i!ration of 8n!lands
poor+ A poor wor.ers passa!e to A&eri'a was paid for -y an A&eri'an planter w"o in e2'"an!e
was indentred to wor. for a spe'ified n&-er of years+ T"e syste& was open to a-se and often
led to t"e &istreat&ent of indentred wor.ers+
Hose of ,r!esses*t"e first representative asse&-ly in A&eri'a+
Sa&el de 1"a&plain*esta-lis"ed a tradin! post in De-e' in 19:?, fro& w"i'" t"e rest of
7ew Cran'e eventally spread+ T"ro!"ot its "istory, 7ew Cran'e was "andi'apped -y an
inade;ate poplation and la'. of spport fro& its parent 'ontry+
%t'" =est India 1o&pany*t"e Boint-sto'. 'o&pany t"at ran t"e 'olonies of t"e 7ew
7et"erlands+
Patroon syste&*or!ani3ed -y t"e %t'" to en'ora!e far&in!+ It 'reated lar!e landed estates
t"at wold -e !iven to wealt"y &en w"o transported at least >: fa&ilies to t"e 7ew 7et"erlands+
T"ese fa&ilies wold t"en -y tenant far&ers on t"e estates of t"e patroon w"o transported t"e&+
As Hollands "o&e e'ono&y was "ealt"y, few %t'" felt desperate eno!" to ta.e p s'"
nattra'tive ter&s+
Separatists*a reli!ios !rop in 8n!land w"o felt t"at t"e 1"r'" of 8n!land was -eyond
savin!+ $ed -y =illia& ,radford, t"ey left for A&eri'a in 19):+ Upon a''identally landin! in
4assa'"setts, t"ey 'reated t"e 4ayflower 1o&pa't, esta-lis"in! a fondation for orderly
!overn&ent -ased on t"e 'onsent of t"e !overned+
4assa'"setts ,ay 1olony*'reated -y Pritans w"o wanted to esta-lis" a 'o&&nity in
A&eri'a+ T"e '"arter t"at 'reated t"e 4assa'"setts ,ay 1o&pany didnt spe'ify w"ere t"e
'o&panys "ead;arters s"old -e lo'ated+ Ta.in! advanta!e of t"is o&ission, t"e Pritans &ade
t"eir "ead;arters in t"e 'olony itself+ T"e !overn&ent of 4A developed to in'lde a !overnor
and representative asse&-ly sele'ted -y adlt &ale '"r'" &e&-ers+
Ro!er =illia&s*a Pritan prea'"er w"o was as.ed to leave t"e 'olony w"en "is a'tivities
-e'a&e disrptive+ To avoid "avin! to retrn to 8n!land "e fonded t"e settle&ent of
Providen'e, w"i'" was soon poplated -y "is followers+
Anne Ht'"inson*openly ta!"t t"in!s 'ontrary to Pritan do'trine+ S"e 'lai&ed to "ave
spe'ial revelations fro& 5od spersedin! t"e ,i-le+ S"e fonded Ports&ot" wit" "er followers+
R"ode Island*in 1944 Ro!er =illia&s se'red fro& Parlia&ent a '"arter 'o&-inin! Providen'e
wit" Ports&ot"+ T"ro!" =illia&s inflen'e t"e 'olony !ranted reli!ios toleration+ It tended
to -e poplated -y e2iles and tro-le&a.ers w"o were not wel'o&e in ot"er 'olonies+ It sffered
'onstant politi'al tr&oil+
1onne'ti't*fonded -y Pritans w"o "ad sli!"t reli!ios disa!ree&ents wit" t"e leaders"ip of
4A+ Its 'onstittion, Cnda&ental Erders of 1onne'ti't, provided for a representative
!overn&ent+ It later !rew to in'lde t"e area of 7ew Haven, fonded -y <o"n %avenport+
T"o&as Hoo.er*fonded Hartford, 1T, in 1939+
7ew Ha&ps"ire*settled as an overflow fro& 4A+ Re&ained e'ono&i'ally dependent on 4A+
4aryland*!ranted to $ord ,alti&ore as t"e first proprietary 'olony in 193)+ It was desi!ned to
-e a ref!e for 8n!lis" 1at"oli's, t"o!" &ore Protestants t"an 1at"oli's 'a&e+ To prote't t"e
1at"oli' &inority, 1e'ilis 1alvert approved an A't of Reli!ios Toleration, !aranteein!
politi'al ri!"ts to all 1"ristians+ 1alvert also allowed a representative asse&-ly+
T"e 1arolinas*'reated as a reward for ? no-le&en w"o "ad "elped 1"arles II re!ain t"e
8n!lis" 'rown+ T"e proprietors 'a&e p wit" an ela-orate plan for an "ierar'"i'al, al&ost fedal,
so'iety+ T"ey !rew slowly+ 7ort" 1arolina developed as an overflow fro& 6A wit" si&ilar
e'ono&i' and 'ltral featres+ Sot" 1arolina was settled -y 8n!lis" planters fro& ,ar-ados,
w"o -ro!"t t"eir -la'. slaves wit" t"e&+
7avi!ation A'ts*t"e fondation of 8n!lands worldwide 'o&&er'ial syste& and so&e of t"e
&ost i&portant pie'es of le!islation drin! t"e 'olonial period+ T"ey were intended as weapons
in 8n!lands on!oin! str!!le a!ainst Holland+ T"e syste& 'reated -y t"e 7avi!ation A'ts
stiplated t"at trade wit" t"e 'olonies 'old only -e 'arried ot on A&eri'an s"ips &ade in
,ritain or A&eri'a and wit" at least @>F ,ritis" or A&eri'an 'rews+ ="en 'ertain #en&erated(
!oods were s"ipped fro& an A&eri'an port, t"ey were to !o only to a ,ritis" or A&eri'an port+
Al&ost not"in! 'old -e i&ported -y t"e 'olonies wit"ot !oin! t"ro!" ,ritain first+ T"e a'ts
transferred wealt" fro& A&eri'a to 8n!land -y in'reasin! t"e pri'es A&eri'ans "ad to pay for
,ritis" !oods and lowerin! t"e pri'es A&eri'ans !ained for !oods t"ey "ad prod'ed+
7at"aniel ,a'on*an i&poveris"ed no-le&an w"o 'a&e to 6A and failed to !ain ad&ittan'e to
!overnor ,er.eleys inner 'ir'le+ He -e!an to oppose ,er.eley and 'a&e to "ead a fa'tion of
li.e-&inded people+ In 19@9 disa!ree&ent over Indian poli'y -ro!"t t"e &atter to t"e point of
ar&ed 'onfli't+ ,a'on and "is &en -rned <a&estown+ T"e ,ritis" !overn&ent responded -y
in'reasin! royal 'ontrol+
Half-=ay 1ovenant*provided a "alf-way '"r'" &e&-ers"ip for t"e '"ildren of &e&-ers of
t"e Pritan '"r'"+ T"ose w"o e&-ra'ed t"e 'ovenant felt t"at in an in'reasin!ly &aterialisti'
so'iety it wold at least .eep '"r'" &e&-ers"ip alive and &i!"t preserve its inflen'e in
so'iety+
%o&inion of 7ew 8n!land*in 19?4 t"e 4A '"arter was revo.ed in retaliation for t"at 'olonys
evasion of t"e 7avi!ation A'ts+ Gin! <a&es advo'ated !oin! even frt"er, wantin! to 'reate a
nified !overn&ent for all of 7ew 8n!land, 7ew Hor., and 7ew <ersey+ T"is was to -e 'alled
t"e %o&inion of 7ew 8n!land, and t"e fa't t"at it wold a-olis" representative asse&-lies and
fa'ilitate t"e i&position of t"e 1"r'" of 8n!land on Pritan 7ew 8n!land &ade it &ore
appealin! to <a&es+ T"e '"arter of 4A was restored in 1991 after n&eros 'olonial prisin!s+
Sale& =it'" Trials*in 199) 4A was s"a.en -y an nsal in'ident in w"i'" several yon!
!irls in Sale& 6illa!e 'lai&ed to -e tor&ented -y t"e o''lt a'tivities of t"eir nei!"-ors+ ,efore
t"e trials 'old -e stopped -y t"e interventions of Pritan &inisters s'" as 1otton 4at"er, so&e
): people "ad -een .illed+
Pennsylvania*fonded as a ref!e for Da.ers -y =illia& Penn+ Penn advertised "is 'olony
widely in 8rope, offerin! !eneros ter&s on land, and !aranteed a representative asse&-ly and
fll reli!ios freedo&+ He &aintained pea'efl relations wit" t"e Indians+
Da.ers*"eld &any 'ontroversial reli!ios -eliefs+ T"ey -elieved t"at all people "ad an #inner
li!"t( w"i'" allowed t"e& to 'o&&ne dire'tly wit" 5od+ T"ey -elieved t"at "&an instittions
were nne'essary and pla'ed little i&portan'e on t"e ,i-le+ T"ey were also pa'ifists and
de'lined to s"ow 'sto&ary deferen'e for t"ose 'onsidered t"eir so'ial speriors+
%elaware*ori!inally part of P7+
4olasses A't of 1@33*wold "ave -een disastros for 7ew 8n!land &er'"ants+ %isaster was
averted -y t"e 'sto&s a!ents de'linin! to enfor'e t"e a't strin!ently+
=ars for 8&pire*-etween 19?9 and 1@93 ,ritain and its A&eri'an 'olonies fo!"t a series of 4
years wit" Spain, Cran'e, and Cran'es Indian allies, in part to deter&ine w"o wold do&inate
7ort" A&eri'a+ T"e first war involved no -attles in A&eri'a+ T"e se'ond war -ro!"t A&eri'a )
years of sporadi' fi!"tin! a!ainst Cran'e and Spain+ It was ended -y t"e Treaty of Utre'"t, w"i'"
!ave ,ritain &ore territorial !ains and trade advanta!es+ In t"e last ) wars A&eri'an troops
played an a'tive role, a''o&panyin! t"e ,ritis" on several i&portant &issions+
5eor!ia*wit" t"e 'onstant warfare -etween 'o&petin! powers in &ind, ,ritain de'ided to for&
a -ffer 'olony -etween Sot" 1arolina and Clorida+ A !rop of ,ritis" p"ilant"ropists o-tained
a '"arter for s'" a 'olony in 1@3) t"at wold -e poplated t"e poor w"o 'old not &a.e a
livin! in ,ritain+ T"e p"ilant"ropist trstees &ade ela-orate and detailed rles to &old t"e new
'olonys so'iety as t"ey felt -est+ As a reslt, relatively few settlers 'a&e+
T"e 8nli!"ten&ent*'"ara'teri3ed -y rationalis&, t"e -elief t"at all "&an reason was ade;ate
to solve all of &an.inds pro-le&s and &'" less fait" was needed in t"e 'entral role of 5od as
an a'tive for'e in t"e niverse+
<o"n $o'.e*a &aBor for'e in t"e 8n!lis" 8nli!"ten&ent+ He strove to find in t"e so'ial and
politi'al world t"e sort of natral laws t"at "ad -een dis'overed in t"e p"ysi'al real&+ He "eld
t"at s'" natral laws in'lded t"e ri!"t to life, li-erty, and propertyA t"at to se're t"ese ri!"ts
people s-&it to !overn&entA and t"at !overn&ents w"i'" a-se t"ese ri!"ts &ay -e
overt"rown+ His writin!s were "i!"ly inflential in A&eri'a+
T"e 5reat Awa.enin!*'onsisted of a series of reli!ios revivals o''rrin! t"ro!"ot t"e
'olonies fro& t"e 1@):s to 1@4:s+ Prea'"ers s'" as <onat"an 8dwards and 5il-ert Tennent
pro'lai&ed a &essa!e of personal repentan'e and fait" in <ess for salvation fro& t"e ot"erwise
'ertain eternity of "ell+ It "ad several i&portant reslts+ A&eri'as reli!ios 'o&&nity 'a&e to
-e divided -etween #Eld $i!"ts,( w"o reBe'ted t"e !reat Awa.enin!, and #7ew $i!"ts,( w"o
a''epted*and so&eti&es sffered prose'tion+ A n&-er of s'"ools were fonded spe'ifi'ally
for t"e trainin! of 7ew $i!"t &inisters+ It also fostered a !reater sense of readiness to lay t"e
'lai&s of esta-lis"ed at"ority alon!side a fi2ed standard and to reBe't any 'lai&s it fond
wantin!+
Cren'" and Indian =ar*t"e Treaty of Ai2-la-1"apelle provided little &ore t"an a -reat"in!
spa'e -efore t"e ne2t i&perial and 8ropean war+ Cran'e and ,ritain 'ontined to str!!le for
do&ination of t"e E"io River 6alley and western P7+ ,ritis" at"orities ordered 'olonial
!overnors to resist t"is+ 5eor!e =as"in!ton was sent to western P7 to re;est t"at t"e Cren'"
leave+ ="en t"ey refsed, =as"in!ton was sent in 1@>4 wit" ):: &ilitia&en to e2pel t"e&+ T"e
war t"ese operations !enerated spread to 8rope+ ="ile =as"in!ton s.ir&is"ed wit" t"e Cren'"
in western P7, dele!ates of @ 'olonies &et in 7H to dis'ss 'o&&on plans for defense+
,enBa&in Cran.lin proposed a plan for an inter'olonial !overn&ent+
Under t"e leaders"ip of =illia& Pitt, ,ritain "ad -y 1@9: ta.en De-e' and 4ontreal and
virtally li;idated t"e Cren'" e&pire in 7ort" A&eri'a+ ,y t"e Treaty of Paris in 1@93, ,ritain
!ained all of 1anada and parts of t"e US east of t"e 4ississippi river+ Cran'e lost all of its 7ort"
A&eri'a "oldin!s+ A&eri'ans at t"e end of t"e Cren'" and Indian war felt prod to -e part of t"e
vi'torios ,ritis" 8&pire+
The American Revolution (1763-1787)
=rits of Assistan'e*,ritis" offi'ials felt 'onte&ptos of A&eri'ans and were ea!er to in'rease
i&perial 'ontrol over t"e& -eyond anyt"in! t"at "ad previosly -een atte&pted+ T"is drive to
!ain new at"ority over t"e 'olonies led dire'tly to A&eri'an independen'e+ T"e =rits of
Assistan'e t"e&selves were !eneral sear'" warrants issed to "elp royal offi'ials stop evasion of
,ritains &er'antilist trade refor&s+
5renville*stron!ly anti-A&eri'an pri&e &inister w"o atte&pted to solve t"e pro-le& of t"e
national de-t in'rred drin! t"e war -y ta2in! t"e 'olonies+ Ef related 'on'ern was t"e 'ost of
defendin! t"e A&eri'an frontier, re'ently t"e s'ene of a -loody prisin! led -y Ettawa '"ief
Pontia'+ 5renville 'reated a 'o&pre"ensive pro!ra& to deal wit" t"ese pro-le&s+ He sent t"e
royal navy in to prevent s&!!lin! and enfor'e t"e 7avi!ation A'ts+ He also issed t"e
Pro'la&ation of 1@93, for-iddin! w"ite settle&ent west of t"e Appala'"ians, in "opes of .eepin!
t"e Indians "appy and t"e settlers easier to 'ontrol+
S!ar A't*ai&ed at raisin! revene -y ta2es on !oods i&ported -y t"e A&eri'ans+ It "alved t"e
dties i&posed -y t"e 4olasses A't -t was intended to raise revene rat"er t"an 'ontrol tradeI it
was stri'tly enfor'ed+
Darterin! A't*re;ired t"e 'olonies in w"i'" ,ritis" troops were stationed to pay for t"eir
&aintenan'e+ A&eri'ans "ad never -efore -een re;ired to spport a standin! ar&y in t"eir
&idst+
1rren'y A't of 1@94*for-ade 'olonial atte&pts to isse 'rren'y not redee&a-le in !old or
silver, &a.in! it &ore diffi'lt for A&eri'ans to avoid t"e 'onstant drain of &oney t"at ,ritains
&er'antilist poli'ies were desi!ned to 'reate in t"e 'olonies+
Sta&p A't*i&posed a dire't ta2 on t"e 'olonies for t"e first ti&e+ T"e a't re;ited A&eri'ans to
pr'"ase revene sta&ps on newspapers and le!al do'&ents and wold "ave 'reated an
i&possi-le drain on "ard 'rren'y in t"e 'olonies+ Patri'. Henry denon'ed t"e a't and antipat"y
was prevalent in 4A+
Sta&p A't 1on!ress*insti!ated -y <a&es Etis+ It passed &oderate resoltions a!ainst t"e a't,
assertin! t"at A&eri'ans 'old not -e ta2ed wit"ot t"eir 'onsent, !iven -y t"eir representatives+
T"ey pointed ot t"at A&eri'ans were not, and -e'ase of t"eir lo'ation, 'old not -e
represented -y Parlia&ent and 'on'lded -y 'allin! for t"e repeal of t"e -ot" t"e Sta&p and
S!ar A'ts+ T"e 'on!ress s"owed t"at t"e 'olonies 'old wor. to!et"er and !ave politi'al leaders
in t"e varios 'olonies a '"an'e to -e'o&e a';ainted wit" one anot"er+
%e'laratory A't*passed in retrn for t"e repeal of t"e Sta&p A't+ It 'lai&ed t"at ,ritain "ad t"e
ri!"t to ta2 t"e 'olonies for any reason+
Towns"end A'ts*in'lded t"e se of ad&iralty 'orts to try t"ose a''sed of violations, t"e se
of writs of assistan'e, and payin! of 'sto&s offi'ials ot of t"e fines t"ey levied+ A&eri'an
rea'tion was initially slow+
4assa'"setts 1ir'lar $etter*r!ed 'olonial le!islators to pass petitions 'allin! on Parlia&ent
to repeal t"e Towns"end A'ts+ ,ritis" at"orities ordered t"at if t"e letter was not wit"drawn, t"e
4A le!islatre wold -e dissolved and new ele'tions "eld+ T"ey for-ade t"e ot"er 'olonial
le!islatres to ta.e p t"e &atter, and t"ey also sent 4 re!i&ents of troops to ,oston to prevent
inti&idation of royal offi'ers+
Tea A't of 1@@3*in desperate finan'ial 'ondition, partially -e'ase t"e A&eri'ans were -yin!
s&!!led %t'" Tea rat"er t"an t"e ta2ed ,ritis" prod't, t"e ,ritis" 8ast India 1o&pany so!"t
and o-tained fro& Parlia&ent 'on'essions allowin! it to s"ip tea dire'tly to t"e 'olonies rat"er
t"an only -y way of ,ritain+ T"e reslt was t"at 8ast India 1o&pany tea, even wit" t"e ta2, was
'"eaper t"an s&!!led %t'" tea+ T"e 'olonists wold t"s, it was "oped, -y t"e tea, ta2 and
all, t"ere-y a''eptin! Parlia&ents ri!"t to ta2 t"e&+ A&eri'ans, "owever, resisted t"e '"eaper
tea and people tried to .eep t"e ta2es fro& -ein! 'olle'ted+
,oston Tea Party*Pro-,ritis" !overnor T"o&as Ht'"inson for'ed a 'onfrontation -y orderin!
