Planning Planning is a process that includes defining goals, establishing strategy, and developing plans to coordinate activities. Organizing It is a process of determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions to be made. Leading- Function that includes motivating employees, directing others, selecting the effective communication channels and resolving conflicts. Controlling It is a process which includes monitoring activities to ensure that things are accomplished as planned and correcting any significant deviations. Mintzbergs Managerial roles MANAGEMENT ROLES In the late 1960s, Henry Mintzberg, a graduate student at MIT [Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge], undertook a careful study of 5 executives to determine what those managers did on their jobs. On the basis of his observations, Mintzberg concluded that managers perform 10 different, highly interrelated roles or sets of behaviours, attributable to their jobs. These 10 roles can be grouped as being primarily: 1. Interpersonal roles MANAGEMENT SKILLS Still another way of considering what managers do is to look at the skills or competencies they need to achieve their goals. Robert Katz has identified 3 essential management skills viz. technical, human and conceptual. Technical skills The ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. Human skills The ability to work with, understand and motivate other people, both individually and in groups. Conceptual skills-The mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations. EFFECTIVE VERSUS SUCCESSFUL MANAGERIAL ACTIVITIES Fred Luthans and his associates studied more than 450 managers. What they found was that these managers all engaged in 4 managerial activities and they are as follows. 1. Traditional management Decision making, planning and controlling 2. Communication Exchanging routine information and processing paper work 3. Human resource management Motivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing and training 4. Networking Socializing, politicking Figure 1b: Allocation of managerial activities by time DEFINITIONS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Organizational behavior is defined as actions and attitudes of individuals and groups toward one another and toward the organization as a whole, and its effect on the organization's functioning and performance. Organizational behavior is defined as the study which deals with all aspects of human behavior that