royal navy vessels to prevent t"e tea s"ips fro& leavin! t"e "ar-or+ After ): days t"is wold
reslt in t"e 'ar!oes -ein! sold at a'tion and t"e ta2 paid+ T"e ni!"t -efore t"e ti&e was to
e2pire, ,ostonians -oarded t"e s"ip and t"rew t"e tea into t"e "ar-or+
1oer'ive A'ts*t"e ,ritis" response to t"e ,oston Tea Party
,oston Port A't*'losed to port of ,oston to all trade ntil lo'al 'iti3ens wold a!ree to pay for
t"e lost tea+
4assa'"setts 5overn&ent A't*!reatly in'reased t"e power of t"e 4A royal !overnor at t"e
e2pense of t"e le!islatre+
Ad&inistration of <sti'e A't*provided t"at royal offi'ials a''sed of 'ri&es in 4A 'old -e
tried elsew"ere+
Darterin! A't*allowed t"e new !overnor to ;arter "is troops anyw"ere, in'ldin! o''pied
private "o&es+
De-e' A't*e2tended t"e provin'e of De-e' to t"e E"io River, esta-lis"ed 1at"oli'is& as
De-e's offi'ial reli!ion, and set p for De-e' a !overn&ent wit"ot a representative
asse&-ly+ Cor A&eri'ans t"is was a denial of t"e "opes and e2pe'tations of westward e2pansion
for w"i'" t"ey "ad fo!"t t"e Cren'" and Indian war+ 7ew 8n!landers espe'ially saw it as a
t"reat to t"eir 'olonies+
Cirst 1ontinental 1on!ress*'alled in response to t"e 1oer'ive A'ts and &et in Sep 1@@4+ It
petitioned parlia&ent for relief -t also passed t"e Sffol. Resolves, denon'in! t"e a'ts and
'allin! for stri't noni&portation and ri!oros preparation of lo'al &ilitia 'o&panies in 'ase
,ritain s"old resort to &ilitary for'e+
$e2in!ton and 1on'ord*5eneral 5a!e was !iven orders to provo.e any sort of 'onfrontation
t"at wold allow "i& to trn ,ritis" &ilitary &i!"t loose on t"e A&eri'ans+ He de'ided on a
re'onnaissan'e-in-for'e to find and destroy a reported sto'.pile of 'olonial ar&s and a&&nition
at 1on'ord+ T"eir &ove&ent was dete'ted and news was spread t"ro!"ot t"e 'ontryside+ At
t"e villa!e of $e2in!ton, 1aptain Par.er awaited t"e ,ritis"+ T"e ,ritis" 'ontined on to
1on'ord to dis'over t"at nearly all of t"e &ilitary spplies t"ey "ad e2pe'ted to find "ad already
-een &oved and -e!an to retreat toward ,oston+ Epen warfare -e!an+
,n.er Hill*in 4ay 1@@>, 3 &ore ,ritis" !enerals arrived in ,oston r!in! 5a!e to frt"er
a!!ressive a'tion+ T"e followin! &ont" t"e A&eri'ans ti!"tened t"e noose arond ,oston -y
fortifyin! ,reeds Hill, fro& w"i'" t"ey 'old -o&-ard ,oston+ T"e ,ritis" deter&ined to
re&ove -y a frontal atta'. t"at wold de&onstrate t"eir power+ After t"e -loodiest -attle of t"e
war, t"e ,ritis" !ained little and re&ained -ottled in ,oston+
T"e Se'ond 1ontinental 1on!ress*divided into ) &ain fa'tions+ Ene was 'o&posed &ostly of
7ew 8n!landers and leaned towards de'larin! independen'e fro& ,ritain+ T"e ot"er drew its
stren!t" pri&arily fro& t"e &iddle 'olonies and was not yet ready to !o so far+ It was led -y <o"n
%i'.inson+ 1on!ress too. a'tion to deal wit" t"e diffi'lt sitation fa'in! t"e 'olonies+ It adopted
a #%e'laration of t"e 1ases and 7e'essity for Ta.in! p Ar&s( and t"e #Elive ,ran'"
Petition,( pleadin! wit" Gin! 5eor!e III to inter'ede and restore pea'e+
Pro"i-itory A't*de'lared t"e 'olonies to -e in re-ellion and no lon!er nder t"e prote'tion of
t"e Gin!+ T"e a't en'ora!ed &any to Boin t"e assalt a!ainst ,ritis" rle+
T"o&as Paine*p-lis"ed a pa&p"let 'alled 1o&&on Sense, 'allin! for i&&ediate
independen'e+ It -e'a&e i&&ediately poplar+
Sarato!a*a stron! A&eri'an vi'tory t"at 'onvin'ed t"e Cren'" to Boin t"e war openly+
6alley Cor!e*t"e lo'ation w"ere A&eri'an troops spent a winter drillin! to -e'o&e a &ore
professional fi!"tin! for'e nder t"e leaders"ip of ,aron von Ste-en+
Hor.town*t"e lo'ation of 1ornwallis srrender
Treaty of Paris of 1@?3*t"e US was re'o!ni3ed as an independent nation -y t"e &aBor 8ropean
powersA its western -ondary was set as t"e 4ississippi riverA its sot"ern -ondary was set at 31
nort" latitdeA ,ritain retained 1anada -t "ad to srrender Clorida to SpainA private ,ritis"
'reditors wold -e free to 'olle't any de-ts owned -y all US 'iti3ensA and 1on!ress was
re'o&&ended t"at t"e states restore 'onfis'ated loyalist property+
Arti'les of 1onfederation*preserved t"e soverei!nty of t"e states and 'reated a wea. national
!overn&ent+ T"ey provided for a ni'a&eral 1on!ress in w"i'" ea'" state wold "ave one vote+
82e'tive at"ority wold -e vested in a 'o&&ittee of 13, one &e&-er for ea'" state+ In order to
a&end t"e Arti'les, t"e nani&os 'onsent of all t"e states was re;ired+ T"e Arti'les of
1onfederation !overn&ent was entitled to &a.e treaties, deter&ine t"e a&ont of troops and
&oney ea'" state s"old 'ontri-te to t"e war effort, settle disptes -etween states, ad&it new
states, and -orrow &oney+ It was not e&powered to levy ta2es, raise troops, or re!late
'o&&er'e+
Ratifi'ation of t"e arti'les was delayed -y a disa!ree&ent over t"e ftre stats of t"e lands t"at
lay west of t"e ori!inal 13 states+ So&e states "eld e2tensive 'lai&s to t"ese lands -ased on t"eir
ori!inal 'olonial '"arters, and sa&e states refsed ratifi'ation ntil t"ese 'lai&s were
relin;is"ed+
Trans-Appala'"ian =est*for &any A&eri'ans, t"is area represented an opportnity to es'ape
t"e e'ono&i' "ard ti&es t"at followed t"e end of t"e war+ T"e settle&ent of Gent'.y and
Tennessee in'reased t"e pressre for t"e openin! of lands nort" of t"e E"io River+
$and Erdinan'e of 1@?4*provided for territorial !overn&ent and an orderly syste& -y w"i'"
ea'" territory 'old pro!ress to fll state"ood+
$and Erdinan'e of 1@?>*provided for t"e orderly srveyin! and t"e tri-tion of land in
towns"ips si2 &iles s;are+
7ort"west Erdinan'e of 1@?@*provided a -ill of ri!"ts for settle&ent and for-ad slavery nort"
of t"e E"io River+
<ay-5ardo;i 7e!otiations*in 1@?4 <ay -e!an ne!otiations wit" Spanis" &inister 5ardo;i for
a treaty t"at wold "ave !ranted l'rative 'o&&er'ial privile!es in e2'"an!e for US a''eptan'e
of Spains 'losre of t"e 4I river as an otlet for a!ri'ltral !oods of t"e rapidly !rowin!
settle&ents in GT and T7+ ="en <ay reported t"is to 1on!ress in 1@?9, t"e =est and Sot" were
otra!ed+
S"ays Re-ellion*e'ono&i' "ard ti&es 'opled wit" "i!" ta2es intended to pay off t"e states
war de-t drove western 4A far&ers to desperation+ $ed -y war veteran %aniel S"ays, t"ey s"t
down 'orts to prevent Bd!es fro& sei3in! property or 'onde&nin! people to de-tors prison for
failin! to pay t"eir ta2es+ T"e nrest 'reated a disproportionate a&ont of pani' in t"e rest of t"e
nion+ 4any 'a&e to feel t"at a stron!er !overn&ent was needed to 'ontrol s'" violent p-li'
ot-rsts+
The nited !tate" Con"titution (178#-178$)
1onstittional 1onvention*t"e dele!ates s"ared a -asi' -elief in t"e innate selfis"ness of &an,
w"i'" &st -e .ept fro& a-sin! t"e power of !overn&ent+ Cor t"is prpose t"e do'&ent t"at
t"ey finally prod'ed 'ontained &any '"e'.s and -alan'es desi!ned to prevent t"e !overn&ent,
or any one -ran'" of t"e !overn&ent, fro& !ainin! too &'" power+
6ir!inia Plan*'alled for an e2e'tive -ran'" and two "oses of 1on!ress, ea'" -ased on
poplation+ 1reated -y 4adison and presented -y 8d&ond Randolp"+ T"is plan was eventally
adopted for frt"er dis'ssion+
7ew <ersey Plan*'alled for t"e 'ontination of a ni'a&eral le!islatre wit" e;al
representation for t"e states as well as s"arply in'reased powers for t"e national !overn&ent+
T"is plan was favored -y s&all states+
T"e 5reat 1o&pro&ise*'reated a president, a senate wit" all states represented e;ally, and a
"ose of representatives wit" representation deter&ined -y si3e+ Proposed -y Cran.lin+
T"ree-Cift"s 1o&pro&ise*a -a'."anded way of addressin! t"e isse of slavery+ 8a'" slave
wold 'ont for 3I> of a person w"en deter&inin! state poplation, -t slavery itself was never
e2pli'itly &entioned in t"e 'onstittion+ T"e federal !overn&ent was pro"i-ited fro& stoppin!
t"e i&port of slaves prior to 1?:?+
Cederalists*t"ose w"o favored t"e passin! of t"e 'onstittion+ T"ey were effe'tive in e2plainin!
t"e 'onvention and t"e do'&ent it prod'ed+ T"e Cederalist Papers, written -y Ha&ilton,
4adison, and <ay, e2ponded t"e 'onstittion and de&onstrated "ow it was desi!ned to prevent
t"e a-se of power fro& any dire'tion+ T"ey re'eived t"eir stron!est spport fro& t"e -siness
and finan'ial !rops in t"e 'o&&er'ial 'enters of t"e 7ort"east and in t"e port 'ities of t"e
Sot"+
The %e& %ation (178$-18'()
,ill of Ri!"ts*1) a&end&ents were drafted w"i'" e&-odied t"e !arantees of personal
li-erties, &ost of w"i'" "ad traditionally -een enBoyed -y 8n!lis" 'iti3ens+ Ten of t"ese were
ratified -y t"e states -y 1@91, and t"ey -e'a&e t"e ,ill of Ri!"ts+ T"e first nine spelled ot
spe'ifi' !arantees of personal freedo&s, and t"e 1:
t"
reserved to states all t"ose powers not
spe'ifi'ally wit""eld, or !ranted to t"e federal !overn&ent+ T"is last was a 'on'ession to t"ose
w"o feared t"e potential of t"e 'entral !overn&ent to srp t"e soverei!nty of t"e individal
states+
<di'iary A't of 1@?9*provided for a Spre&e 1ort and invested it wit" t"e power to rle on
t"e 'onstittional validity of state laws+ A syste& of distri't 'orts was esta-lis"ed to serve as
'orts of ori!inal Brisdi'tion+
Ha&ilton*proposed t"e fndin! of a national de-t at fa'e vale, federal ass&ption of state
de-ts, and t"e esta-lis"&ent of a national -an.+ In "is #Report on 4anfa'tres( "e proposed an
e2tensive pro!ra& for federal sti&lation of indstrial develop&ent, t"ro!" s-sidies and ta2
in'entives+ T"e &oney to fnd t"ese pro!ra&s, proposed Ha&ilton, wold 'o&e fro& an e2'ise
ta2 on distillers and fro& tariffs on i&ports+
4any reBe'ted Ha&iltons proposal -e'ase it wold -enefit spe'lators w"o "ad -o!"t p state
and 'onfederation o-li!ations at depressed pri'es+ T"ey opposed t"e ta2 pro!ra& -e'ase it
wold fall pri&arily on s&all far&ers+ T"ey saw Ha&iltons entire pro!ra& as enri'"in! a s&all
elite !rop at t"e e2panse of t"e 'o&&on 'iti3en+
<efferson, 4adison, and t"e Rep-li'ans*"eld t"e view t"at any a'tion not spe'ifi'ally
per&itted in t"e 'onstittion was t"ere-y pro"i-ited+ T"ey opposed t"e esta-lis"&ent of a
national -an. on t"is view of !overn&ent+ T"eir stren!t" lay pri&arily in t"e rral and frontier
areas of t"e Sot" and =est+
Pro'la&ation of 7etrality*t"e US response to t"e ot-rea. of war in Cran'e+ A&eri'an
&er'"ants traded wit" -ot" sides, t"o!" t"e &ost l'rative -siness was 'arried on wit" t"e
Cren'" =est Indies+ T"is -ro!"t retaliation -y t"e ,ritis"+
<ays Treaty*atte&pted to settle t"e 'onfli't at sea, as well as to 'rtail 8n!lis" a!itation of t"eir
Indian allies on t"e western -orders+ T"e a!ree&ent settled few of t"e isses and &erely -o!"t
ti&e for t"e new nation+ <ay was 'riti'i3ed for "is efforts+
Treaty wit" Spain*t"e Spanis" opened t"e 4ississippi river to A&eri'an traffi', in'ldin! t"e
ri!"t to t"e 'ity of 7ew Erleans, and re'o!ni3ed t"e 31
st
parallel at t"e nort"ern -ondary of
Clorida+
Treaty of 5reenville*ended a series of fi!"tin! wit" Indian tri-es over -order 'onfli'ts and
'leared t"e E"io territory of Indian tri-es+
="is.ey Re-ellion*western far&ers refsed to pay t"e e2'ise ta2 on w"is.ey w"i'" for&ed t"e
-a'.-one of Ha&iltons revene pro!ra&+ ="en a !rop of P7 far&ers terrori3ed t"e ta2
'olle'tors, =as"in!ton set ot t"e &ilitia to pt down t"e re-ellion, t"s stren!t"enin! t"e
'redi-ility of t"e yon! !overn&ent+
JHK Affair*a 3 &an dele!ation was sent to Cran'e in 1@9? to persade t"e Cren'" to stop
"arassin! A&eri'an s"ippin!+ ="en t"ey were soli'ited for a -ri-e -y 3 s-ordinates of t"e
Cren'" &inister Talleyrand, t"ey refsed, and t"eir report of t"is event retrned "o&e+ P-li'
feelin!s a!ainst t"e Cren'" ran "i!"+
Alien A't*raised new "rdles in t"e pat" of i&&i!rants tryin! to o-tain 'iti3ens"ip
Sedition A't*widened t"e powers of t"e Ada&s ad&inistration to &33le newspaper 'riti's+
8le'tion of 1?::*<efferson and ,rr re'eived t"e sa&e n&-er of ele'toral votes, so t"e
sele'tion went to t"e Hose of Representatives+ Ha&ilton t"rew "is spport to <efferson+
<effersonian 8ra*T"o&as <efferson and "is Rep-li'an followers envisioned a so'iety in vivid
'ontrast to t"at of Ha&ilton and t"e Cederalists+ T"ey drea&ed of a nation of independent
far&ers, livin! nder a 'entral !overn&ent t"at e2er'ised a &ini&& of 'ontrol over t"eir lives
and &erely served to prote't t"eir individal li-erties+
4ar-ry v+ 4adison*=illia& 4ar-ry, one of Ada&s #&idni!"t appoint&ents( sed 4adison
to for'e delivery of "is 'o&&ission of Bsti'e of t"e pea'e+ <o"n 4ars"all refsed to rle,
'lai&in! t"at t"e law w"i'" !ave t"e Spre&e 1ort Brisdi'tion over s'" &atters "ad e2'eeded
t"e 'onstittional !rant of powers and was t"s n'onstittional+ 4ars"all t"s asserted t"e
power of Bdi'ial review over federal le!islation+
$oisiana Pr'"ase*7apoleon "ad o-tained t"e old Cren'" trans-4ississippi territory fro&
Spain -y politi'al pressre+ <efferson set a dele!ation to Paris to try and -y 7ew Erleans, lest
t"e new Cren'" offi'ials try to -lo'. it to A&eri'an traffi'+ 7apoleons defeat in Santo %o&in!o
persaded "i& t"at $A 'old not -e e2ploited and was now s-Be't to potential A&eri'an
in'rsions+ So "e offered to sell t"e entire territory to t"e US+ T"e A&eri'an dele!ation a''epted
t"e offer in 1?:3, even t"o!" t"ey "ad no &ore at"ority to -y 7ew Erleans+
<effersons stand on t"e stri't interpretation of t"e 1onstittion wold not per&it "i& to pr'"ase
land wit"ot 1on!ressional approval+ ,t "e -elieved t"at "is treaty &a.in! powers in'lded t"e
at"ority to -y t"e land+
8sse2 <nto*so&e 7ew 8n!land saw t"e =estern e2pansion as a t"reat to t"eir position in t"e
Union, and t"ey tried to or!ani3e a se'essionist &ove&ent+ T"ey 'orted Aaron ,rrs spport
-y offerin! "i& to -a'. "i& in a -id for t"e !overnors"ip of 7ew Hor.+
8&-ar!o A't of 1?:@*<efferson drafted a law pro"i-itin! A&eri'an s"ips fro& leavin! port for
any forei!n destination, t"s avoidin! 'onta't wit" vessels of -elli!erents+ T"e reslt was
e'ono&i' depression, parti'larly in t"e 7ort"east+
7on-Inter'orse A't*opened trade to all nations e2'ept Cran'e and ,ritain+ ="en it e2pired in
1?1:, it was repla'ed -y 4a'ons ,ill 7o+), w"i'" !ave t"e president power to pro"i-it trade
wit" any nation t"at violated netrality+
=ar of 1?1)*t"e Indian tri-es of t"e 7ort"west and t"e 4ississippi 6alley were resentfl of t"e
!overn&ents poli'y of pressred re&oval to t"e =est, and t"e ,ritis" at"orities in 1anada were
e2ploitin! t"eir dis'ontent -y en'ora!in! -order raids a!ainst t"e A&eri'an settle&ents+
T"e S"awnee '"ief Te'&se" set ot to nite t"e 4ississippi 6alley tri-es and reesta-lis" Indian
do&inan'e in t"e Eld 7ort"west+ En 7ove&-er 11, 1?11, 5eneral Harrison destroyed
Te'&se"s villa!e on Tippe'annoe 1ree. and das"ed "is "opes for an Indian 'onfedera'y+
Sot"ern frontiers&en 'oveted Spanis" Clorida, w"i'" in'lded t"e sot"ern ran!es of A$, 4I,
and $A+ T"ey resented Spanis" spport of Indian depredations a!ainst t"e -orderlands, and sin'e
Spain was ,ritains ally, t"ey saw ,ritain as t"e -a'.!rond 'ase of t"eir pro-le&s+
T"e 1on!ress of 1?11 'ontained a stron! pro-war !rop 'alled t"e =ar Haw.s, led -y 1lay and
1al"on+ T"ey -e!an a!itatin! for war wit" t"e ,ritis"+
Andrew <a'.son led a for'e of frontier &ilitia into A$ in prsit of 1ree. Indians w"o "ad
&assa'red t"e w"ite in"a-itants of Cort 4i&s+
T"e &ost serios ,ritis" t"reat 'a&e at t"e port of 7ew Erleans+ A powerfl for'e was sent t"ere
to 'lose t"e 4I river, -t <a'.son defeated it+
Treaty of 5"ent*wit" t"e 8ropean wars ended, t"e &aBor 'ases for t"e dispte wit" ,ritain
"ad 'eased to -e i&portant, so -ot" sides were ea!er for pea'e+ T"e treaty provided for t"e
a''eptan'e of t"e stats ;o at t"e -e!innin! of t"e "ostilities and so -ot" sides restored t"eir
warti&e 'on;ests to ea'" ot"er+
Hartford 1onvention*t"e Cederalists "ad -e'o&e in'reasin!ly a &inority party+ T"ey opposed
t"e war+ T"ey &et in Hartford and drafted a set of resoltions s!!estin! nllifi'ation if t"eir
interests were not prote'ted a!ainst t"e !rowin! inflen'e of t"e sot" and west+ After t"e ,attle
of 7ew Erleans t"ey 'eased to -e a powerfl politi'al for'e+
Rs"-,a!ot Treaty*an a!ree&ent -etween t"e US and ,ritain to stop &aintainin! ar&ed fleets
on t"e 5reat $a.es+
Ada&s-Enis Treaty*Spain "ad de'ided to sell t"e re&ainder of t"e Clorida territory to t"e
A&eri'ans -efore t"ey too. it away+ Under t"is a!ree&ent, t"e Spanis" srrendered all t"eir
'lai&s to t"e territory and drew t"e -ondary of 4e2i'o all t"e way to t"e Pa'ifi'+ T"e US in
e2'"an!e a!reed to ass&e L>&illion in de-ts owed to A&eri'an &er'"ants+
T"e 4onroe %o'trine*in 1?1:, national revoltions -e!an in $atin A&eri'a+ ,ritis" and
A&eri'an leaders feared t"at t"e new 8ropean !overn&ents wold try to restore t"e for&er
7ew =orld 'olonies to t"eir royal owners+ In %e' 1?)3, President 4onroe &ade a state&ent t"at
t"e A&eri'an "e&isp"ere was #not to -e 'onsidered as s-Be'ts for ftre 'oloni3ation -y any
8ropean powers+(
%epression of 1?19*inventories of ,ritis" &anfa'tred !oods "ad -ilt p drin! t"e war, and
8n!lis" &er'"ants -e!an to d&p t"eir prod'ts on t"e A&eri'an &ar.ets at 't-rate pri'es+
A&eri'an &anfa'trers sffered fro& t"is infl2 of i&ports+ T"e US ,an. tried to stop t"e
inflationary spiral -y ti!"tenin! 'redit, and a s"arp -siness sl&p reslted+ T"is depression was
&ost severe in t"e newly e2pandin! =est, partly -e'ase of its e'ono&i' dependen'y, partly
-e'ase of "eavy spe'lation in western lands+
Clet'"er v+ Pe'.*t"e 5eor!ia le!islatre "ad issed e2tensive land !rants in a s"ady deal wit"
t"e Ha3oo land 'o&pany+ A s-se;ent le!islative session repealed t"at a'tion -e'ase of t"e
'orrption t"at "ad attended t"e ori!inal !rant+ T"e 1ort de'ided t"at t"e ori!inal a'tion -y t"e
5eor!ia Asse&-ly "ad 'onstitted a valid 'ontra't w"i'" 'old not -e -ro.en re!ardless of t"e
'orrption w"i'" "ad followed+ T"is was t"e first ti&e a state law was voided on t"e !ronds t"at
it violated a prin'iple of t"e 1onstittion+
%art&ot" 1olle!e v+ =oodward*t"e ;arrel -etween t"e president and t"e trstees of t"e 7H
'olle!e -e'a&e a politi'al isse w"en t"e Rep-li'ans -a'.ed t"e president and t"e Cederalists
spported t"e trstees+ T"e president tried to '"an!e %art&ot" fro& a private to p-li'
instittion -y "avin! its '"arter revo.ed+ T"e 1ort rled t"at t"e '"arter 'onstitted a 'ontra't,
and t"s 'old not -e ar-itrarily '"an!ed wit"ot t"e 'onsent of -ot" parties+ T"e reslt of t"is
de'ision was to severely li&it t"e power of state !overn&ents to 'ontrol t"e 'orporation, w"i'"
was t"e e&er!in! for& of -siness or!ani3ation+
4'1llo'" v+ 4aryland*4aryland "ad tried to levy a ta2 on t"e ,alti&ore -ran'" of t"e ,an.
of t"e US, and to prote't t"e 'o&petitive position of its own state -an.s+ 4ars"alls rlin!
de'lared t"at no state "as t"e ri!"t to 'ontrol an a!en'y of t"e federal !overn&ent+
5i--ons v+ E!den*7H "ad !ranted a &onopoly to E!den to operate a stea&-oat -etween 7H
and 7<+ 5i--ons o-tained a 1on!ressional per&it to operate a stea&-oat line in t"e sa&e waters+
="en E!den sed to &aintain "is &onopoly, t"e 7H 'orts rled in "is favor+ 5i--ons appeal
went to t"e Spre&e 1ort+ 4ars"all rled t"at 'o&&er'e in'lded navi!ation, and t"at only
1on!ress "as t"e ri!"t to re!late 'o&&er'e a&on! states+
T"e 4issori 1o&pro&ise*sin'e Senate &e&-ers"ip was evenly divided -etween slave-
"oldin! and free states in 1?19, t"e ad&ission of a new state was !oin! to !ive a votin!
advanta!e to eit"er t"e nort" or t"e sot"+
As t"e de-ate dra!!ed on, t"e nort"ern territory of 4A applied for state"ood as 4aine+ 1lay
for&ed a pa'.a!e t"at -ot" sides 'old a''ept+ T"e ) ad&issions were 'o&-ined, wit" 4aine
'o&in! in free and 4issori as a slave state+ To &a.e t"e pa'.a!e palata-le for t"e Hose, a
provision was added to pro"i-it slavery in t"e re&ainder of t"e $A Pr'"ase+
T"e 1otton Gin!do&*t"e new lands in t"e sot"west proved ideal for t"e prod'tion of 'otton+
8li ="itneys invention of t"e 'otton !in solved t"e pro-le& of separatin! t"e seeds fro& t"e
fi-ers, and t"e 'otton -oo& was nder way+ T"e !rowin! &ar.et for food and wor. ani&als in
t"e 'otton sot" provided t"e opportnity for t"e new western far&ers to spe'iali3e in t"ose
ite&s and frt"er sti&lated t"e westward &ove&ent+
7ational Road*-ilt wit" federal fnds and lin.ed t"e Poto&a' and E"io Rivers+
8rie 1anal*lin.ed t"e Hdson to $a.e 8rie+ 1o&pleted in 1?)> and -e'a&e t"e first and &ost
s''essfl e2a&ple of an artifi'ial waterway+ 1anals were t"e first develop&ent proBe'ts to
re'eive lar!e a&onts of p-li' fndin!+
Sa&el Slater*-ilt t"e first s''essfl 'otton-spinnin! &ill in A&eri'a+
8li ="itney*developed inter'"an!ea-le parts, "elpin! to spread t"e !rowt" of &ass-
prod'tions operations+
1orporations*"ad li&ited lia-ility and t"e potential for raisin! and tili3in! lar!e a&onts of
'apital+ ,y t"e 1?3:s, &ost states "ad ena'ted !eneral laws for in'orporatin!+
$owell Syste&*yon! wo&en were "ired fro& t"e srrondin! 'ontryside, -ro!"t to towns
and "osed in dor&itories in t"e &ill towns+ T"ey were paid low wa!es for "ard wor. in poor
'onditions, -t t"ey only wor.ed for a s"ort ti&e+ Poplar in 7ew 8n!land+
=as"in!ton Irvin!*-est .nown A&eri'an writer of "is ti&e+ He e2'elled in t"e tellin! of fol.
tales and lo'al 'olor stories+
4er'y Etis =arren*revoltionary pa&p"leteer w"o p-lis"ed History of t"e Revoltion+
4ason =ee&s*wrote $ife of =as"in!ton+
Se'ond 5reat Awa.enin!*t"e rea'tion to t"e trend toward rationalis&, t"e de'line in '"r'"
&e&-ers"ip, and t"e la'. of piety, was a renewal of personal, "eart-felt evan!eli'alis&+ ,e!an in
1?:1 at 1ane Rid!e, GT+ As t"e revival spread, its '"ara'teristi's -e'a&e &ore nifor&*an
e&p"asis on personal salvation, an e&otional response to 5ods !ra'e, an individalisti' fait"+
=o&en too. a &aBor part in t"e &ove&ent+ ,la'.s were also "eavily involved, and t"e
individalisti' e&p"asis 'reated nrest a&on! t"eir ran.s, parti'larly in t"e sot"+ T"e revival
prod'ed stron! nationalisti' overtones+
)ac*"onian +emocrac, and -e"t&ard Expan"ion (18'(-18#.)
8le'tion of 1?)4*&ost states "ad already eli&inated t"e property ;alifi'ations for votin!
-efore t"e 'a&pai!ns for t"is ele'tion -e!an+ Cree -la'.s were e2'lded fro& t"e polls a'ross t"e
Sot", and in &ost of t"e 7ort"ern states+ 7ational ele'tions "ad never attra'ted &'"
ent"sias& ntil 1?)4+ $e!islative 'a'ses "ad &ade t"e presidential no&inations and .ept t"e
rlin! 'li;es in power -y e2'ldin! t"e voters fro& t"e pro'ess+ ,e'ase no 'andidate re'eived
a &aBority of t"e votes, t"e top 3 'andidates were voted on -y t"e Hose+ 1lay !ave "is spport
to Ada&s, w"o in trn &ade 1lay se'retary of state+ T"e spporters of <a'.son 'alled t"is a
#'orrpt -ar!ain+(
A&eri'an Syste&*developed -y Henry 1lay+ 1alled for a "i!" tariff on i&ports to finan'e
internal i&prove&ents and a national -an.+
<o"n Din'y Ada&s*ps"ed for an a'tive federal !overn&ent in areas li.e internal
i&prove&ents and 7ative A&eri'an affairs+ T"ese poli'ies proved npoplar in an a!e of
in'reasin! se'tional Bealosies and 'onfli'ts over states ri!"ts+
7llifi'ation 1risis*in 1?)4, 1on!ress passed a new tariff -ill w"i'" was ori!inally spported
-y Sot"ern 'on!ress&en in order to e&-arrass t"e ad&inistration+ T"e finis"ed -ill in'lded
"i!"er i&port dties for &any !oods w"i'" were pr'"ased -y sot"ern planters, so t"ey -itterly
denon'ed it as t"e MTariff of A-o&inations+
1al"on responded -y writin! t"e #Sot" 1arolina 82position and Protest,( w"i'" otlined "is
t"eory t"at a federal law w"i'" was dee&ed "ar&fl to t"e interests of an individal state 'old
-e de'lared nll and void wit"in t"at state -y a 'onvention of t"e people+ T"s, a state "oldin! a
&inority position 'old i!nore a law ena'ted -y t"e &aBority w"i'" t"ey 'onsidered
n'onstittional+
7ational Rep-li'ans*Ada&s spporters+
%e&o'rati' Rep-li'ans*<a'.sons spporters+
Andrew <a'.son*poplar wit" t"e 'o&&on &an+ He e2pressed "is 'onvi'tion t"at !overn&ent
operations 'old -e perfor&ed -y ntrained, 'o&&on fol., and "e t"reatened t"e dis&issal of
lar!e &e&-ers of !overn&ent e&ployees, to repla'e t"e& wit" "is spporters*#spoils syste&+(
He vetoed t"e 4aysville Road -e'ase it wold re;ire a federal s-sidy -t wold e2ist only
wit"in t"e -ondaries of a sin!le state+ He relied on an infor&al !rop 'alled t"e #Git'"en
1a-inet( "e spported t"e at"ority of t"e states a!ainst t"e national !overn&ent, -t "e drew
t"e line at state nllifi'ation+ He advo'ated a stron! nion of soverei!n states+
Indian Re&oval A't*provided for federal enfor'e&ent of t"e &ove&ent of Indian tri-es to west
of t"e 4I river+
Trail of Tears*a for'ed &ar'" of t"osands of 1"ero.ees to t"e west+
=e-ster-Hayne %e-ate*Hayes &ade a spee'" in spport of '"eap land and "e sed 1al"ons
anti-tariff ar!&ents to spport "is position+ He referred to t"e possi-ility of nllifi'ation+
=e-sters replies &oved t"e de-ate fro& t"e isse of land poli'y to t"e natre of t"e Union and
states ri!"ts wit"in it+ He ar!ed for t"e Union as indissol-le and soverei!n over t"e individal
states+
Erdinan'e of 7llifi'ation*'reated -y 1al"on in response to t"e Tariff of 1?3)+ 1sto&s
offi'ials were ordered to stop 'olle'tin! t"e dties at t"e port of 1"arleston+ <a'.sons response
was to o-tain a Cor'e ,ill fro& 'on!ress, w"i'" e&powered "i& to se federal troops to enfor'e
t"e 'olle'tion of t"e ta2es+ At t"e sa&e ti&e, "e offered a !radal red'tion in t"e levels of t"e
dties+
,an. 1ontroversy*<a'.son freely voi'ed "is anta!onis& towards t"e -an. and "is intention to
destroy it+ 1lay and =e-ster pro&oted a -ill to re'"arter t"e -an., even t"o!" it did not e2pire
ntil 1?39+ T"ey feared t"at <a'.son wold !ain spport over ti&e and 'old .ill t"e -an. as a
partin! s"ot as "e retired+ <a'.son vetoed t"e -ill+ His first &ove was to re&ove t"e federal
!overn&ents desposits fro& ,iddles valts and distri-te t"e fnds to varios state and lo'al
-an.s, 'alled #pet -an.s+( T"e reslt was a finan'ial depression+
Pani' of 1?3@*w"en ,iddle was for'ed to relent t"ro!" pressre fro& -siness interests, t"e
e'ono&y i&&ediately re-onded+ =it" 'redit poli'ies rela2ed, inflation -e!an to pi'. p+ T"e
!overn&ent 'ontri-ted to t"is e2pansion -y offerin! &illions of a'res of western land for sale to
settlers at low pri'es+
In 1?39, <a'.son ordered a distri-tion of srpls fnds and t"s "elped to frt"er fel t"e
inflationary rise in pri'es+ <a'.son tried to 'orre't t"is wit" t"e Spe'ie 1ir'lar, w"i'" re;ired
pay&ent for p-li' land in "ard &oney+ %epression ;i'.ly followed+
4artin 6an ,ren*"elped foster t"e politi'al &a'"ine syste&+ Persaded 'on!ress to esta-lis"
an Independent Treasry to "andle !overn&ent fnds+
Party Syste&*t"e a!e of <a'.son was t"e -e!innin! of t"e &odern party syste&+ Poplar
politi's, -ased on e&otional appeal, -e'a&e t"e a''epted style+ T"e pra'ti'e of &eetin! in &ass
'onventions to no&inate 'andidates for offi'e was esta-lis"ed drin! t"e <a'.son years+ <a'.son,
&ore t"an any ot"er president -efore "i&, sed "is offi'e to do&inate "is party and t"e
!overn&ent to s'" an e2tent t"at "e was 'alled #Gin! Andrew( -y "is 'riti's+
%e&o'rats*opposed -i! !overn&ent and t"e re;ire&ents of &oderni3ationN r-ani3ation and
indstrialis&+ T"eir spport 'a&e fro& t"e wor.in! 'lasses, s&all &er'"ants, and s&all far&ers+
5enerally favored t"e se of for'e to e2pand A&eri'an -orders+
="i!s*pro&oted !overn&ent parti'ipation in 'o&&er'ial and indstrial develop&ent, t"e
en'ora!e&ent of -an.in! and 'orporations, and a 'atios approa'" to westward e2pansion+
T"eir spport 'a&e fro& 7ort"ern -siness and &anfa'trin! interests, and fro& lar!e sot"ern
planters+ 1al"on, 1lay, and =e-ster do&inated t"e ="i! party drin! t"ese early de'ades of t"e
19
t"
'entry+ T"ey were nited pri&arily -y t"eir disli.e of <a'.son+ Ceared e2pansion+
T"e party -e!an to -rea. down after t"e ele'tion of 1?>)+ Partially t"is was a reslt of t"e isse
of slavery, w"i'" tended to divide t"e party alon! nort"-sot" lines+ It &ay also "ave -een de to
t"e 7ativist &ove&ent+
Ante-,ell& 1ltre*t"e A&eri'an people in 1?4: fond t"e&selves livin! in an era of
transition and insta-ility+ T"e so'iety was '"an!in! and traditional vales were -ein! '"allen!ed+
T"e responses to t"is n'ertainty were ) foldN a &ove&ent toward refor& and a risin! of desire
for order and 'ontrol+
Ro&anti'is&*"eld a -elief in t"e innate !oodness of &an, t"s in "is i&prova-ility+ T"is
&ove&ent "ad its roots in trn of t"e 'entry 8rope, and it e&p"asi3ed t"e e&otions and
feelin!s over rationality+ It appeared as a rea'tion a!ainst t"e e2'esses of t"e 8nli!"ten&ent
w"i'" "ad pt stron! e&p"asis on reason+
Hdson River S'"ool*a !rop of lands'ape painters w"o portrayed t"e aweso&eness of natre
in A&eri'a+
Trans'endentalis&*-e!an in 1on'ord, 4a+ T"e -asi' o-Be'tive of t"ese t"in.ers was to
trans'end t"e -onds of t"e intelle't and to strive for e&otional nderstandin!, to attain nity
wit" 5od, wit"ot t"e "elp of t"e instittionali3ed '"r'", w"i'" t"ey saw as rea'tionary and
stiflin! to self-e2pression+ Spawned a !reat deal of interest in re&a.in! so'iety in &ore "&ane
for&s+
,roo. Car&*a trans'endental 'o&&ne in 4a+ 1losed de to ina-ility to re&ain finan'ially
via-le+
7ew Har&ony*fonded -y Ro-ert Ewen, -t failed after ) years+ He atta'.ed reli!ion,
&arria!e, and t"e instittion of private property+
7as"o-a*esta-lis"ed -y Cran'is =ri!"t as a 'o&&nal "aven for freed slaves+
Eneida*'o&&nity in 7H -ased on free love and open &arria!es
S"a.ers*dire'ted -y 4ot"er Ann $ee+ T"e 'o&&nities were so'ialist e2peri&ents w"i'"
pra'ti'ed 'eli-a'y, se2al e;ality, and so'ial dis'ipline+ T"ey were .nown for t"eir e&otional
dan'es+
4or&ons*<osep" S&it" re'eived t"e #sa'red( writin!s in 7H in 1?3:, and or!ani3ed t"e
1"r'" of <ess 1"rist of $atter %ay Saints+ T"ey were not poplar wit" t"eir nei!"-ors,
pri&arily -e'ase of poly!a&y, and so were for'ed to &ove+ In 1?4@ t"e !rop was led -y
,ri!"a& Hon! to Salt $a.e 1ity+ T"ey esta-lis"ed a "i!"ly or!ani3ed, 'entrally 'ontrolled
'"r'", w"i'" provided se'rity and order for t"e fait"fl+ T"ey "eld a stron! -elief in "&an
perfe'ti-ility+
1"arles Cinney*part of t"e Protestant Revival &ove&ent+ His #so'ial !ospel( offered salvation
to all+
Te&peran'e*t"e A&eri'an So'iety for Pro&otion of Te&peran'e was or!ani3ed in 1?)9+ It was
stron!ly spported -y Protestants, -t Bst as stron!ly opposed -y 1at"oli' i&&i!rants+
%orot"ea %i2*led t"e fi!"t for -etter treat&ent for t"e &entally ill+
Sene'a Calls*a 7H &eetin! in 1?4?+ 1reated a #%e'laration of Senti&ents and Resoltions(
t"at was t"e first -e!innin! of t"e &odern fe&inist &ove&ent+ T"e 5ri&.e sisters, 8li3a-et"
1ady Stanton, and Harriet ,ee'"er Stowe were a'tive in t"ese early days+ T"e &ove&ent was
lin.ed wit" t"at of t"e a-olitionists, -t sffered -e'ase it was 'onsidered to -e of se'ondary
i&portan'e+
A-olition*t"e early anti-slavery &ove&ent was -eni!n, advo'atin! only t"e pr'"ase and
transportation of slaves to free states in Afri'a+ T"ere were fre;ent ot-rsts of anti-a-olition
violen'e in t"e 1?3:s+
T"e &ove&ent split into ) win!sN 5arrisons followers, and t"e &oderates w"o favored #&oral
sasion( and petitions to 1on!ress+
A&eri'an 1oloni3ation So'iety*or!ani3ed in 1?1@ and esta-lis"ed t"e 'olony of $i-eria in
1?3:+
=illia& $loyd 5arrison*-e!an to advo'ate total and i&&ediate e&an'ipation, t"s !ivin! new
life to t"e &ove&ent+ He fonded t"e 7ew 8n!land Anti-Slavery So'iety in 1?3), and t"e
A&eri'an Antislavery So'iety in 1?33+
$i-erty Party*t"e first national anti-slavery party+ T"ey spported #free soil,( or t"e non-
e2pansion of slavery into new western territories+
Poplation 1"an!es*t"e new west was t"e fastest !rowin! area of t"e 'ontry+ ,irt" rates -e!an
to drop after 1?::, &ore rapidly in t"e 'ities t"an in t"e rral areas+ So&e of t"e reasons were
e'ono&i'N '"ildren were -e'o&in! lia-ilities rat"er t"an assets+ T"e new #'lt of do&esti'ity(
refle'ted a s"ift in fa&ily responsi-ilities+ Cat"er was ot of t"e "o&e wor.in!, and t"e -rden of
'"ild rearin! fell &ore "eavily on t"e &ot"er+ Pri&itive -irt" 'ontrol &et"ods were sed, and
a-ortion was -e'o&in! 'o&&on eno!" t"at several states passed laws restri'tin! it+
I&&i!ration*t"e infl2 of i&&i!rants "ad slowed drin! t"e 'onfli'ts wit" Cran'e and
8n!land, -t t"e flow in'reased -etween 1?1> and 1?3@, w"en t"e e'ono&i' downtrn a!ain
red'ed t"eir n&-ers+ T"s t"e overall rise in poplation drin! t"ese years was &ore to
in'o&in! forei!ners t"an to natral in'rease+ 4ost of t"e new'o&ers were fro& ,ritain,
5er&any, and sot"ern Ireland+ T"e 5er&ans sally fared -est, -e'ase t"ey -ro!"t &ore
&oney and s.ills+ %is'ri&ination was 'o&&on in t"e Bo- &ar.et, espe'ially a!ainst 1at"oli's+
Ur-ani3ation*t"e rapid !rowt" of r-an areas was not &at'"ed -y t"e !rowt" of servi'es+ Rapid
!rowt" "elped to prod'e a wave of violen'e in t"e 'ities+
=o&ens Ri!"ts*wo&en were treated as &inors -efore t"e law+ Her property -e'a&e "er
"s-ands wit" &arria!e+ Politi'al a'tivity was li&ited to t"e for&ation of asso'iations in spport
of varios pios 'ases+ Professional e&ploy&ent was lar!ely li&ited to s'"ooltea'"in!+ T"e
wo&ens ri!"ts &ove&ent fo'sed on so'ial and le!al dis'ri&ination+
,la'. Ri!"ts*t"eir lives were restri'ted -y preBdi'e and <i& 1rowe laws t"at separated t"e
ra'es+ ,la'. 'iti3ens or!ani3ed separate '"r'"es and fraternal orders+ T"e e'ono&i' se'rity of
t"e free -la'.s was 'onstantly t"reatened -y t"e newly-arrived i&&i!rants+
5rowt" of Indstry*-y 1?>:, t"e vale of indstrial otpt "ad srpassed t"at of a!ri'ltral
prod'tion+ T"e nort"eastern states led t"e way in t"is &ove&ent+ Car& and indstry reinfor'ed
ea'" ot"er and developed si&ltaneosly+ As &ore r-an wor.ers -e'a&e dependent on food
!rown -y ot"ers, t"e potential profits of far&in! in'reased+ 4any of t"e te'"nolo!i'al
develop&ents and inventions were applied to far& &a'"inery, w"i'" in trn ena-led far&ers to
prod'e &ore food &ore '"eaply for r-an wor.ers+
Unions*t"e !rowt" of t"e fa'tory syste& was a''o&panied -y t"e !rowt" of t"e 'orporate for&
of -siness owners"ip, w"i'" in trn frt"er separated t"e owners fro& t"e wor.ers+ Ene reslt
was t"e or!ani3ation of wor.er !rops to fi!"t for -enefits+ T"e infl2 of i&&i!rants w"o were
willin! to wor. for low wa!es "elped to spr t"e drive for nions, and in trn t"eir n&-ers
"elped to wea.en t"e -ar!ainin! powers of nion &e&-ers+
7ew 4ar.et 8'ono&y*t"ese develop&ents not only &ade lar!e-s'ale prod'tion possi-le*
t"ey also s"ifted t"e &aBor e&p"asis fro& 'orn to s&all !rain prod'tion, and &ade far&in! for
t"e international &ar.et feasi-le, w"i'" in trn &ade t"e western far&er dependent on e'ono&i'
for'es over w"i'" "e "ad no 'ontrol+ T"is dependen'e prod'ed t"e risin! de&and for
!overn&ent provision of free land and t"e a!ri'ltral 'olle!es w"i'" later were provided -y t"e
Ho&estead and 4orrill -ills drin! t"e 1ivil =ar+
Planter 1lass*owners of lar!e far&s w"o also owned >: or &ore slaves were a s&all &inority
of t"e sot"ern poplation+ O of w"ite sot"erners owned no slaves+ ,t t"e &inority of slave
owners e2er'ised politi'al and e'ono&i' power far -eyond w"at t"eir n&-ers wold indi'ate+
T"ey -e'a&e a 'lass to w"i'" all ot"ers paid deferen'e, and t"ey do&inated t"e politi'al and
so'ial life of t"eir re!ion+
Heo&an far&ers*t"e lar!est !rop of sot"ern w"ites was t"e independent s&all far&ers w"o
wor.ed t"eir land wit" t"eir fa&ily+ T"eir &aBor 'rop was 'orn+
Slavery*as t"e ne'essary 'on'o&itant of t"is e2pandin! plantation syste&, t"e #pe'liar
instittion( of -la'. slavery fastened itself pon t"e sot"ern people, even as it isolated t"e&
fro& t"e rest of t"e world+
T"e tili3ation of slave la-or varied a''ordin! to t"e re!ion and t"e si3e of t"e !rowin! nit+ T"e
lar!e plantations !rowin! 'otton, s!ar, and to-a''o sed t"e !an! syste&, in w"i'" w"ite
overseers dire'ted -la'. drivers, w"o spervised lar!e !rops of wor.ers in t"e field, all
perfor&in! t"e sa&e operation+ En s&aller far&s slaves were !iven spe'ifi' tas.s+
In sot"ern 'ities, slaves lived fairly independent lives and &any were a-le to pr'"ase t"eir
freedo&+ As t"e 19
t"
'entry pro!ressed, t"ese people were in'reasin!ly seen as a -ad &odel and
a t"reat to t"e instittion, and so r-an slavery pra'ti'ally disappeared+
T"e &ost si!nifi'ant de&o!rap"i' s"ift in t"ese de'ades was t"e &ove&ent of -la'.s fro& t"e
Eld Sot" to t"e new Sot"west+ Alt"o!" t"e i&portation of slaves "ad -een otlawed in 1?:?,
t"ey 'ontined to -e s&!!led in ntil t"e 1?>:s+ t"e i&port -an .ept t"e pri'e and en'ora!ed
t"e 'ontination of internal trade+
Hars" slave 'odes were 'o&pre"ensive in t"eir restri'tion of individal freedo&, -t t"ey were
nevenly applied+ 4any refsed to wor. "ard or fond ways to sa-ota!e &a'"inery or 'rops+
T"ere was an nder!rond syste& of ridi'le toward t"e &asters+
6iolent rea'tion to repression was not n'o&&on+ 5a-riel Prosser, %en&ar. 6esey, and 7at
Trner all plotted or led prisin!s of -la'.s+ R&ors of s'" prisin!s .ept w"ites in a state of
'onstant appre"ension+ 4any tried to rn away, &any wit" t"e "elp of t"e Under!rond Railroad+
A ri'" 'ltre was t"e developed wit"in t"e 'onfines of t"e syste&, and in'lded distin'tive
patterns of lan!a!e, &si', and reli!ion+
Sot"ern 8'ono&yI4anfa'trin!*t"e sot"ern states saw 'onsidera-le develop&ent in t"e
1?):s and 1?3:s in te2tiles and iron prod'tion and in flor &illin!+ 8ven so, &ost of t"e !oods
&ade at t"ese plants were for plantation 'ons&ption or e2port+
T"e -siness&en of t"e sot" wor.ed pri&arily wit" t"e needs and prod'ts of t"e plantation
and t"e fa'tors of 7ew Erleans and 1"arleston "ad to serve as -an.ers and insran'e -ro.ers as
well as t"e a!ents for t"e planters+ An or!ani3ed networ. of 'o&&er'e never developed in t"e
sot"+ ,e'ase &ost of t"e planters 'apital was tied p in land and slaves, t"ere was little left to
invest in 'o&&er'e or &anfa'trin!+
<a&es ,+%+ %e,ow*advo'ated 'o&&er'ial develop&ent and a!ri'ltral diversifi'ation+
7at Trner*revolted in 1?3)+ T"e effe't of "is a'tion was a de-ate in t"e 6ir!inia le!islatre
t"at s;el'"ed any &ove towards e&an'ipation+
5a! rle*for-ade any dis'ssion on t"e ;estion of slavery on t"e floor of t"e Hose+
Re&ained in effe't ntil 1?44+
1on'rrent &aBority*an idea 'reated -y 1al"on+ He advo'ated a dal presiden'y t"at wold
ensre a sot" independent of nort"ern do&inan'e, and forever .eep &aBority rle at -ay+
Ada&s-Enis Treaty*set t"e nort"ern -ondary of Spanis" possessions near t"e present -order
of 1A+ 'reated in 1?19+
Ere!on*o''pied Bointly -y ,ritain and t"e US sin'e 1?1?+ In t"e 1?3:s A&eri'an &issionaries
followed t"e traders and trappers to Ere!on 'ontry, and -e!an to p-li'i3e t"e ri'"ness and
-eaty of t"e land+ T"e reslt was #Ere!on Cever( of t"e 1?4:s+ Its state"ood was a &aBor topi'
in t"e ele'tion of 1?44+ %e&o'rats 'alled for 'o&plete US owners"ip+ However, Pol. "ad little
desire to fi!"t ,ritain for land t"at "e 'onsidered nsita-le for a!ri'ltre and slavery+
Ere!on Treaty*t"e e2istin! US-1anada -order east of t"e Ro'.ies was e2tended westward, t"s
se'rin! P!et Sond and t"e s"ared se of t"e Strait of <an de C'a for t"e US+ 1?49+
Te2as*te2as "ad -een a state in t"e Rep-li' of 4e2i'o sin'e 1?)), followin! t"e 4e2i'an
revoltion a!ainst Spanis" 'ontrol+ T"e US "ad offered to -y t"e territory at t"e ti&e, sin'e it
"ad renon'ed its 'lai& to t"e area in t"e Ada&s-Enis a!ree&ent of 1?19+ T"e new 4e2i'an
!overn&ent refsed to sell, -t -e!an to invite i&&i!ration fro& t"e nort" -y offerin! land
!rants to A&eri'ans+ T"ey needed to in'rease t"e poplation of t"e area and to prod'e revene
for t"e !overn&ent+ T"e A&eri'ans responded in !reat n&-ers+
T"e 4e2i'an offi'ials saw t"eir power -ase erodin! as t"e forei!ners flooded in, and so t"ey
&oved to ti!"ten 'ontrol, t"ro!" restri'tions on new i&&i!ration, and t"ro!" ta2 in'reases+
T"e Te2ans responded in 1?39 -y pro'lai&in! independen'e and esta-lis"in! a new rep-li'+
T"e 4e2i'an di'tator Santa Anna anni"ilated t"e Te2an !arrisons at t"e Ala&o and at 5oliad+ He
was later defeated at Sa <a'into+
Hoston i&&ediately as.ed t"e A&eri'an !overn&ent for re'o!nition and anne2ation, -t
<a'.son feared t"e revival of t"e slavery isse and war wit" 4e2i'o, so "e did not"in!+ ="en
6an ,ren followed sit, t"e new rep-li' so!"t forei!n re'o!nition and spport, w"i'"
8ropean nations provided, "opin! to 'reate a 'onter-alan'e to risin! A&eri'an power and
inflen'e in t"e sot"west+ To e2'ite A&eri'an Bealosy, Te2as president Sa& Hoston &ade a
s"ow of ne!otiatin! for 'loser relations wit" 5,+ Sot"erners feared t"at ,ritain, w"i'" opposed
slavery, wold -rin! a-ot its a-olition in TJ and se it as a -ase fro& w"i'" to nder&ine
slavery in t"e A&eri'an sot"+
1al"on ne!otiated an anne2ation treaty wit" TJ, w"i'" was reBe'ted+
7ew 4e2i'o*"ad en'ora!ed A&eri'an i&&i!ration+ A&eri'an settle&ents sprn! p arond
t"e Santa Ce trail+
1alifornia*traders and w"alers, t"en &er'"ants, arrived to set p stores and developed a -ris.
trade+ Sin'e t"e 4I 1o&pro&ise "ad esta-lis"ed t"e nort"ern li&its for slavery at t"e 39 3:
parallel, &ost of t"is territory lay in t"e potential slave-"oldin! do&ain, and &any of t"e settlers
"ad 'arried t"eir -onds&en wit" t"e&+
Tyler*too. over after Harrisons deat"+ He reBe'ted t"e entire ="i! pro!ra& of a national -an.,
"i!" prote'tive tariffs, and federally fnded internal i&prove&ents+ He was offi'ially e2pelled
fro& t"e party and &ade t"e tar!et of t"e first serios i&pea'"&ent atte&pt+ In opposition to
Tyler over t"e ne2t few years, t"e ="i!s, nder t"e leaders"ip of 1lay, transfor&ed t"e&selves
fro& a loose !ropin! of diverse fa'tions to a 'o"erent politi'al party wit" an ela-orate
or!ani3ation+
Pree&ption A't*allowed settlers w"o "ad s;atted on nserveyed federal lands first '"an'e to
-y t"e land on'e it was pt on t"e &ar.et+
=e-ster-As"-rton Treaty*'onfli'tin! 'lai&s alon! t"e 1anada-4aine -ondary were
'o&pro&ised+ T"e ,ritis" e2pressed re!ret for destr'tion of t"e 1aroline, an A&eri'an s"ip t"at
"ad 'arried spplies to 1anadian re-els+ T"e ,ritis" pro&ised to avoid #offi'ios interferen'e( in
freein! slaves+ ,ot" 'ontries a!reed to 'ooperate in patrollin! t"e Afri'an 'oast to prevent slave
s&!!lin!+ Helped to 'reate an at&osp"ere of 'o&pro&ise in ,ritis"-US relations+
Pol.*spported anne2ation of TJ and ER+ He was a stan'" <a'.sonian w"o opposed
prote'tive tariffs and a national -an.+ He also opposed t"e national de-t and reesta-lis"ed 6an
,rens Independent S--Treasry syste&+
=al.er Tariff*a low, revene-only tariff to avoid for&er prote'tive tariffs+
4e2i'an =ar /'ases0*for so&e ti&e A&eri'an interest "ad -een !rowin! in t"e far western
lands t"en "eld -y 4e2i'o+ Sin'e t"e 1?):s A&eri'ans "ad -een tradin! wit" Santa Ce and ot"er
4e2i'an settle&ents on t"e Rio 5rande and t"e Santa Ce Trail+ T"is trade arosed A&eri'an
interest in t"e area+ A&eri'an trappers "ad e2plored t"e &ontains of t"e Car =est, openin! new
trails and dis'overin! fertile lands+ At t"e sa&e ti&e w"alin! s"ips "ad 'arried on a t"rivin! trade
wit" t"e 4e2i'an settle&ents on t"e 'oast of 1A+ ,e!innin! in 1?41, A&eri'an settlers 'a&e
over land to 1A -y &eans of t"e 1A Trail+
T"e steady flow of A&eri'an pioneers into 4e2i'an-"eld areas of t"e Car =est led to 'onfli'tin!
territorial desires and was t"s an nderlyin! 'ase of t"e 4e2i'an war+ Et"er 'ases wereN
4e2i'os ineffe'tive !overn&ent was na-le to prote't t"e lives and property of A&eri'an
'iti3ens in 4e2i'o drin! t"e 'ontrys fre;ent and re'rrin! revoltions and repeatedly
de'lined to pay A&eri'an 'lai&s for da&a!es+
4e2i'o "ad not re'on'iled itself to t"e loss of TJ and 'onsidered its anne2ation a "ostile a't+
T"e sot"ern -ondary of TJ was dispted+
4e2i'an sspi'ions "ad -een arosed re!ardin! US desi!ns on 1A w"en, in 1?4), a US naval
for'e nder T"o&as 1ats-y <ones "ad sei3ed t"e provin'e in t"e &ista.en -elief t"at war "ad
-ro.en ot -etween t"e US and 4e2i'o+
4e2i'an politi'ians "ad so infla&ed t"e 4e2i'an people a!ainst t"e US t"at no 4e2i'an leader
'old afford to ta.e t"e ris. of appearin! to &a.e 'on'essions to t"e US for fear of -ein!
overt"rown+
T"o!" 4e2i'o -ro.e diplo&ati' ties wit" t"e US as soon as TJs ad&ission to t"e Union, t"ere
still see&ed to -e so&e "ope of a pea'efl settle&ent+ In t"e fall of 1?4> Pol. sent <o"n Slidell to
4e2i'o 1ity wit" a proposal for a pea'efl settle&ent of t"e differen'es -etween t"e ) 'ontries+
Slidell was e&powered to 'an'el t"e da&a!e 'lai&s and pay L> &illion for t"e dispted land in
sot"ern TJ+ 7ot"in! 'a&e fro& t"ese atte&pts at ne!otiation+ Pol. t"en sent troops into t"e
dispted re!ion+
T"e 4e2i'an =ar*A&eri'ans were s"arply divided a-ot t"e war+ So&e favored it -e'ase
t"ey felt 4e2i'o "ad provo.ed t"e war or -e'ase t"ey felt it was t"e destiny of A&eri'a to
spread t"e -lessin!s of freedo& to oppressed people+ Et"ers opposed t"e war+ So&e, pri&arily
Pol.s politi'al ene&ies t"e ="i!s, a''sed t"e president of "avin! provo.ed it+ Et"ers,
!enerally nort"ern a-olitionists, saw in t"e war t"e wor. of a vast 'onspira'y of Sot"ern
slave"olders !reedy for &ore territory+
,ear Cla! Revolt*A&eri'an settlers in 1A, aided -y an ar&y e2plorin! party nder Cre&ont,
revolted a!ainst 4e2i'o+ T"e 'on;est of 1A was 'o&pleted -y t"e ,attle of San 5a-riel+
Treaty of 5adalpe-Hidal!o*ended t"e 4e2i'an war+ 4e2i'o 'eded to t"e US territory Pol.
"ad ori!inality so!"t to -y for t"e pay&ent of L1> &illion and t"e ass&ption of L3+)> &illion
in A&eri'an 'iti3ens 'lai&s a!ainst t"e 4e2i'an !overn&ent+ 4any, in'ldin! Pol., felt t"at t"e
treaty was too !eneros+ T"e war -ro!"t to t"e srfa'e serios politi'al isses t"at t"reatened to
divide t"e 'ontry, parti'larly t"e ;estion of slavery in t"e new territories+
!ectional Con/lict and the Cau"e" o/ the Civil -ar (18#.-186.)
=il&ot Proviso*stiplated t"at neit"er slavery nor involntary servitde wold e2ist in territory
a';ired fro& 4e2i'o+ It arosed intense se'tional feelin!s+ Sot"erners, w"o "ad spported t"e
war, felt t"at t"ey were -ein! treated nfairly+ 7ort"erners felt t"ey saw t"eir worst sspi'ions
'onfir&ed -y sot"erners frios opposition to t"e Proviso+
Poplar Soverei!nty*'reated -y 1ass and %o!las+ It "eld t"at residents of ea'" territory s"old
-e per&itted to de'ide for t"e&selves w"et"er or not to allow slavery+
1ons'ien'e ="i!s*for&ed drin! t"e ele'tion of 1?4?+ T"eir party was 'alled t"e Cree Soil
Party, sin'e it stood for .eepin! t"e soil of new western territories free of slavery+
1o&pro&ise of 1?>:*President Taylor opposed t"e frt"er spread of slavery+ Hopin! to
sidestep t"e dan!erosly divisive isse of slavery in t"e territories, "e en'ora!ed 1A as well as
t"e rest of t"e 4e2i'an 1ession to or!ani3e and see. ad&ission dire'tly as states, -ypassin! t"e
territorial sta!e+ T"is &ade sot"erners frios -e'ase t"ey saw it as a -a'.door i&ple&entation
of t"e =il&ot Proviso+ T"ey were also !rowin! in'reasin!ly alar&ed at w"at was -e'o&in! t"e
&inority stats of t"eir se'tion wit"in t"e 'ontry+
Henry 1lay atte&pted to 'o&pro&ise t"e varios &atters of 'ontention -etween nort" and sot"+
He proposed an ? part pa'.a!e deal t"at "e "oped wold appeal to -ot" sides+
Cor t"e nort", t"e pa'.a!e 'ontained t"ese aspe'tsN 1A wold -e ad&itted as a free stateA t"e land
dispte -etween TJ and 74 wold !o to 74A 74 and UT territories wold not -e spe'ifi'ally
reserved for slavery, -t its stats t"ere wold -e de'ided -y poplar soverei!ntyA and t"e slave
trade wold -e a-olis"ed in %1+ Cor t"e sot", t"e pa'.a!e "adN a to!"er C!itive Slave A'tA
t"e federal !overn&ent wold pay TJs pre-anne2ation de-tA 1on!ress wold de'lare t"at it did
not "ave Brisdi'tion over t"e interstate slave tradeA and 1on!ress wold pro&ise not to a-olis"
slavery itself in %1+
T"e opponents of t"e 1o&pro&ise were &any and powerfl and ran!ed fro& President Taylor,
w"o de&anded t"e ad&ission of 1A wit"ot referen'e to slavery, to 7ort"ern e2tre&ists w"o
didnt want to ris. t"e spread of slavery+
Pier'e and #Hon! A&eri'a(*A&eri'ans trned t"eir attention to railroads, 'otton, 'lipper
s"ips, and 'o&&er'e+ President Pier'e e2pressed t"e nations "ope t"at a new era of se'tional
pea'e was -e!innin!+ He so!"t to distra't t"e nations attention fro& t"e slavery isse to an
a!!ressive pro!ra& of forei!n e'ono&i' and territorial e2pansion 'alled #Hon! A&eri'a(
Re'ipro'ity Treaty*opened 1anada to US trade
5adsden Pr'"ase*a strip of land alon! t"e 5ila River+ T"e prpose of t"is pr'"ase was to
provide a !ood rote for a trans-'ontinental railroad a'ross t"e sot"ern part of t"e 'ontry+
Estend 4anifesto*r!ed &ilitary sei3re of 1-a s"old Spain refse to sell it to t"e US+
A&eri'anIGnow-7ot"in! Party*!rew ot of alar& on t"e part of native--orn A&eri'ans and t"e
risin! tide of 5er&an and Iris" i&&i!ration drin! t"e late 1?4:s and early 1?>:s+ T"ey were
anti-forei!n and anti-1at"oli'+ It sr!ed -riefly to -e t"e 'ontrys se'ond-lar!est party -y 1?>>
-t faded de to t"e ineptness of its leaders and t"e !rowin! r!en'y of t"e slavery ;estion,
w"i'" was 'o&in! to overs"adow ot"er isses+ $ed to t"e 'ollapse of t"e ) party syste&+
C!itive Slave $aw*enra!ed nort"erners+ Under its provisions -la'.s livin! in t"e 7ort" and
'lai&ed -y slave 'at'"ers were denied trial and &any ot"er prote'tions+ All US 'iti3ens were
re;ired to aid in t"e 'aptre and retrn of es'aped slaves+ Several riots erpted as a reslt of t"e
atte&pts to enfor'e it+ 4any nort"erners w"o "ad not previosly ta.en an interest in t"e slavery
isse now -e'a&e opponents of slavery as a reslt of "avin! its inBsti'es for'ed on t"e&+
Sot"erners saw nort"ern resistan'e to t"e law as proof t"at t"e nort" was deter&ined to ta&per
wit" t"e instittion of slavery+
Gansas-7e-ras.a A't*%o!las "oped t"at or!ani3in! t"e territories of Gansas and 7e-ras.a
wold fa'ilitate t"e -ildin! of a trans-'ontinental railroad on a 'entral rote+ He was as.ed to
in'lde in "is -ill an e2pli'it repeal of t"e 4I 1o&pro&ise and a provision t"at t"e stats of
slavery wold -e de'ided -y poplar soverei!nty+ T"e -ill was opposed -y &ost nort"ern
de&o'rats and a &aBority of t"e re&ainin! ="i!s+
It arosed opposition in t"e nort", w"ere t"e reBe'tion of t"e 4I 1o&pro&ise was seen as a
-rea.in! of a sole&n a!ree&ent+ It "astened t"e disinte!ration of t"e ="i! Party and divided t"e
%e&o'rati' party+ In t"e nort", &any de&o'rats left t"e party and were Boined -y for&er ="i!s
and Gnow-7ot"in!s in t"e Rep-li'an party+ T"e new party in'lded diverse ele&ents w"ose
sole nifyin! prin'iple was t"e fir& -elief t"at slavery s"old -e -anned fro& all t"e nations
territories, 'onfined to t"e states w"ere it already e2isted, and allowed to spread no frt"er+
,leedin! Gansas*nort" and sot" -e!an 'o&petin! to see w"i'" 'old send t"e !reatest
n&-er to swin! t"e Gansas ele'tions+ 7ort"erners for&ed t"e 7ew 8n!land 8&i!rant Aid
1o&pany to pro&ote t"e settlin! of anti-slavery &en in Gansas, and Sot"erners responded+
%espite t"ese efforts t"e &aBority of Gansas settlers were 4idwesterners w"o were !enerally
opposed to t"e spread of slavery -t were &ore 'on'erned wit" findin! !ood far& land t"an
de'idin! t"e national de-ate over slavery+
%espite t"is lar!e anti-slavery &aBority, lar!e-s'ale ele'tion frad, espe'ially on t"e part of t"e
#-order rffians( w"o 'rossed into Gansas on ele'tion day to vote, a pro-slavery !overn&ent was
'reated+ Cree-soil Gansans responded -y denon'in! t"e pro-slavery !overn&ent as ille!iti&ate
and for&in! t"eir own free soil !overn&ent+ Gansas now "ad two rival !overn&ents, ea'"
'lai&in! to -e t"e only lawfl one+
,ot" sides -e!an ar&in! t"e&selves and soon t"e territory was -ein! referred to as #,leedin!
Gansas( as fll s'ale war erpted+
%red S'ott*t"e Bsti'es were initially in'lined to -elieve t"at S'ott, as a slave, was not a 'iti3en
and 'old not se in 'ort+ ,'"anan, "owever, r!ed t"e Bsti'es to !o frt"er and atte&pt to
settle t"e w"ole slavery isse on'e and for all, t"s re&ovin! it fro& t"e real& of politi's+ Under
t"e !idan'e of 'onservative Bd!e Taney, t"e 'ort atte&pted to read t"e e2tre&e sot"ern
position on slavery into t"e 1onstittion, rlin! not only t"at S'ott "ad no standin! to se in
federal 'ort, -t also t"at te&porary residen'e in a free state did not &a.e a slave free, and t"at
t"e 4I 1o&pro&ise "ad -een n'onstittional all alon! -e'ase 1on!ress did not "ave t"e
at"ority to e2'lde slavery fro& any territory w"atsoever+ 7or did territorial !overn&ents,
w"i'" were 'onsidered to re'eive t"eir power fro& 1on!ress, "ave t"e ri!"t to pro"i-it slavery+
T"e %red S'ott only &ade t"e slavery de-ate worse+ Sot"erners were en'ora!ed to ta.e an
e2tre&e position and refse 'o&pro&ise, w"ile anti-slavery nort"erners -e'a&e &ore 'onvin'ed
t"an ever t"at t"ere was a pro-slavery 'onspira'y 'ontrollin! all -ran'"es of !overn&ent, and
e2pressed an nwillin!ness to a''ept t"e 1orts di'tate as final+
$e'o&pton 1onstittion*'reated -y t"e pro-slavery !overn&ent in Gansas+ It allowed slavery+
To o-tain a pretense of poplar approval for t"is 'onstittion t"e 'onvention provided for a
referend& in w"i'" t"e voters were to -e !iven a '"oi'e only to pro"i-it t"e entry of additional
slaves into t"e state+ Cree-soilers -oy'otted t"e referend&, and t"e reslt was a 'onstittion t"at
pt no restri'tions on slavery+
8a!er to appease t"e sot", and e;ally ea!er to sppress anti-slavery a!itation in t"e nort",
,'"anan -a'. t"e 'onstittion+ Gansas voters later trned down t"e 'onstittion, '"oosin! to
re&ain a territory rat"er t"an -e'o&e a slave state+
Pani' of 1?>@*several years of overspe'lation in railroads and lands, falty -an.in! pra'ti'es,
and an interrption in t"e flow of 8ropean 'apital into A&eri'an invest&ents as a reslt of t"e
1ri&ean war were t"e pri&ary 'ases of t"e pani'+ T"e nort" -la&ed t"e pani' on low tariffs,
w"ile t"e sot" saw it as proof of t"e speriority of t"e sot"ern e'ono&y in !eneral and slavery
in parti'lar+
Creeport %o'trine*%o!las response to $in'olns '"allen!e to re'on'ile t"e %red S'ott
de'ision wit" poplar soverei!nty+ He 'lai&ed t"at people of any territory 'old e2'lde slavery
si&ply -y de'linin! to pass any of t"e spe'ial laws t"at slave Brisdi'tions sally passed for
t"eir prote'tion+ T"is do'trine "ardened t"e opposition of sot"erners already an!ered -y "is
anti-$e'o&pton stand+
<o"n ,rowns Raid*E'to-er 19, 1?>9, <o"n ,rown led 1? followers in sei3in! t"e federal
arsenal at Harpers Cerry, ta.in! "osta!es, and endeavorin! to in'ite a slave prisin!+ ,rown,
spported and -an.rolled -y several pro&inent 7ort"ern a-olitionists, planned to ar& lo'al
slaves and t"en spread "is prisin! a'ross t"e sot"+ T"e nort" 'onsidered "i& a &artyr and
in'reased fear in t"e sot"+
Se'ession 1risis*$in'oln "ad de'lared t"at "e wold not "rt slavery w"ere it already e2isted,
-t &any sot"erners didnt -elieve "i&+ T"ey also feared frt"er raids and t"eir pride felt
inBred -y t"e ele'tion of a president for w"o& no sot"ern state "ad voted+
En %e'e&-er ):, 1?9:, Sot" 1arolina de'lared itself ot of t"e nion+ Et"er states followed+
Representatives of t"e se'eded states &et in 4ont!o&ery in Ce- 1?91 and de'lared t"e&selves
to -e t"e 1onfederate States of A&eri'a+ T"ey ele'ted <efferson %avis as president+ T"ey also
adopted t"eir own 'onstittion w"i'" spe'ifi'ally re'o!ni3ed slavery and t"e ri!"t to &ove
slaves fro& one state to anot"er was !aranteed+ Prote'tive tariffs were pro"i-ited, t"e president
was to serve for a sin!le 9 year ter&, t"e president was !iven t"e ri!"t to veto individal ite&s
wit"in an appropriations -ill, and state soverei!nty was re'o!ni3ed+
The Civil -ar and Recon"truction (186.-1877)
7ort"*t"e nort" "ad a predo&inan'e of t"e wealt" and was t"s -etter a-le to finan'e t"e war+
It was vastly sperior in indstry and t"s 'apa-le of prod'in! t"e needed war &aterials+ Had
t"e advanta!e of 3-1 &anpower and re'eived lar!e a&onts of i&&i!rants drin! t"e war+ T"ey
retained 'ontrol of t"e 7avy and "ad a sperior syste& of railroads+ T"e nion ar&ies were not
as well str'tred and led -y inferior !enerals+
Sot"*a pri&arily a!ri'ltral so'iety+ Ever 1I3 of t"eir poplation was slaves, w"o t"ey wold
not se as soldiers+ T"e sot" was vast in si3e, &a.in! it diffi'lt to 'on;er, and needed only to
defend itself+ Its troops wold also -e fi!"tin! on t"eir own !rond+
,ll Rn*t"e Union was for'ed to retreat+ It de&onstrated t"e npreparedness and ine2perien'e
of -ot" sides and t"at t"e war wold -e lon! and "ard and t"at !reater efforts wold -e re;ired+
Ana'onda Plan*'reated -y =infield S'ott and desi!ned to s;ee3e t"e life ot of t"e
'onfedera'y -y instittin! a naval -lo'.ade and stoppin! trade wit" 8rope, a 'a&pai!n to ta.e
t"e 4ississippi river, t"ere-y splittin! t"e sot" in ), and t"e ta.in! of several strate!i' points
t"en waitin! for pro-Union senti&ent in t"e sot" to overt"row t"e se'essionists+
T"e Ho&e Cront*t"e war on t"e "o&e front dealt wit" t"e pro-le&s of &aintainin! p-li'
&orale, spplyin! t"e ar&ies of t"e "eld, and resolvin! 'onstittional ;estions re!ardin!
at"ority and t"e a-ility of t"e representative !overn&ents to deal wit" 'rises+
Geepin! t"e people "appy was &ade &ore diffi'lt -y t"e i&posin! of 'ons'ription in order to
o-tain ade;ate &anpower for t"e "!e ar&ies t"at wold -e needed to 'rs" t"e Sot"+
8spe'ially "ated -y &any wor.in! 'lass 7ort"erners was t"e provision of t"e 'ons'ription a't
t"at allowed a drafted individal to avoid servi'e -y a "irin! a s-stitte or payin!+
In t"e Sot", so&e people o-Be'ted to 'ons'ription on t"e !ronds of states ri!"ts+ A provision
of t"e sot"ern 'ons'ription a't allowin! one &an to stay "o&e as overseer for every ): slaves
led t"e none slave "oldin! w"ites w"o &ade p &ost of t"e sot"ern poplation to !r&-le t"at
t"ey were sfferin! nfair treat&ent+
To finan'e t"e nort"ern part of t"e war, "i!" tariffs and an in'o&e ta2 were resorted to+
In t"e sot", e2'ise and in'o&e ta2es were levied and so&e s&all loans were o-tained in 8rope,
yet t"e sot"ern 'on!ress still felt 'o&pelled to isse paper &oney in s'" ;antities t"at it
-e'a&e virtally wort"less+ T"at, and t"e s'ar'ity of al&ost everyt"in! 'reated -y t"e war and its
disrption of t"e e'ono&y, led to "i!" pri'es+ T"e 'onfederate !overn&ent responded to t"e
inflation it 'reated -y i&posin! ta2es and i&press&ent, t"e sei3in! of lifesto'., and prod'e, et'+
-y 1onfederate a!ents in retrn for pay&ent a''ordin! to an artifi'ially set s'"edle of pri'es+
Sin'e pay&ent was in wort"less inflated 'rren'y, t"is a&onted to 'onfis'ation and soon
reslted in !oods of all sorts -e'o&in! even s'ar'er t"an ot"erwise w"en a 1onfederate
i&press&ent a!ent was .nown to -e in t"e nei!"-or"ood+
To deal wit" t"e e&er!en'y of s''ession, $in'oln stret'"ed t"e presidential powers to t"e li&it+
To ;ell t"e t"reat of se'ession of 4aryland, "e sspended t"e writ of "a-eas 'orps and
i&prisoned n&eros sspe'ted se'essionists wit"ot '"ar!es or trial+
#5reen-a'.s(*an n-a'.ed flat 'rren'y t"at fared -etter t"an t"e sot"ern paper &oney
-e'ase of !reater 'onfiden'e in 7ort"ern vi'tory+
7ational ,an.in! A't*'reated to fa'ilitate t"e finan'in! of t"e war t"ro!" 'redit e2pansion+
Passed in 1?93+
Ho&estead A't*!ranted 19: a'res of !overn&ent land free of '"ar!e to any person w"o wold
far& it for at least > years+
4orrill $and 5rant A't*offered lar!e a&onts of t"e federal !overn&ents land to states t"at
wold esta-lis" #a!ri'ltral and &e'"ani'al( 'olle!es+ 4any of t"e nations lar!e state
niversities were fonded in later years nder t"e provisions of t"is a't+
1opper"eads*nort"erners w"o opposed t"e war and denon'ed $in'oln as a tyrant+ T"ey
re&ained in t"e &inority+
8&an'ipation Pro'la&ation*-y &id-1?9), $in'oln, nder pressre fro& radi'al ele&ents of "is
own party and "opin! to 'reate a favora-le i&pression of forei!n p-li' opinion, deter&ined to
isse t"e 8&an'ipation Pro'la&ation+ It de'lared as free slaves in areas t"at were re-ellin!+ It
was annon'ed after t"e nort"ern vi'tory at t"e ,attle of Antieta&+
Creed&ans ,rea*provided food, 'lot"in!, and ed'ation, and !enerally loo.ed after t"e
interests of for&er slaves+
Ten Per'ent Plan*stiplated t"at sot"erners, e2'ept for "i!"-ran.in! re-el offi'ials, 'old ta.e
an oat" pro&isin! ftre loyalty to t"e nion and a''eptan'e of t"e end of slavery+ ="en t"e
n&-er of t"ose w"o "ad ta.en t"is oat" wit"in any one state rea'"ed 1:F of t"e n&-er w"o
"ad re!istered to vote in 1?9:, a loyal state !overn&ent 'old -e for&ed+ Enly t"ose w"o "ad
ta.en t"e oat" 'old vote or parti'ipate in t"e new !overn&ent+
Radi'al Rep-li'ans*-elieved t"at $in'olns plan did not ade;ately pnis" t"e sot",
restr'tre Sot"ern so'iety, and -oost t"e politi'al prospe'ts of t"e Rep-li'an party+
=ade-%avis ,ill*a &aBority of t"e n&-er w"o "ad -een alive and re!istered to vote in 1?9:
wold "ave to swear an oat" statin! t"at t"ey were now loyal and "ad never -een disloyal+
1reated -y t"e Radi'al Rep-li'ans in 'on!ress+
<o"nson*followed $in'olns poli'ies very 'areflly+ 4ade states a''ept t"e 13
t"
a&end&ent,
repdiation of 'onfederate de-ts, and renn'iations of se'ession+ He also re'o&&ended t"at t"e
vote -e !iven to -la'.s+ He vetoed t"e 1ivil Ri!"ts A't and an e2tension of t"e Creed&ans
,rea, 'lai&in! t"at t"ey were n'onstittional+
,la'. 1odes*i&posed varios restri'tions on t"e freedo& of for&er slaves
#Stewards Colly(*Steward pr'"ased Alas.a fro& Rssia+ It was r!ed t"at pr'"asin! Alas.a
wold reward t"e Rssians for t"eir friendly stan'e toward t"e US !overn&ent drin! t"e 1ivil
=ar+
14
t"
A&end&ent*defined 'iti3ens"ip and for-ade states to deny varios ri!"ts to 'iti3ens,
red'ed t"e representation in 1on!ress of states t"at did not allow -la'.s to vote, for-ade t"e
payin! of 'onfederate de-t, and &ade for&er 1onfederates ineli!i-le to "old p-li' offi'e+
4ilitary Re'onstr'tion A't*divided t"e sot" into > &ilitary distri'ts to -e rled -y &ilitary
!overnors wit" al&ost di'tatorial powers+
Ar&y A't*red'ed t"e presidents 'ontrol of t"e ar&y+
Tenre of Effi'e A't*for-id <o"nson to dis&iss 1a-inet &e&-ers wit"ot t"e Senates
per&ission+
Radi'al Re'onstr'tion*platfor& 'reated -y Radi'al Rep-li'ans at t"e 1?9? ele'tion+
'arpet-a!!ers*nort"erners w"o 'a&e to t"e sot" to parti'ipate in Re'onstr'tion !overn&ents
s'alawa!s*sot"erners w"o spported Re'onstr'tion
5rant*for&er nion !eneral w"o -e'a&e president+ His ad&inistration was ro'.ed -y &any
s'andals+
4ost of t"e e'ono&i' pro-le&s t"e 'ontry fa'ed drin! 5rants ad&inistration were 'ased -y
t"e ne'essary readBst&ents fro& a warti&e -a'. to a pea'eti&e e'ono&y+ T"e 'entral e'ono&i'
;estion was deflation verss inflation, or w"et"er to retire t"e n-a'.ed paper &oney printed to
&eet warti&e needs, to print &ore+ 8'ono&i' 'onservatives, 'reditors, and -siness interests
!enerally favored retire&ent of t"e !reen-a'.s and an early retrn to t"e !old standard+ %e-tors,
w"o "ad loo.ed forward to payin! off t"eir o-li!ations in depre'iated paper &oney, favored a
'ontination of 'rren'y inflation t"ro!" t"e se of &ore !reen-a'.s+ 5rants poli'y was to let
t"e 5reen-a'.s float ntil t"ey were on par wit" !old and 'old t"en -e retired wit"ot e'ono&i'
dislo'ation+
#,la'. Criday( S'andal*<i& Cis.e and <ay 5old s'"e&ed to 'orner t"e !old &ar.et+ To frt"er
t"eir desi!n, t"ey !ot 5rants -rot"er in law to persade t"e president t"at stoppin! !overn&ent
!old sales wold -e !ood for far&ers+ 4any -siness&en were rined as t"e pri'e of !old was
-id p+
1redit 4o-ilier S'andal*offi'ials at t"e Union Pa'ifi' Railroad sed a d&&y 'onstr'tion
'o&pany to s.i& off &illions of dollars of t"e s-sidies t"e !overn&ent was payin! t"e Union
Pa'ifi' for -ildin! a trans'ontinental railroad+
T"e #Salary 5ra- A't(*'on!ress voted a 1::F pay raise for t"e president and >:F raise for
itself and &ade -ot" retroa'tive ) years+
Pani' of 1?@3*-ro!"t on -y t"e overe2pansive tenden'ies of railroad -ilders and
-siness&en drin! t"e i&&ediate post war -oo& and tri!!ered -y e'ono&i' downtrns in
8rope and t"e failre of <ay 1oo.e and 1o&pany, a &aBor A&eri'an finan'ial fir&+ T"e
finan'ial "ards"ip -ro!"t on -y t"e Pani' led to a 'la&or for t"e printin! of &ore !reen-a'.s+
="is.ey Rin! Crad*distillers and treasry offi'ials 'onspired to defrad t"e !overn&ent of
lar!e a&onts of &oney fro& t"e e2'ise ta2 on w"is.ey+
$i-eral Rep-li'ans*dis'ontent&ent wit"in rep-li'an ran.s wit" re!ard to so&e of t"e earlier
s'andals as well as wit" t"e Radi'als vindi'tive Re'onstr'tion poli'ies led a fa'tion of t"e party
to separate and 'onstitte itself as t"e $i-eral Rep-li'ans+ ,esides opposin! 'orrption and
favorin! se'tional "ar&ony, t"e $i-eral Rep-li'ans favored "ard &oney and a laisse3-faire
approa'" to e'ono&i' isses+
Spe'ie Res&ption A't*'alled for t"e res&ption of spe'ie pay&ents in 1?@9+
1o&pro&ise of 1?@@*Hayes pro&ised to s"ow 'onsideration for Sot"ern interests, end
Re'onstr'tion, and wit"draw t"e re&ainin! federal troops fro& t"e sot" in e2'"an!e for
de&o'rati' a';ies'en'e to "is ele'tion+
0ndu"triali"m1 -ar1 and the Pro2re""ive Era (1877-1$1')
Stalwarts*led -y Ros'oe 1on.lin!+ T"ey favored t"e old syste& of politi'al patrona!e+
Half ,reeds*led -y <a&es ,laine+ T"ey ps"ed for 'ivil servi'e refor& and &erit appoint&ents
to !overn&ent posts+
Pendleton A't*esta-lis"ed open 'o&petitive e2a&inations for 'ivil servi'e positions+
5reen-a'.-$a-or Party*tried to pro&ote t"e inflation of far& pri'es and t"e 'ooperative
&ar.etin! of a!ri'ltral prod'e+ T"ey advo'ated p-li' re!lation and 'ontrol of private
enterprises s'" as railroads in t"e 'o&&on interest of &ore e;ita-le 'o&petition+
7ew Sot"*-y 1??:, 7ort"ern 'apital ere'ted t"e &odern te2tile indstry in t"e 7ew Sot" -y
-rin!in! fa'tories to t"e 'otton fields+
So'ial %arwinis&*&any indstrial leaders sed t"e do'trines asso'iated wit" t"e #5ospel of
=ealt"( to Bstify t"e ne;al distri-tion of natral wealt"+ Self-Bstifi'ation -y t"e wealt"y
was -ased on t"e notion t"at 5od "ad !ranted wealt" as "e "ad !iven !ra'e fro& &aterial and
spirital salvation to a sele't few+ T"ese few, a''ordin! to =illia& S&ner, relied "eavily on t"e
srvival of t"e fittest p"ilosop"y asso'iated wit" 1"arles %arwin+
7ational $a-or Union*"ad a &e&-ers"ip of 9::,::: -t failed to wit"stand t"e i&pa't of
e'ono&i' adversity+
Gni!"ts of $a-or*&ana!ed to open its &e&-ers"ip to not only w"ite A&eri'an wor.ers, -t
i&&i!rants, wo&en, and Afri'an-A&eri'ans as well+ T"ey eventally went nder in 1??9 in t"e
wa.e of t"e -loody Hay&ar.et Riot in 1"i'a!o+
7ational 5ran!e*drin! t"e 1ivil =ar, &any far&ers "ad over-e2panded t"eir operations,
pr'"ased &ore land and &a'"inery, and !one "eavily into de-t+ ="en t"e relatively "i!"
warti&e a!ri'ltral pri'es 'ollapsed in t"e de'ades after t"e war, far&ers wor.ed 'olle'tively to
pro&ote 'rren'y inflation, "i!"er far& pri'es, silver and !old -i&etallis&, de-t relief,
'ooperative far& &ar.etin! ventres, and re!lation of &onopolies and railroads -y t"e federal
and state !overn&ents+ T"ey 'alled for t"e federal !overn&ent to address t"eir !rievan'es+
So'ial 5ospel*<ane Adda&s and =as"in!ton 5ladden r!ed t"e 'reation of settle&ent "oses
and -etter "ealt" and ed'ation servi'es to a''o&&odate new i&&i!rants+ 7ew reli!ions also
appeared, s'" as t"e Salvation Ar&y and t"e 1"r'" of 1"ristian S'ien'e+
,oo.er T+ =as"in!ton*en'ora!ed self-respe't and e'ono&i' e;ality of t"e ra'es+ 4any saw
"i& as too 'on'iliatory+
=o&ens 1"ristian Te&peran'e 4ove&ent*pro"i-itionist wo&ens politi'al or!ani3ation+
7ew i&perialis&*ai&ed at findin! &ar.ets for srpls indstrial prod'tion, a''ess to needed
raw &aterials, and opportnities for overseas invest&ent drin! a ti&e of do&esti' e'ono&i'
depression+ T"e US preferred &ar.et e2pansion wit"ot t"e politi'al lia-ility of &ilitary
o''pation+
Pan A&eri'anis&*<a&es ,lain advo'ated t"e 'reation of an International ,rea of A&eri'an
Rep-li's to pro&ote a 'sto&s nion of trade and politi'al sta-ility for t"e =estern
He&isp"ere+ T"e ,rea evolved into t"e Pan A&eri'an Union in 191: and t"e Er!ani3ation of
A&eri'an States in 194?+ ,laine opposed US &ilitary intervention in t"e "e&isp"ere+ He was
'on'erned wit" international trade, politi'al sta-ility, and e2'essive &ilitaris& in $atin A&eri'a+
Intero'eani' 1anal 1o&&ission*re'o&&ended a 7i'ara!an rote for a 'anal to lin. t"e
Atlanti' and Pa'ifi' o'eans+
4!w&ps*Independent Rep-li'ans w"o spported 'ivil servi'e refor&+
Interstate 1o&&er'e A't*poplar resent&ent of railroad a-ses s'" as pri'e fi2in!, .i'.-a'.s,
and dis'ri&inatory frei!"t rates 'reated de&ands for state re!lation of t"e railway indstry+ T"e
a't was passed to oversee fair and Bst railway rates, pro"i-it re-ates, end dis'ri&inatory
pra'ti'es, and re;ire annal reports and finan'ial state&ents+
A&eri'an Cederation of $a-or*'onfronted -y -i! -siness, Sa&el 5o&pers and Adolp"
Strasser pt to!et"er a 'o&-ination of national 'raft nions to represent t"e &aterial interests of
la-or in t"e &atter of wa!es, "ors, and safety 'onditions+ T"e federations p"ilosop"y was
pra!&ati' and not dire'tly inflen'ed -y t"e do!&ati' 4ar2is& of 8ropean la-or &ove&ents+
Alt"o!" &ilitant in its se of t"e stri.e and its de&and for 'olle'tive -ar!ainin! in la-or
'ontra'ts wit" lar!e 'orporations, it did not intend violent revoltion or politi'al radi'alis&+
S'ientifi' 4ana!e&ent*Crederi'. Taylor introd'ed &odern 'on'epts of indstrial en!ineerin!,
plant &ana!e&ent, and ti&e and &otion stdies+ T"is !ave rise to effi'ien'y e2perts and a
separate 'lass of &ana!ers in indstrial &anfa'trin!+ =or.ers felt t"at it ro--ed t"e& of t"eir
atono&y+
<osep" Plit3er*first p-lis"er to rea'" a &ass adien'e sellin! 7ew Hor. =orld+
$iterary Realis&*novelists e2plored so'ial pro-le&s s'" as 'ri&e and politi'al 'orrption,
r-an !"etto life, 'lass 'onfli't, and t"e environ&ent+
Cor'e ,ill*senate o-Be'tions .ept 'on!ress fro& prote'tin! Afri'an-A&eri'an voters in t"e
sot" t"ro!" federal spervision of state ele'tions
%ependent Pensions A't*'on!ress !ranted servi'e pensions to Union veterans and t"eir
dependents for t"e first ti&e
S"er&an Anti-Trst A't*'orporate &onopolies w"i'" 'ontrolled w"ole indstries were s-Be't
to federal prose'tion if t"ey were fond to -e 'o&-inations or 'onspira'ies in restraint of trade+
Alt"o!" spported -y s&aller -sinesses, la-or nions, and far& asso'iations, t"e S"er&an
Anti-Trst A't was in ti&e interpreted -y t"e Spre&e 1ort to apply to la-or nions and
far&ers 'orporatives as &'" as lar!e 'orporations+
S"er&an Silver Pr'"ase A't*Pro-silver interests passed le!islation at"ori3in! 1on!ress to
-y 4+> &illion on'es of silver ea'" &ont" at &ar.et pri'es, and isse Treasry notes
redee&a-le in !old and silver+ T"is a't 'reated inflation and lowered !old reserves+
After t"e e'ono&i' pani' of 1?93, 1leveland tried to li&it t"e otflow of !old reserves -y as.in!
1on!ress to repeal t"e A't w"i'" "ad provided for notes rede&ptive in eit"er !old or silver+ T"e
de&o'rati' party split over t"e isse+
4'Ginley Tariff*t"is 'o&pro&ise prote'tive tariff pro&ised -y t"e rep-li'ans in 1???, and
introd'ed -y =illia& 4'Ginley was passed and e2tended to indstrial and a!ri'ltral !oods+
T"e a't also in'lded re'ipro'al trade provisions t"at allowed t"e president to retaliate a!ainst
nations t"at dis'ri&inated a!ainst US prod'ts, and reward states t"at opened t"eir &ar.ets to
A&eri'an !oods+ S-se;ent pri'e in'reases led to a poplar -a'.las"+
%wi!"t 4oody*introd'ed Ur-an revivalis& 'o&para-le to earlier rral &ove&ents a&on!
Protestants deno&inations+
4a"an*ar!ed t"at 'ontrol of t"e seas was t"e &eans to world power+
Poplist Party*'alled for t"e ena't&ent of a pro!ra& esposed -y a!rarians, -t also for a
'oalition wit" r-an wor.ers and t"e &iddle 'lass+ Spe'ifi' !oals were t"e 'oina!e of silver to
!old at a ratio of 19 to 1A federal loans to far&ersA a !radated in'o&e ta2A postal savin!s -an.sA
p-li' owners"ip of railroads, telep"one and tele!rap" syste&sA pro"i-ition of alien land
owners"ipA i&&i!ration restri'tionA a -an on private ar&ies sed -y 'orporations to -rea. p
stri.esA a ?-"or wor.dayA a sin!le 9 year ter& for president, and dire't ele'tion of senatorsA t"e
ri!"t of initiative and referend&A and t"e se of a se'ret -allot+ T"ey wanted to refor& t"e
syste& fro& wit"in, 'reatin! a fairer distri-tion of wealt"+
=illia& <ennin!s ,ryan*t"e de&o'rati' and poplist no&inee in t"e ele'tion of 1?99+ He ran
on a platfor& of free 'oina!e of silver at a ratio of 19 to 1A 'onde&nation of &onopolies,
prote'tive tariffs and anti-nion 'ort inBn'tionsA 'riti'is& of t"e Spre&e 1orts re&oval of a
!radated in'o&e ta2 fro& t"e =ilson-5or&an tariff -ill+ He delivered a fa&os spee'" in w"i'"
"e said people &st not -e #'r'ified on a 'ross of !old+(
Ho&estead Stri.e*iron and steel wor.ers went on stri.e in P7 a!ainst t"e 1arne!ie Steel
1o&pany to protest salary red'tions+ He e&ployed stri.e--rea.in! Pin.erton se'rity !ards+
%epression of 1?93*t"e pri&ary 'ases were t"e dra&ati' !rowt" of t"e federal defi'itA
wit"drawal of -ritis" invest&ents fro& t"e A&eri'an &ar.et and t"e otward transfer of !oldA
loss of -siness 'onfiden'e+ ):F of t"e wor.for'e was eventally ne&ployed+
4ar'" of t"e Une&ployed*<a'o- 1o2ey led a &ar'" on =as"in!ton of "ndreds of
ne&ployed wor.ers as.in! for !overn&ent wor.er relief pro!ra&s+ T"e leaders were arrested+
Pll&an Stri.e*8!ene %e-s A&eri'an Railway Union str'. t"e Pll&an Pala'e 1ar 1o+ in
1"i'a!o over wa!e 'ts and Bo- losses+ 1leveland -ro.e t"e stri.e wit" t"e se of federal troops+
=ilson-5or&an Tariff*t"is prote'tive tariff did little to pro&ote overseas trade as a way to ease
t"e depression+ A provision a&ended to 'reate a !radal in'o&e ta2 was str'. down -y t"e
Spre&e 1ort+
%in!ley Tariff*raised prote'tion to new "i!"s for 'ertain 'o&&odities+
Anti-Saloon $ea!e*for&ed in 1?93+ =o&en were espe'ially 'on'erned a-ot t"e in'rease of
drn.enness drin! t"e depression+
=illia& Stead*predi'ted t"at A&eri'a prod'tivity and e'ono&i' stren!t" wold propel t"e US
to t"e forefront of world leaders"ip in t"e ):
t"
'entry+
T"e e'ono&y 1?9@-19:)*war wit" Spain provided t"e i&pets for e'ono&i' re'overy+
President Roosevelt pro&ised a #s;are deal( for all A&eri'an far&ers, wor.ers, 'ons&ers, and
-siness&en+ Pro!ressive e'ono&i' refor& was !eared to t"e reBvenation of free enterprise
'apitalis& followin! t"e 1?93 depression, and t"e destr'tion of ille!al &onopolies+
=ar wit" Spain /1?9?0*eastern and &idwestern 'ities tended to favor t"e war and -enefit fro&
it+ nort"eastern finan'ial 'enters were &ore 'atios a-ot war ntil 4ar'" 1?9?, and ;estioned
t"e finan'ial !ains of warti&e prod'tion at t"e e2pense of pea'eti&e e2pansion and
prod'tI&ar.et develop&ent+
$oss of &ar.ets, t"reats to A&eri'ans in 1-a, and t"e ina-ility of -ot" Spain and 1-a to
resolve t"e 1-an revoltion eit"er -y for'e or diplo&a'y led to 4'Ginleys re;est of 1on!ress
for a de'laration of war+ En 4ar'" )@, 4'Ginley as.ed Spain to 'all an ar&isti'e, a''ept
A&eri'an &ediation to end t"e war, and end t"e se of 'on'entration 'a&ps in 1-a+ ="en spain
refsed to 'o&ply, 4'Ginley as.ed 1on!ress to de'lare war+ T"e o-Be'tive of war was to
esta-lis" 1-an independen'e+
T"e US &ilitary was not prepared for a lar!e-s'ale 'onfrontation+ 4any people died fro&
disease+
After t"e US defeated Spain, it was fa'ed wit" t"e isse of w"at to do wit" its 'aptred
territories+ A &aBor p-li' de-ate ensed wit" 'riti's of land a';isition for&in! t"e Anti-
I&perialist $ea!e+ 4any people in -ot" 'a&ps favored US e'ono&i' e2pansion, -t "ad
diffi'ltly wit" t"e idea t"at a de&o'ra'y wold a'tally a''ept 'olonies and overseas ar&ies of
o''pations+
Treaty of Paris*se'red 1-an independen'e, t"e 'edin! of t"e P"ilippines, Perto Ri'o and
5a& to t"e US, and t"e pay&ent of L): &illion to Spain for t"e P"ilippines+
Cederal ,an.rpt'y A't*provided for &ediation -y t"e '"air of t"e Interstate 1o&&er'e
1o&&ission and t"e 'o&&issioner of t"e ,rea of $a-or in nresolved railroad la-or
'ontroversies+
1rren'y A't*T"e US standardi3ed t"e a&ont of !old in t"e dollar+ A separate !old reserve
was set apart fro& ot"er !eneral fnds, and !overn&ent -onds were sold to &aintain t"e reserve+
%e$o&e $etter and USS 4aine*Spanis" &inister de $o&e 'riti'i3ed 4'Ginley+ S"ortly
afterward t"e s"ip t"e USS 4aine e2ploded in Havana "ar-or+ T"e poplar de&and for war wit"
Spain !rew si!nifi'antly+
<o"n Hay*'alled for an open door poli'y wit" 1"ina+
Platt A&end&ent*provided t"at 1-a -e'o&e a virtal prote'torate of t"e US+ 1-a 'old not
&a.e wit" a forei!n state i&pairin! its independen'e or 'ontra't an e2'essive p-li' de-t+ It was
re;ired to allow t"e US to preserve order on t"e island and lease a naval -ase for 99 years+
Hay-Pandefote Treaty*a-ro!ated an earlier a!ree&ent to -ild Bointly an ist"&ian 'anal+ T"e
US was free nilaterally to 'onstr't, fortify, and &aintain a 'anal t"at wold -e open to all
s"ips+
Inslar 1ase*t"e spre&e 'ort de'ided t"at 'onstittional ri!"ts did not e2tend to territorial
possessions+ 1on!ress "ad t"e ri!"t to ad&inister ea'" island possession wit"ot 'onstittional
restraint+ In"a-itants of t"ose possessions did "ave t"e sa&e ri!"ts as A&eri'an 'iti3ens+
Roosevelt*did &'" to 'reate a -ipartisan 'oalition of li-eral refor&ers w"ose o-Be'tive was to
restrain 'orporate &onopoly and pro&ote e'ono&i' 'o&petition at "o&e and a-road+ He won t"e
spport of enli!"tened -siness leaders, t"e &iddle 'lass, 'ons&ers, and r-an and rral
wor.ers wit" "is pro&ise of a #s;are deal( for all+
Roosevelts anti-trst poli'y*pled!ed stri't enfor'e&ent of t"e S"er&an Anti-Trst A't to -rea.
p ille!al &onopolies and re!late lar!e 'orporations for t"e p-li' !ood t"ro!" "onest federal
!overn&ent ad&inistration+
Hep-rn A't*&e&-ers"ip of t"e Interstate 1o&&er'e 1o&&ission was in'reased fro& > to @+
T"e I11 'old set its own frei!"t rates, "ad its re!latory power e2tended over pipelines,
-rid!es, and e2press 'o&panies, and was e&powered to re;ire a nifor& syste& of a''ontin!
-y re!lated transportation 'o&panies+ T"is a't and t"e 8l.ins A't !ave teet" to t"e ori!inal
interstate 1o&&er'e A't of 1??@+
Pre Cood and %r! A't*pro"i-ited t"e &anfa'tre, sale, and transportation of adlterated or
poorly la-eled foods and dr!s in a''ordan'e wit" 'ons&er de&ands+
4eat Inspe'tion A't*provided for federal and sanitary re!lations and inspe'tions in &eat
pa'.in! fa'ilities+ Inspired -y Upton Sin'lairs t"e <n!le+
I&&nity of =itness A't*'orporate offi'ials 'old no lon!er &a.e a plea of i&&nity to avoid
testifyin! in 'ases dealin! wit" t"eir 'orporations ille!al a'tivities+
%epart&ent of 1o&&er'e and $a-or*a new 'a-inet position was 'reated to address t"e
'on'erns of -siness and la-or+ =it"in t"e depart&ent, t"e ,rea of 1orporations was
e&powered to investi!ate and report on t"e ille!al a'tivities of 'orporations+
1oal Stri.e*roosevelt inter'eded wit" !overn&ent &ediation to -rin! a-ot ne!otiations
-etween t"e United 4ine =or.ers nion and t"e ant"'ra'ite &ine owners after a -itter stri.e
over wa!es, safety 'onditions and nion re'o!nition+ T"is was t"e first ti&e t"at t"e !overn&ent
intervened in a la-or dispte wit"ot ato&ati'ally sidin! wit" &ana!e&ent+
Pani' of 19:@*o''rred partially as a reslt of ;estiona-le -an. spe'lation, a la'. of fle2i-le
&onetary and 'redit poli'ies, and a 'onservative !old standard+ T"is event 'alled attention to t"e
need for -an.in! refor& w"i'" wold lead to t"e Cederal Reserve Syste& in 1913+
Pana&a 1anal*roosevelt sed e2e'tive power to en!ineer t"e separation of Pana&a fro&
1ol&-ia, and t"e re'o!nition of Pana&a as a independent 'ontry+ T"e Hay-,na-6arilla
Treaty of 19:3 !ranted t"e US 'ontrol of t"e 'anal 3one in Pana&a+
Roosevelt 1orollary*t"e US reserved t"e ri!"t to intervene in t"e internal affairs of $atin
A&eri'an nations to .eep 8ropean powers fro& sin! &ilitary for'e to 'olle't de-ts in t"e
western "e&isp"ere+
Rio de <aneiro 1onferen'e*8li" Root atte&pted to de-e&p"asi3e US &ilitary and politi'al
intervention in order to pro&ote politi'al !oodwill, e'ono&i' develop&ent, trade, and finan'es
in $atin A&eri'a+ Roosevelt was &ovin! away fro& t"e #-i! sti'.( poli'y and towards #dollar
diplo&a'y+(
Taft-Gatsra 4e&o*t"e US and <apan pled!ed to &aintain t"e Epen %oor prin'iples in 1"ina+
<apan re'o!ni3ed A&eri'an 'ontrol over t"e P"ilippines and t"e US !ranted a <apanese
prote'torate over Gorea+
5entle&ens A!ree&ent*after n&eros in'idents of ra'ial dis'ri&ination a!ainst <apanese in
1A, <apan a!reed to li&it t"e e&i!ration of ns.illed <apanese wor.ers to t"e US+
5reat ="ite Cleet*in order to s"ow A&eri'an stren!t" to <apan and 1"ina, Roosevelt sent t"e
!reat w"ite naval fleet to Asian ports+
Taft*tried to 'ontine Roosevelts trst -stin! poli'ies and re'on'ile t"e old !ard
'onservatives and yon! pro!ressive refor&ers in t"e Rep-li'an Party+ He was lar!ely na-le to
"eal t"e party over s'" rifts as tariff refor&, 'onservation, and t"e al&ost di'tatorial power "eld
-y t"e rea'tionary Rep-li'an spea.er, <osep" 1annon+
Anti-1annon 1rsade*in 191:, rep-li'an pro!ressives Boined wit" %e&o'rats to strip Spea.er
1annon of "is power to appoint t"e 1o&&ittee on Rles and serve on it "i&self+ 1riti'al of
1annon, Taft failed to ali!n "i&self wit" t"e pro!ressives+
,allin!er-Pin'"ot %ispte*pro!ressives -a'.ed Pin'"ot, '"ief of t"e US Corest Servi'e, in "is
'"ar!e t"at t"e 'onservative Se'retary of t"e Interior, ,allin!er, was !ivin! away t"e nations
natral resor'es to private 'ooperate interests+ A 'on!ressional investi!atory 'o&&ittee fond
t"at ,allin!er "ad done not"in! ille!al, -t did a't in a &anner 'ontrary to t"e !overn&ents
environ&ental poli'ies+ Taft spported ,allin!er t"ro!" t"e 'ontroversy+
19
t"
A&end&ent*'reated a !radated in'o&e ta2+
4ann-8lins A't*e2tended t"e re!latory fn'tion of t"e Interstate 1o&&er'e 1o&&ission over
'a-le and wireless 'o&panies, and telep"one and tele!rap" linesA !ave t"e I11 power to -e!in its
own 'ort pro'eedin!s and sspend ;estiona-le ratesA and set p a separate -t te&porary
'o&&er'e 'ort to "andle rate dispte 'ases+
8le'tion of 191)*president Tafts ina-ility to &aintain party "ar&ony led Roosevelt to retrn to
national politi's+ He and "is spporters for&ed t"e Pro!ressive Party+
7ew 7ationalis&*'alled for stri'ter re!lation on lar!e 'orporations, 'reation of a tariff
'o&&ission, wo&ens sffra!e, &ini&& wa!e -enefits, dire't ele'tion of senators, initiative,
referend& and re'all, presidential pri&aries, and pro"i-ition of '"ild la-or+ Roosevelt also
'alled for a Cederal Trade 1o&&ission to re!late t"e -roader e'ono&y, a stron!er e2e'tive,
and &ore !overn&ent plannin!+
7ew Creedo&*=ilsons 'a&pai!n pro!ra&+ It was -ased on pro!ressive pro!ra&s si&ilar to
t"ose in t"e pro!ressive and rep-li'an parties+ =ilson, "owever, did not a!ree wit" Roosevelt
on t"e isse of -i! -siness+ =ilson 'alled for -rea.in! p lar!e 'orporations rat"er t"an Bst
re!latin! t"e&+ He also favored independen'e for t"e P"ilippines, and t"e e2e&ption fro&
prose'tion of la-or nions nder t"e S"er&an Anti-Trst A't+ He spported lower tariffs, a
!radated in'o&e ta2, -an.in! refor&, and dire't ele'tion of senators+ He was s.epti'al of -i!
-siness and -i! !overn&ent+
Underwood Si&&ons A't*lowered tariffs+ An in'o&e ta2 was also 'reated
1@
t"
A&end&ent*dire't ele'tion of senators
Cederal Reserve ,an.in! Syste&*provided re!lation and fle2i-ility to &onetary poli'y
Cederal Trade 1o&&ission*investi!ated nfair -siness pra'ti'es
1layton Anti-Trst A't*i&proved on t"e S"er&an A't and prote'ted la-or nions and far&
'ooperatives fro& prose'tion
Geatin!-Ewen A't*prote'ted '"ildren in t"e wor. for'e
Cederal Car& $oan A't*'redit refor& for a!ri'ltre
7ational 4onetary 1o&&ission*re'o&&ended w"at later -e'a&e t"e -asis for t"e Cederal
Reserve Syste& in 1913 wit" a se're Treasry reserve and -ran'" -an.s to add and s-tra't
'rren'y fro& t"e &onetary spply to a''o&&odate t"e needs of t"e e'ono&y+
Payne-Aldri'" Tariff*ori!inally intended to lower t"e tariff, -t trned into a prote'tive
&easre -y senate a&end&ents+ Pro!ressive refor&ers felt -etrayed -y spe'ial interests opposed
to 'ons&er-pri'e 'on'erns+
Postal Savin!s ,an.s*'ertain US post offi'es were at"ori3ed to re'eive deposits and pay
interest
7ia!ara 4ove&ent*fonded -y =8, %,ois+ 1alled for federal le!islation to prote't ra'ial
e;ality, and fll ri!"ts of 'iti3ens"ip+
International =or.ers of t"e =orld*pro&oted violen'e in revoltion+ It or!ani3ed effe'tive
stri.es in t"e te2tile indstry in 191), and a&on! a few western &inin! !rops, -t !enerally "ad
little appeal to t"e avera!e A&eri'an wor.er+ After t"e Red S'are of 1919, t"e !overn&ent
wor.ed to s&as" t"e I== and deport &any of its i&&i!rant leaders and &e&-ers+
%ollar %iplo&a'y*president Taft so!"t to avoid &ilitary intervention, espe'ially in $atin
A&eri'a, -y repla'in! #-i! sti'.( poli'ies wit" #dollar diplo&a'y( in t"e e2pe'tation t"at
A&eri'an finan'ial invest&ents wold en'ora!e e'ono&i', so'ial, and politi'al sta-ility+ T"is
idea proved an illsion as invest&ents never really filtered t"o!" all levels of $atin A&eri'an
so'ieties, nor did s'" invest&ents !enerate de&o'rati' refor&s+
$od!e 1orollary to t"e 4onroe %o'trine*w"en a <apanese syndi'ate &oved to pr'"ase lar!e
tra'ts of land in 4e2i'os $ower 1A, $od!e introd'ed a resoltion to -lo'. t"e <apanese
invest&ent+ T"e 1orollary went frt"er to e2'lde non-8ropean powers fro& t"e western
"e&isp"ere nder t"e 4onroe %o'trine+
,ryans Ar-itration Treaties*=illia& <ennin!s ,ryan 'ontined t"e poli'ies of Roosevelt and
Taft to pro&ote ar-itration of disptes in $atin A&eri'a and elsew"ere+
Root-Ta.a"ira A!ree&ent*reiterated t"e stats ;o in Asia esta-lis"ed -y t"e US and <apan -y
t"e Taft-Gatsra 4e&o+
=ilson and =orld =ar I
Cederal Reserve A't*followin! t"e Pani' of 19:@, it was !enerally a!reed t"at t"ere was need
for &ore sta-ility in t"e -an.in! indstry and for a 'rren'y spply w"i'" wold e2pand and
'ontra't to &eet -siness needs+
3 points of view on t"e s-Be't developed+ 4ost rep-li'ans -a'.ed t"e proposal of a
'o&&ission for a lar!e 'entral -an. 'ontrolled -y private -an.s+ ,ryanite de&o'rats, pointin! to
t"e =all Street inflen'e e2posed -y t"e 1913 PBo 1o&&ittee investi!ation of t"e &oney trst,
wanted a reserve syste& and 'rren'y owned and 'ontrolled -y t"e !overn&ent+ 1onservative
de&o'rats favored a de'entrali3ed syste& privately owned and 'ontrolled -t free fro& =all
Street+
T"e -ill w"i'" passed was a 'o&pro&ise &easre+ T"e law divided t"e nation into 1) re!ion
wit" a Cederal Reserve -an. in ea'" re!ion+ 1o&&er'ial -an.s in t"e re!ion owned t"e Cederal
Reserve -an. -y pr'"asin! sto'. e;al to 9F of t"eir 'apital and srpls, and ele'ted t"e
dire'tors of t"e -an.+ 7ational -an.s were re;ired to Boin t"e syste&, and state -an.s were
invited to Boin+ T"e Cederal Reserve ,an.s "eld t"e !old reserves of t"eir &e&-ers+ Cederal
Reserve ,an.s loaned &oney to &e&-er -an.s -y redis'ontin! t"eir 'o&&er'ial and
a!ri'ltral paper, and t"e notes of inde-tedness of -sinesses and far&ers to t"e &e&-er -an.s
were "eld as 'ollateral+ T"is allowed t"e Cederal Reserve to 'ontrol interest rates -y raisin! or
lowerin! t"e dis'ont rate+
T"e &oney loaned to t"e &e&-er -an.s was in t"e for& of a new 'rren'y, Cederal Reserve
7otes, w"i'" was -a'.ed 9:F -y 'o&&er'ial paper and 4:F !old+ T"is 'rren'y was desi!ned
to e2pand and 'ontra't wit" t"e vol&e of -siness a'tivity and -orrowin!+
T"e Cederal Reserve Syste& servi'ed t"e finan'ial needs of t"e federal !overn&ent+ T"e syste&
was spervised and poli'y was set -y a national Cederal Reserve ,oard+
T"e 1layton Anti-Trst A't of 1914*t"is law spple&ented and interpreted t"e S"er&an Anti-
Trst A't of 1?9:+ Under its provisions, sto'. owners"ip -y a 'orporation in a 'o&petin! was
pro"i-ited+ Interlo'.in! dire'tories of 'o&petin! 'orporations were pro"i-ited+ Pri'e
dis'ri&ination and e2'lsive 'ontra'ts w"i'" red'ed 'o&petition were pro"i-ited+ Effi'ers of
'orporations 'old not -e "eld personally responsi-le for violations of antitrst laws+ $a-or
nions and a!ri'ltral or!ani3ations were not to -e 'onsidered 'o&-inations or 'onspira'ies in
restraint of trade+
Cederal Trade 1o&&ission A't of 1914*pro"i-ited all nfair trade pra'ti'es wit"ot definin!
t"e&, and 'reated a 'o&&ission of 8ve &e&-ers appointed -y t"e president+ T"e 'o&&ission
was e&powered to isse 'ease and desist orders to 'orporations to stop a'tions 'onsidered to -e
in restraint of trade, and to -rin! sit in t"e 'orts if t"e orders were not o-eyed+ Cir&s 'old also
'ontest t"e orders in 'ort+
Cederal Car& $oan A't of 1919*divided t"e 'ontry into 1) re!ions and esta-lis"ed a Cederal
$and ,an. in ea'" re!ion+ Cnded pri&arily wit" federal &oney, t"e -an.s &ade far& &ort!a!e
loans at reasona-le interest rates+
1"ild $a-or A't of 1919*for-ade s"ip&ent in interstate 'o&&er'e of prod'ts w"ose
prod'tion "ad involved t"e la-or of '"ildren+ T"e le!islation was espe'ially si!nifi'ant -e'ase
it was t"e first ti&e t"at 1on!ress re!lated la-or wit"in a state sin! t"e interstate 'o&&er'e
power+
Ada&son A't of 1919*&andated an ? "or day for wor.ers on interstate railroads wit" ti&e and
a "alf for overti&e and a &a2i&& of 19 "ors a s"ift+
Gerr-4'5illi'ddy A't of 1919*initiated a pro!ra& of wor.&ans 'o&pensation for federal
e&ployees+
A&eri'an 7etrality*w"en ==I -ro.e ot in 8rope, =ilson issed a pro'la&ation of
netrality+ %espite t"at a'tion, t"e US drifted towards 'loser ties wit" t"e Allies, espe'ially
,ritain and Cran'e+ ="ile &any A&eri'ans were sy&pat"eti' wit" t"e 1entral Powers, t"e
&aBority "oped for an Allied vi'tory+ Alt"o!" ,ritis" naval power effe'tively prevented
A&eri'a trade wit" t"e 1entral Powers, t"e US li&ited itself to for&al diplo&ati' protests+ T"e
US -e'a&e a &aBor spplier of Allied &nitions, food, and raw &aterials+
S-&arine 1risis of 191>*t"e 5er&ans -e!an t"e se of s-&arines in 191>, annon'ed a
s-&arine -lo'.ade of Allies, and -e!an to atta'. nar&ed ,ritis" passen!er s"ips in t"e
Atlanti'+ =ilson insisted to t"e 5er&ans t"at A&eri'ans "ad a ri!"t as netrals to travel safely on
s'" s"ips, and t"at international law re;ired a war s"ip to arran!e for t"e safe re&oval of
passen!ers -efore atta'.in! s'" a s"ip+ After t"e sin.in! of t"e Ara-i', t"e 5er&ans !ave t"e
#Ara-i' pled!e( to stop atta'.s on nar&ed passen!er s"ips+
5ore-4'$e&ore Resoltion*drin! t"e latter part of 191> t"e ,ritis" -e!an to ar& t"eir
&er'"ant s"ips+ 4any A&eri'ans t"o!"t it in t"e interest of t"e US netrality t"at A&eri'ans
not travel on t"e vessels of -elli!erents+ In 1919 t"e 5ore-4'$e&ore Resoltion to pro"i-it
A&eri'an travel on ar&ed s"ips or on s"ips 'arryin! &nitions was introd'ed in 1on!ress, -t
was defeated in -ot" "oses+
Ssse2 Pled!e*5er&any a!reed to 'ease srprise s-&arine atta'.s on s"ippin!+ 5er&any
a!reed, -t t"reatened to res&e s-&arine warfare if t"e ,ritis" did not stop t"eir violations of
international law+
%e'laration of =ar rationale*=ilson -elieved t"at t"e Ki&&er&an tele!ra& s"owed t"at t"e
5er&ans were not trstwort"y and wold eventally !o to war a!ainst t"e US+ He also felt t"at
ar&ed netrality 'old not -e ade;ately prote't A&eri'an s"ippin!+ T"e de&o'rati' !overn&ent
esta-lis"ed in Rssia after t"e revoltion in 4ar'" 191@ also proved &ore a''epta-le as an ally
t"an t"e Tsarist !overn&ent+ He was 'onvin'ed t"at t"e US 'old "asten t"e end of t"e war and
insre for itself a &aBor role in desi!nin! a lastin! pea'e+
1on'il of 7ational %efense*esta-lis"ed in 1919 -efore A&eri'an entry into t"e war to
'oordinate indstrial &o-ili3ation, -t it "ad little at"ority+
=ar Indstries ,oard*'ontrolled raw &aterials, prod'tion, pri'es, and la-or relations+ T"e
&ilitary for'es refsed to 'ooperate wit" t"e 'ivilian a!en'y in pr'"asin! t"eir spplies+ It
allo'ated raw &aterials, standardi3ed &anfa'tred prod'ts, institted stri't prod'tion and
pr'"asin! 'ontrols, and paid "i!" pri'es to -sinesses for t"eir prod'ts+
$ever A't of 191@*!ave t"e president -road 'ontrol over t"e prod'tion, pri'e, and distri-tion
of food and fel+
Cood Ad&inistration*fi2ed food pri'es to en'ora!e prod'tion and en'ora!ed food
'onservation+
Cel Ad&inistration*'on'erned pri&arily wit" 'oal prod'tion and 'onservation -e'ase 'oal
was t"e predo&inant fel of t"e ti&e and was in s"ort spply drin! t"e winter of 191@-1?+
1onservation was en'ora!ed+
United States Railroad Ad&inistration*too. over and operated all t"e railroads in t"e nation as
one syste&+ T"e !overn&ent paid t"e owners rent for t"e se of t"eir lines, i&proved tra'.s and
e;ip&ent, and &ade t"e railroad syste& &ore effi'ient+
=ar $a-or ,oard*"eard la-or disptes, pro"i-ited stri.es, -t also en'ora!ed "i!"er wa!es,
t"e ? "or day, and nioni3ation+
Revene A't of 191?*i&posed a personal in'o&e ta2 of 9F on in'o&es p to L4:::, and 1)F
on in'o&es a-ove t"at a&ont+
1o&&ittee on P-li' Infor&ation*esta-lis"ed a syste& of volntary 'ensors"ip of t"e press,
and or!ani3ed paid and volnteer writers, le'trers, artists, and ot"er professionals in a
propa!anda 'a&pai!n to -ild spport for t"e A&eri'a 'ase as an idealisti' 'rsade, and to
portray t"e 5er&ans as "ostile and -eastial+ T"e 1PI set p volnteer $i-erty $ea!es in every
'o&&nity, and r!ed t"eir &e&-ers, and 'iti3ens at lar!e, to spy on t"eir nei!"-ors, espe'ially
t"ose wit" forei!n na&es, and to report any sspi'ios words or a'tions to t"e Bsti'e
depart&ent+ As a reslt of t"e a'tivities of t"e 1PI and t"e vi!ilante !rops, 5er&an lan!a!e
instr'tion and 5er&an &si' were -anned in &any areas+
8spiona!e A't of 191@*provided for fines and i&prison&ent for persons w"o &ade false
state&ents w"i'" aided t"e ene&y, in'ited re-ellion in t"e &ilitary, or o-str'ted re'rit&ent or
t"e draft+ Printed &atter advo'atin! treason or insrre'tion 'old -e e2'lded fro& t"e &ails+
Sedition A't of 191?*for-ade any 'riti'is& of t"e !overn&ent, fla!, or nifor&, even if t"ere
were not detri&ental 'onse;en'es, and e2panded t"e &ail e2'lsion+
Pro"i-ition*proponents of pro"i-ition stressed t"e need for &ilitary personnel to -e so-er and
t"e need to 'onserve !rain for food, and depi'ted t"e "ated 5er&an as dis!stin! -eer drin.ers+
14 Points*fro& t"e ti&e of t"e A&eri'an entry into t"e war, =ilson "ad &aintained t"at t"e war
wold &a.e t"e world safe for de&o'ra'y+ He insisted t"at t"ere s"old -e pea'e wit"ot vi'tory+
T"e first > points 'alled for open rat"er t"an se'ret pea'e treaties, freedo& of t"e seas, free trade,
ar&s red'tion, and a fair adBst&ent of 'olonial 'lai&s+ T"e ne2t ? points were 'on'erned wit"
t"e national aspirations of varios 8ropean peoples and t"e adBst&ent of -ondaries+ T"e 14
t"
point 'alled for an asso'iation of nations to preserve t"e pea'e+ In t"e US, &any people opposed
t"e pea'e plan t"at ris.ed A&eri'an involve&ent in anot"er 8ropean war+
6ersailles Treaty*t"e $ea!e of 7ations was for&ed, i&ple&entin! t"e point w"i'" =ilson
'onsidered t"e &ost i&portant+ 5er&any was "eld responsi-le for 'asin! t"e war, and re;ired
to a!ree to pay t"e Allies for all 'ivilian da&a!e and veterans 'ostsA t"e 5er&an ar&y and navy
were li&ited to tiny defensive for'esA and t"e R"ine -an. was de'lared a &ilitary free 3one
forever and o''pied -y t"e Cren'" for 1> years+ 7ew nations were for&ed -ased on t"e idea of
self-deter&ination for all nationalities+ 5er&an 'olonies were &ade &andates of t"e $ea!e of
7ations+
In t"e senate, a !rop of rep-li'an Mirre'on'ila-les t"o!"t t"at t"e US s"old not -e a &e&-er
of t"e $ea!e of 7ations nder any 'ir'&stan'e+ Et"er !rops were willin! to a''ept t"e treaty
wit" so&e '"an!es+ T"e &ain o-Be'tion 'entered on se'tion J+ t"e leader of t"e opposition was
Henry 1a-ot $od!e+
%e&o-ili3ation*&e&-ers of t"e ar&ed for'es were rapidly dis'"ar!ed+ 1on!ress provided for
wonded veterans t"ro!" a syste& of veterans "ospitals nder t"e 6eterans ,rea, and
fnded relief, espe'ially food spplies, for 8rope+ T"e warti&e a!en'ies for t"e 'ontrol of t"e
e'ono&y were soon dis-anded+
8s'"-1&&in!s A't of 19):*retrned t"e railroads to private owners"ip and operation+ It did
e2tend Interstate 1o&&er'e 1o&&ission 'ontrol over t"eir rates and finan'ial affairs, and
allowed spervised poolin!+
1?
t"
A&end&ent*pro"i-ited li;or+
19
t"
A&end&ent*wo&an sffra!e+ T"e first ele'tion t"is applied for was 19):+
Postwar 8'ono&y*despite fear of ne&ploy&ent wit" t"e retrn of veterans to la-or for'e and
t"e end of war pr'"ases, t"e A&eri'an e'ono&y -oo&ed drin! 1919 and t"e first "alf of 19):+
1ons&ers "ad &oney fro& "i!" wa!es drin! t"e war, and t"e 8ropean de&and for A&eri'an
food and &anfa'tred prod'ts 'ontined for so&e &ont"s after t"e war+ T"e de&and for !oods
reslted in rapid inflation+
Stri.es*nions were en'ora!ed -y t"e !ains t"ey "ad &ade drin! t"e war and t"o!"t t"ey
"ad t"e spport of p-li' opinion+ However, t"e 1o&&nist Revoltion in Rssia in 191@ soon
inspired in &any A&eri'ans a fear of violen'e and revoltion -y wor.ers+
T"e Red S'are*A&eri'ans feared t"e spread of Rssian 'o&&nis& to t"e US, and &any
interpreted t"e widespread stri.es of 1919 as 'o&&nist-inspired and t"e -e!innin! of t"e
revoltion+ ,o&-s sent t"ro!" t"e &ail to pro&inent !overn&ent and -siness leaders in April
1919 see&ed to 'onfir& t"eir fears+
Pal&er Raids*Pal&er was one of t"e tar!ets of t"e anony&os -o&-ers in t"e sprin! of 1919+
He was also an aspirant for t"e %e&o'rati' no&ination for president in 19):, and "e reali3ed t"at
&any A&eri'ans saw t"e t"reat of a 'o&&nist revoltion as a !rave dan!er+ In 7ove&-er 1919
Pal&ers a!ents arrested al&ost @:: people+ En <an ), 19):, <sti'e %epart&ent a!ents, lo'al
poli'e, and vi!ilantes arrested 4::: people a''sed of -ein! 'o&&nists+
Ra'e Riots of 1919*drin! t"e war a-ot +> &illion -la'.s "ad &i!rated fro& t"e sot" to
indstrial 'ities, &ostly in t"e nort" and 4idwest, to find e&ploy&ent+ After t"e war, w"ite
"ostility -ased on 'o&petition for lower-paid Bo-s and -la'. en'roa'"&ent into nei!"-or"oods
led to ra'e riots in )> 'ities+ T"e 1"i'a!o riot was t"e worst+
The Roarin2 T&entie" and Economic Collap"e (1$'.-1$'$)
Cla&in! yot"*e&p"asi3ed se2al pro&is'ity and drin.in!, as well as new for&s of dan'in!+
T"e ato&o-ile, -y !ivin! people &o-ility and priva'y, was !enerally 'onsidered to "ave
'ontri-ted to se2al li'ense+
Clappers*yon! wo&en w"o were independent, assertive, and pro&is'os+
4ar!aret San!er*pro&oted -irt" 'ontrol to r-an wo&en+
4ar's 5arvey*fonded t"e Universal 7e!ro I&prove&ent Asso'iation in 1914+ He advo'ated
-la'. ra'ial pride and separatis& rat"er t"an inte!ration, and a retrn of -la'.s to Afri'a+ So&e
of "is ideas alienated t"e older -la'. or!ani3ations+ He developed a lar!e followin! a&on!
sot"ern -la'.s+ He r!ed "is followers to -y only fro& -la'.s, and fonded a '"ain of
-sinesses+ He sold sto'. for t"e ,la'. Star Stea&s"ip $ine, w"i'" wold ta.e &i!rants to
Afri'a+ His le!a'y was an e&p"asis on -la'. pride and self-respe't+
S&it"-H!"es A't of 191@*provided federal fndin! for a!ri'ltral and te'"ni'al stdies+
Gl Gl2 Glan*its prpose was to inti&idate -la'.s, w"o were e2perien'in! an apparent rise in
stats drin! ==I+ It re&ained s&all ntil 19): w"en ) advertisin! e2perts, 1lar. and Tyler,
were "ired -y t"e leaders"ip+ T"ey sed &odern advertisin! to re'rit &e&-ers, '"ar!ed an
initiation fee, and &ade additional &oney t"ro!" t"e sale of re!alia and e&-le&s+ T"e lar!est
'on'entrations of &e&-ers were in t"e sot", t"e sot"west, t"e 4idwest, 1A, and ER+ T"ey
see&ed to appeal &ost to t"e lower &iddle 'lass &en in towns and s&all 'ities+ T"ey opposed
-la'.s and 1at"oli's, <ews and i&&i!rants+ It also atta'.ed -ootle!!ers, drn.ards, !a&-lers,
and adlterers for violatin! &oral standards+ T"e Glan -e!an to de'line after 19)> w"en it was
"it -y s'andals, espe'ially t"e &rder 'onvi'tion of %avid Step"enson+ T"e &ain reason for its
de'line was t"e stan'" opposition of editors, politi'ians, and ot"er p-li' fi!res w"o e2posed
its lawlessness and terroris&+
8&er!en'y Dota A't*li&ited i&&i!ration -y nation to 3F of t"e n&-er of forei!n--orn
persons fro& t"at nation in t"e US in 191:+ It severely li&ited t"e i&&i!ration of Italians,
5ree.s, Poles, and eastern 8ropean <ews+
7ational Eri!ins A't*set t"e ;otas at )F of t"e n&-er of forei!n--orn persons of t"at
nationality in t"e US in 1?9:, e2'lded all Asians, and i&posed an annal &a2i&& of 194,:::+
6olstead A't*enfor'ed t"e 1?
t"
A&end&ent+ 8nfor'e&ent was reasona-ly effe'tive in so&e
rral sot"ern and 4idwestern states t"at "ad -een dry -efore t"e a&end&ent+ In r-an areas
w"ere -ot" forei!n--orn and native 'iti3ens often -elieved t"at t"eir li-erty "ad -een infrin!ed
pon, neit"er t"e p-li' nor t"eir ele'ted offi'ials were interested in enfor'e&ent+
Spea.easies*se'ret -ars opened -y -ootle!!ers+
Al 1apone*t"e &ost fa&os of t"e -ootle!!in! !an!sters+
S'opes Trial*fnda&entalist Protestants, nder t"e leaders"ip of =illia& <ennin!s ,ryan,
-e!an a 'a&pai!n in 19)1 to pro"i-it t"e tea'"in! of evoltion in s'"ools+ T"e idea was poplar
in t"e sot"+ In 19)> t"e T7 le!islatre passed a law t"at for-ade any tea'"er in t"e states
s'"ools or 'olle!es to tea'" evoltion+ T"e A&eri'an 1ivil $i-erties Union re'rited <o"n
T"o&as S'opes to -e a test 'ase -y -rea.in! t"e law+ He was defended -y 1laren'e %arrow+ T"e
trail attra'ted national attention t"ro!" t"e newspaper and radio 'overa!e+ T"e Bd!e refsed to
allow e2pert testi&ony+ ,ot" sides 'lai&ed a &oral vi'tory+
Sa''o and 6an3etti*Italian i&&i!rants and anar'"ists w"o were tried for &rder+ T"ere was
&'" protest in t"e US and 8rope t"at t"ey "ad not re'eived a fair trial+
Hardin!*pardoned 8!ene %e-s for "is 'onvi'tion nder t"e 8spiona!e A't+ He persaded US
Steel to !ive wor.ers t"e ? "or day+ His e'ono&i' p"ilosop"y was 'onservative+ Several of "is
friends w"o& "e appointed to offi'e -e'a&e involved in &aBor finan'ial s'andals+
Andrew 4ellon*-elieved in low ta2es and !overn&ent e'ono&y to free t"e ri'" fro&
#oppressive( ta2es and t"s en'ora!e invest&ent+
Revene A'ts of 19)1 and 19)4*'t t"e &ini&& ta2 rates to >:F and t"en to 4:F+ Ta2es in
lower -ra'.ets were also red'ed, -t in"eritan'e and 'orporate in'o&e ta2es were retained+
Cordeny-4'1&-er Tariff*4ellon so!"t s-stantial in'reases in t"e tariffs, -t t"ere was a
'o&pro&ise wit" t"e far& -lo'+ T"e tariff i&posed "i!" rates on far& prod'ts and prote'ted
s'" infant indstries as rayon, '"ina, toys, and '"e&i'als+ 4ost ot"er ite&s re'eived &oderate
prote'tion+ T"e president 'old raise or lower t"e rates on t"e re'o&&endation of t"e Tariff
1o&&ission+
,d!et and A''ontin! A't of 19)1*t"e federal !overn&ent "ad a nified -d!et for t"e first
ti&e+ T"e law also provided for a dire'tor of t"e -d!et to assist in its preparation, and a
'o&ptroller !eneral to adit !overn&ent a''onts+
Teapot %o&e S'andal*se'retary of t"e Interior Al-ert Call in 19)1 se'red t"e transfer of
several naval oil reserves to "is Brisdi'tion+ In 19)) "e se'retly leased reserves at Teapot %o&e
to Harry Sin'lair of 4on&ot" Eil and at 8l. Hills in 1A to 8dward %o"e&y of Pan-A&eri'an
Petrole&+
Ro-ert $aCollette*for&ed a new Pro!ressive Party wit" spport fro& 4idwest far& !rops,
so'ialists, and t"e A&eri'an Cederation of $a-or+ T"e platfor& atta'.ed &onopolies and 'alled
for t"e nationali3ation of railroads, t"e dire't ele'tion of t"e president, and ot"er refor&s+
1alvin 1oolid!e*provided no presidential leaders"ip+
4'7ary-Ha!en ,ill*t"e !overn&ent wold -y and resell in t"e do&esti' &ar.et a
'o&&odity s'" as w"eat at t"e world pri'e pls t"e tariff+ T"e srpls wold -e sold a-road at
t"e world pri'e, and t"e differen'e &ade p -y an e;ali3ation fee on all far&ers in proportion to
t"e a&ont of t"e 'o&&odity t"ey "ad sold+ ="en far& 'onditions did not i&prove, t"e idea was
in'orporated in t"e 4'7ary-Ha!en ,ill, w"i'" passed 1on!ress in 19)@, -t was vetoed -y
1oolid!e+
Revene A't of 19)9*4ellons ta2 poli'ies were finally i&ple&ented -y t"e Revene A't of
19)9, w"i'" red'ed t"e -asi' in'o&e ta2, 't t"e srta2, a-olis"ed t"e !ift ta2, and 't t"e
estate ta2 in "alf+
T"e =as"in!ton 1onferen'e*a series of pa'ts t"at &aintained a ratio of naval tonna!e, 1"inas
open door poli'y, and t"e &tal respe't of possessions in t"e Pa'ifi'+
%awes Plan*desi!ned to "elp 5er&any repay its de-ts+ A&eri'an -an.s &ade loans to
5er&any+
Gello!!-,riand Pa't*renon'ed war as an instr&ent of national poli'y+ T"ere were no
enfor'e&ent provisions+
Hoover*-elieved t"at an asso'iative e'ono&i' syste& wit" volntary 'ooperation of -siness
and !overn&ent wold ena-le t"e US to a-olis" poverty t"ro!" 'ontined e'ono&i' !rowt"+
T"e 5reat %epression and t"e 7ew %eal /19)9-19410
A!ri'ltral 4ar.etin! A't*'reated t"e Cederal Car& ,oard wit" a revolvin! fnd to lend t"e
a!ri'ltral 'ooperatives to -y t"e 'o&&odities s'" as w"eat and 'otton, and "old t"e& for
"i!"er pri'es+
Hawley-S&oot Tariff*raised dties a!ri'ltral and &anfa'tred i&ports+ It did not"in! of
si!nifi'an'e to i&prove t"e e'ono&y+
6olntaris&*"oover -elieved t"at volntary 'ooperation wold ena-le t"e 'ontry to weat"er
t"e depression+ He r!ed -siness leaders to avoid layoffs of wor.ers and wa!e 'ts, and "e
se'red no-stri.e pled!es fro& la-or leaders+ He r!ed all 'iti3ens to 'ontri-te to '"arities to
"elp alleviate t"e sfferin!+
Re'onstr'tion Cinan'e 1orporation*'old -orrow for loans to railroads, -an.s, and ot"er
finan'ial instittions+ It prevented t"e failre of -asi' fir&s on w"i'" &any ot"er ele&ents of t"e
e'ono&y depended, -t was 'riti'i3ed -y s'" as relief for t"e ri'"+
Cederal Ho&e $oan ,an. A't*inBe'ted 'apital into newly 'reated "o&e loan -an.s so t"at loans
'old -e &ade to -ildin! and loan asso'iations, savin! -an.s, and insran'e 'o&panies to "elp
t"e& avoid fore'losres on "o&es+
,ons Ar&y*ne&ployed veterans w"o went to =as"in!ton to lo--y 1on!ress for i&&ediate
pay&ent of t"e -ons w"i'" "ad approved in 19)9+ Hoover eventally "ad to order t"e ar&y to
re&ove t"e&+
Car& Holiday Asso'iation*'alled for a far& stri.e in A!st 193)+ T"ey r!ed far&ers not to
ta.e t"eir prod'ts to &ar.et in an effort to raise far& pri'es+
Cran.lin Roosevelt*'reated t"e 7ew %eal+
)1
st
A&end&ent*repealed pro"i-ition+
8&er!en'y ,an.in! Relief A't*provided additional fnds for -an.s fro& t"e RC1 and Cederal
Reserve, allowed t"e Treasry to open sond -an.s after 1: days and to &er!e nsond ones,
and for-ade t"e "oardin! or e2port of !old+
,an.in! A't of 1933I5lass-Stea!all A't*esta-lis"ed t"e Cederal %eposit Insran'e 1orporation
to insre individal deposits in 'o&&er'ial -an.s, and separated 'o&&er'ial -an.in! fro& t"e
&ore spe'lative a'tivity of invest&ent -an.in!+
Ho&e Ewners $oan 1orporation*"ad at"ority to -orrow &oney to refinan'e "o&e &ort!a!es
and t"s prevent fore'losres+
Se'rities and 82'"an!e 1o&&ission*spervised sto'. e2'"an!es and pnis"ed frad in
se'rities tradin!+
Cederal Hosin! Ad&inistration*insred lon! ter&, low interest &ort!a!es for "o&e
'onstr'tion and repair+
Cederal 8&er!en'y Relief A't*appropriated L>:: &illion for aid to t"e poor to -e distri-ted
-y state and lo'al !overn&ents+ Half of t"e fnds were to -e distri-ted on a one to 3 &at'"in!
-asis wit" t"e states+ It also esta-lis"ed t"e Cederal 8&er!en'y Relief Ad&inistration nder
Harry Hop.ins+
1ivilian 1onservation 1orps*enrolled yon! &en fro& fa&ilies on relief to !o to 'a&ps w"ere
t"ey wor.ed on flood 'ontrol, soil 'onservation, and forest proBe'ts nder t"e dire'tion of t"e
=ar %epart&ent+
P-li' =or.s Ad&inistration*!ave &oney to state and lo'al !overn&ents for -ildin! proBe'ts
s'" as s'"ools, "i!"ways, and "ospitals+
A!ri'ltral AdBst&ent A't*'reated t"e A!ri'ltral AdBst&ent Ad&inistration+ It so!"t to
retrn far& pri'es to parity wit" t"ose of 19:9 to 1914+ Car&ers a!reed to red'e prod'tion of
prin'ipal far& 'o&&odities and were paid a s-sidy in retrn+ T"e &oney 'a&e fro& a ta2 on
t"e pro'essin! of t"e 'o&&odities+ Car& pri'es in'reased, -t tenants and s"are'roppers were
"rt w"en owners too. land ot of 'ltivation+
Cederal $oan Car& A't*'onsolidated all far& 'redit pro!ra&s into t"e Car& 1redit
Ad&inistration to &a.e low-interest loans for far& &ort!a!es and ot"er a!ri'ltral prposes+
Cra3ier-$e&.e Car& ,an.rpt'y A't of 1934*allowed far&ers to defer fore'losre on t"eir
land w"ile t"ey o-tained new finan'in!, and "elped t"e& to re'over property already lost+
7ational Indstrial Re'overy A't*so!"t to sta-ili3e t"e e'ono&y -y preventin! e2tre&e
'o&petition, la-or-&ana!e&ent 'onfli'ts, and over prod'tion+ A -oard 'o&posed of indstrial
and la-or leaders in ea'" indstry drew p a 'ode for t"at indstry w"i'" set &ini&& pri'es,
&ini&& wa!es, &a2i&& wor. "ors, prod'tion li&its, and ;otas+ Antitrst laws were
te&porarily sspended+ T"is approa'" was -ased on t"e idea of &any e'ono&ists of t"e ti&e+
Se'tion @a*!ave wor.ers t"e ri!"t to Boin nions and to -ar!ain 'olle'tively+
7ational Re'overy Ad&inistration*'reated to enfor'e t"e law and !enerate p-li' ent"sias&
for it+
Tennessee 6alley At"ority*-ilt da&s to stop floodin! and soil erosion, i&prove navi!ation,
and !enerate "ydroele'tri' power+ It also &ade nitrates for fertili3er, 'ond'ted de&onstration
proBe'ts for far&ers, en!a!ed in reforestation, and atte&pted to re"a-ilitate t"e w"ole area+
A&eri'an $i-erty $ea!e*for&ed in 1934 -y 'onservatives to defend -siness interests and
pro&ote t"e open s"op+
Eld A!e Revolvin! Pension Plan*advan'ed -y Cran'is Towns"end+ T"e plan proposed t"at
every retired person over 9: re'eive a &ont"ly pension wit" t"e re;ire&ent t"at t"e &oney -e
spent wit"in t"e &ont"+ T"e plan wold -e fnded -y a national !ross sales ta2+ Towns"end
'lai&ed t"at it wold end t"e depression -y pttin! &oney into 'ir'lation+
S"are Er =ealt" So'iety*fonded -y Hey $on!+ It 'alled for t"e 'onfis'ation of all fortnes
over > &illion dollars and a ta2 of one "ndred per'ent on annal in'o&es over 1 &illion+ =it"
t"e &oney, t"e !overn&ent wold provide s-sidies to every fa&ily+
7ational Union for So'ial <sti'e*"eaded -y 1"arles 1o!"lin+ It advo'ated an inflationary
'rren'y and was anti-Se&iti'+
=or.s Pro!ress Ad&inistration*e&ployed people fro& t"e relief rolls for 3: "ors a wee. at
pay do-le t"e relief pay&ent+ 4ostly did 'onstr'tion Bo-s+
7ational Hot" Ad&inistration*provided part Bo-s for "i!" s'"ool and 'olle!e stdents so t"at
t"ey 'old stay in s'"ool+
Rral 8le'trifi'ation Ad&inistration*provided loans and =PA la-or to ele'tri' 'ooperatives to
-ild lines into rral areas not served -y private 'o&panies+
Resettle&ent Ad&inistration*relo'ated destitte fa&ilies to new "o&estead 'o&&nities+
=a!ner A't*reaffir&ed la-ors ri!"t to nioni3e, pro"i-ited nfair la-or pra'ti'es, and 'reated
t"e 7ational $a-or Relations ,oard to oversee and insre fairness in la-or-&ana!e&ent
relations+ It reslted in an in'rease in nion &e&-ers"ip, -t at t"e e2pense of -itter 'onflit
wit"in t"e la-or &ove&ent+
So'ial Se'rity A't*esta-lis"ed a retire&ent plan fnded -y a ta2 on wa!es paid e;ally -y
e&ployee and e&ployer+ Anot"er provision of t"e a't for'ed t"e states to initiate ne&ploy&ent
insran'e pro!ra&s+ It i&posed a payroll ta2 on e&ployers w"i'" went to t"e state if it "ad an
insran'e pro!ra&, and t"e federal !overn&ent if it did not+ It also provided &at'"in! fnds to
t"e states for aid of t"e -lind, "andi'apped, and dependent '"ildren+
,an.in! A't of 193>*'reated a stron! 'entral ,oard of 5overnors of t"e Cederal Reserve
Syste& wit" -road powers over t"e operations of t"e re!ional -an.s+
P-li' Utility Holdin! 1o&panyI="eeler-Ray-rn A't of 193>*e&powered t"e Se'rities and
82'"an!e 1o&&ission to restri't p-li' tility -ildin! 'o&panies to one natral re!ion and to
eli&inate dpli'ate "oldin! 'o&panies+
Cederal Power 1o&&ission*re!lated interstate ele'tri'al power rates and a'tivities+
Revene A't of 193>*in'reased in'o&e ta2es on "i!"er in'o&es
4otor 1arrier A't of 193>*e2tended t"e re!latory at"ority of t"e Interstate 1o&&er'e
1o&&ission
1ort Pa'.in!*Roosevelt was frstrated -y t"e 'onservative 'ort and proposed t"e <di'ial
Re'o!nition ,ill w"i'" wold allow "i& to appoint &ore Bd!es+ T"is was opposed -y -ot"
Rep-li'ans and %e&o'rats+
Cair $a-or Standards A't*'reated a &ini&& wa!e+ =or.ers in s&all -sinesses and in p-li'
and nonprofit e&ploy&ent were not 'overed+ T"e law also pro"i-ited t"e s"ip&ent in interstate
'o&&er'e of &anfa'tred !oods on w"i'" '"ildren nder 19 wor.ed+
Cair 8&ploy&ent Pra'ti'es 1o&&ittee*'reated in response to a t"reatened protest -y P"ilip
Randolp"+ It insred 'onsideration for &inorities in defense e&ploy&ent+
Indian Reor!ani3ation A't of 1934*restored tri-al owners"ip of lands, re'o!ni3ed tri-al
'onstittions and !overn&ent, and provided loans to tri-es for e'ono&i' develop&ent+
A&eri'an Cederation of $a-or*&ade p pri&arily of 'raft nions+
1o&&ittee for Indstrial Er!ani3ations*so!"t to inte!rate several indstrial nions,
parti'larly in t"e steel, ato, r--er, and radio indstries+ It sed a ta'ti' 'alled t"e sit-down
stri.e, wit" t"e stri.ers o''pyin! t"e wor.pla'e to prevent prod'tion+
5ood 7ei!"-or Poli'y*Roosevelts forei!n poli'y wit" $atin A&eri'a
7onintervention*at t"e 4ontevideo 1onferen'e of A&eri'an 7ations in 1933 t"e US renon'ed
t"e ri!"t of intervention in t"e internal affairs of $atin A&eri'an 'ontries+ 4arines were
re&oved fro& &any &iddle-A&eri'an 'ontries+
$ondon 8'ono&i' 1onferen'e*tried to o-tain tariff red'tion and 'rren'y sta-ili3ation for t"e
indstrial nations+ Roosevelt wold not a!ree to pe! t"e vale of t"e dollar to ot"er 'rren'ies
-e'ase "e feared t"at it &i!"t i&pede "is re'overy efforts+ T"e 'onferen'e failed for la'. of
A&eri'an 'ooperation+
Re'ipro'al Trade A!ree&ent A't*t"e idea of 1ordell Hll+ It allowed t"e president to ne!otiate
a!ree&ents w"i'" 'old vary t"e rates of t"e Hawley-S&oot Tariff p to >:F+
Isolationis&*t"e -elief t"at t"e US s"old stay ot of forei!n wars and pro-le&s -e!an in t"e
19):s and !rew in t"e 193:s+ it was fed -y "ose and senate investi!ations of ar&s traffi' and
t"e &nitions indstry in 1933 and 1934, espe'ially an e2a&ination of profiteerin! -y -an.ers
and &nitions &a.ers in drawin! t"e US into ==I -y 5eneral 7ye+ S'" feelin!s were
stron!est in t"e 4idwest and a&on! Rep-li'ans, -t were fond in all areas and a'ross t"e
politi'al spe'tr&+
<o"nson A't of 1934*w"en 8ropean nations stopped pay&ent on ==I de-ts to t"e US, t"e
<o"nson A't of 1934 pro"i-ited any nation in defalt fro& sellin! se'rities to any A&eri'an
'iti3en or 'orporation+
7etrality A'ts of 193>*provided t"at, on t"e ot-rea. of war -etween forei!n nations, all
e2ports of A&eri'an &nitions and ar&s to t"e& wold -e e&-ar!oed for 9 &ont"s+ A&eri'an
s"ips were pro"i-ited fro& 'arryin! ar&s to any -elli!erent, and t"e president was to warn
A&eri'an 'iti3ens not to travel on -elli!erent s"ips+
7etrality A'ts of 1939*!ave t"e president t"e at"ority to deter&ine w"en a state of war
e2isted, and pro"i-ited any loans or 'redits to -elli!erents+
7etrality A'ts of 193@*!ave t"e president at"ority to deter&ine if a 'ivil war was a t"reat to
world pea'e and 'overed -y t"e 7etrality A'ts, pro"i-ited all ar&s sales to -elli!erents, and
allowed t"e 'as" and 'arry sale of non&ilitary !oods to -elli!erents+
7etrality A't of 1939*allowed t"e 'as"-and-'arry sale of ar&s and s"ort-ter& loans to
-elli!erents, -t for-ade A&eri'an s"ips to trade wit" -elli!erents or A&eri'ans to travel on
-elli!erent s"ips+
Sele'tive Servi'e and Trainin! A't*first pea'eti&e draft
Atlanti' 1"arter*des'ri-ed a postwar world -ased on self-deter&ination for all nations+ It also
endorsed t"e prin'iples of freedo& of spee'" and reli!ion and freedo& fro& want and fear+
8&-ar!o of 194:*&ade in response to t"e fear of <apanese e2pansion+ It pla'ed an e&-ar!o on
!asoline, l-ri'ants, and s'rap iron and steel to <apan, and -y !rantin! an additional loan to
1"ina+
8&-ar!o of 1941*free3ed <apanese fnds in t"e US, 'losed t"e Pana&a 1anal to <apan,
a'tivated t"e P"ilippine &ilitia, and pla'ed an e&-ar!o on t"e e2port of oil and ot"er vital
prod'ts to <apan+
-orld -ar 00 and the Po"t&ar Era (1$(1-1$6.)
=ar Prod'tion ,oard*re!lated t"e se of raw &aterials
5eneral 4a2i&& Pri'e Re!lation A't*fro3e pri'es and e2tended rationin!+
Revene A't of 194)*e2tended t"e in'o&e ta2 to t"e &aBority of t"e poplation+
S&it"-1onnolly A't*at"ori3ed !overn&ent sei3re of a plant or &ine idled -y a stri.e if t"e
war effort was i&peded+
1asa-lan'a 1onferen'e*Roosevelt and 1"r'"ill de'lared a poli'y of n'onditional srrender
for all ene&ies
%e'laration of 1airo*'alled for <apans n'onditional srrender and stated t"at all 1"inese
territories o''pied -y <apan wold -e retrned to 1"ina and t"at Gorea wold -e free and
independent+
Te"eran 1onferen'e*stalin reaffir&ed t"e Soviet 'o&&it&ent to enter t"e war a!ainst <apan
and dis'ssed 'oordination of t"e Soviet offensive wit" t"e Allied invasion of Cran'e
Halta 1onferen'e*stalin said t"at t"e SU wold enter t"e war wit"in 3 &ont"s after 5er&any
srrendered and a!reed to t"e #%e'laration of $i-erated 8rope( w"i'" 'alled for free ele'tions+
5er&any was divided into o''pation 3ones+
Potsda& 1onferen'e*tr&an ordered t"e droppin! of t"e ato&i' -o&-+ 8sta-lis"ed a 1on'il
of Corei!n 4inisters to draft pea'e treaties for t"e ,al.ans+ Approval was also !iven to t"e
'on'ept of war-'ri&es trials and t"e de&ilitari3ation and dena3ifi'ation of 5er&any+
Tr&an %o'trine*t"at US &st spport free peoples w"o were resistin! 'o&&nist do&ination
4ars"all Plan*t"e US provided e'ono&i' aid to "elp re-ild 8rope+
,erlin 'risis*after t"e US, Cran'e, and 5, annon'ed plans to 'reate a =est 5er&an Rep-li'
ot of t"eir 5er&an 3ones, t"e SU in <ne 194? -lo'.ed srfa'e a''ess to ,erlin+ T"e US t"en
institted an airlift to transport spplies to t"e 'ity ntil t"e Soviets lifted t"eir -lo'.ade+
7ATE*pled!e t"at an atta'. a!ainst one wold -e 'onsidered an atta'. a!ainst all+ T"e Soviets
for&ed t"e =arsaw Treaty Er!ani3ation in 19>> to 'ontera't it+
Gorean =ar*on <ne )>, 19>:, 7ort" Gorea invaded Sot" Gorea+ Tr&an 'o&&itted US
for'es 'o&&anded -y 5eneral 4a'Art"r+ Ar&isti'e tal.s -e!an wit" 7ort" Gorea in t"e
s&&er of 19>1+ In 19>3 an ar&isti'e was si!ned leavin! Gorea divided alon! al&ost t"e sa&e
-ondary t"at "ad e2isted prior to t"e war+
%lles*-elieved in #&assive retaliation( rat"er t"an 'ontain&ent+
5eneva A''ords*divided 6ietna& alon! t"e 1@
t"
parallel+ T"e US provided e'ono&i' aid for
sot" 6ietna&+
8isen"ower %o'trine*t"e US sed &ilitary for'e in t"e 4iddle 8ast a!ainst 'o&&nist
a!!ression+
8&ploy&ent A't of 1949*esta-lis"ed a 1on'il of 8'ono&i' Advisors to evalate t"e
e'ono&y, advise t"e president, and set p a 1on!ressional <oint 1o&&ittee on t"e 8'ono&i'
Report+ T"e a't de'lared t"at t"e !overn&ent was 'o&&itted to &aintainin! &a2i&&
e&ploy&ent+
Ato&i' 8ner!y 1o&&ission*esta-lis"ed 'ivilian 'ontrol over n'lear develop&ent and !ave
t"e president sole at"ority over t"e se of ato&i' weapons in warfare+
Taft-Hartley A't*an effort -y t"e rep-li'ans to 'ontrol nions+ It &ade t"e 'losed s"op ille!al,
t"o!" did allow a nion s"op+ It esta-lis"ed an ?: day 'oolin! off period for stri.ers in .ey
indstries, ended t"e pra'ti'e of e&ployers 'olle'tin! des for nions, for-ade se'ondary
-oy'otts, Brisdi'tional stri.es, feat"er-eddin!, and 'ontri-tin! to politi'al 'a&pai!ns, and
re;ired an anti-'o&&nist oat" of nion offi'ials+ It slowed down efforts to nioni3e in t"e
sot"+
%i2ie'rats*t"e States Ri!"ts %e&o'rati' Party+ T"ey split fro& t"e de&o'rati' party over 'ivil
ri!"ts isses+
Cair %eal*Tr&an proposed in'reasin! t"e &ini&& wa!e, e2tendin! So'ial Se'rity to &ore
people, &aintainin! rent 'ontrols, 'learin! sl&s and -ildin! p-li' "osin!, providin! &ore
&oney to T6A, rral ele'trifi'ation, and far& "osin!+ He also introd'ed -ills dealin! wit"
1ivil Ri!"ts, national "ealt" insran'e, federal aid to ed'ation, and repeal of t"e Taft-Hartley
A't+
S&it" A't*&ade it ille!al to advo'ate t"e overt"row of t"e !overn&ent -y for'e or to -elon! to
an or!ani3ation advo'atin! s'" a position+
Hiss 1ase*in 194? ="itta'.er 1"a&-ers '"ar!ed Al!er Hiss wit" "avin! -een a 'o&&nist
w"o spplied 'lassified do'&ents to t"e SU+
4'1arran Internal Se'rity A't*re;ired 'o&&nist-front or!ani3ations to re!ister wit" t"e
attorney !eneral and prevented t"eir &e&-ers fro& defense wor. and travel a-road+
Rosen-er! 'ase*<lis and 8t"el Rosen-er! were a''sed of !ivin! ato&i' se'rets to t"e SU+
4'1art"y*on Ce- 9, 19>:, 4'1art"y stated t"at "e "ad a list of .nown 'o&&nists w"o were
wor.in! in t"e state depart&ent+ He later e2panded "is atta'.s to diplo&ats and s'"olars and
'ontri-te to t"e ele'toral defeat of ) senators+ After &a.in! '"ar!es a!ainst t"e ar&y, "e was
'ensred and dis'redited+
8isen"ower*so!"t to -alan'e t"e -d!et and lower ta2es -t did not atte&pt to roll -a'.
e2istin! so'ial and e'ono&i' le!islation+ He first des'ri-ed "is poli'y as #dyna&i' 'onservatis&(
t"en as #pro!ressive &oderation+( T"e ad&inistration a-olis"ed t"e Re'onstr'tion Cinan'e
1orporation, ended wa!e and pri'e 'ontrols, and red'ed far& pri'e spports+ It 't t"e -d!et
and lowered ta2 rates for 'orporations and individals wit" "i!" in'o&es+ He e2tended so'ial
se'rity+ Epposed to t"e e2pansion of t"e T6A, t"e 8isen"ower ad&inistration spported a plan
to "ave a privately owned power plant -ilt to spply ele'tri'ity+
Ato&i' 8ner!y A't of 19>4*allowed t"e 'onstr'tion of private n'lear power plants
Rral 8le'trifi'ation Ad&inistration*!ave ele'tri'ity to 9@F of A&eri'an far&s+ In 19>4 t"e
!overn&ent -e!an finan'in! t"e e2port of far& srplses in e2'"an!e for forei!n 'rren'ies and
later provided srplses free to needy nations+
7ational Aeronati's and Spa'e Ad&inistration*'reated after t"e lan'"in! of Sptni. to
'oordinate resear'" and develop&ent+
$andr&-5riffen $a-or-4ana!e&ent A't of 19>9*so!"t to 'ontrol nfair nion pra'ti'es -y
esta-lis"in! rles s'" as penalties for &isse of fnds+
,rown v ,oard of 8d'ation*t"e 'ort de'lared t"at separate ed'ational fa'ilities were
in"erently ne;al+ In 19>> t"e 'ort ordered t"e states to inte!rate+ Alt"o!" at first t"e sot"
rea'ted 'atiosly, -y 19>> t"ere were 'alls for #&assive resistan'e( and ="ite 1iti3ens
1on'ils e&er!ed to spear"ead t"e resistan'e+
1ivil Ri!"ts A't of 19>@*esta-lis"ed a per&anent 1ivil Ri!"ts 1o&&ission and a 1ivil Ri!"ts
%ivision of t"e Bsti'e depart&ent w"i'" was e&powered to prevent interferen'e wit" t"e ri!"t to
vote+
1ivil Ri!"ts A't of 199:*!ave t"e federal 'ort powers to re!ister Afri'an A&eri'an voters+
Stdent 7onviolent 1oordinatin! 1o&&ittee*pri&ary ai&s in'lded t"e end of se!re!ation in
p-li' a''o&&odations and winnin! votin! ri!"ts+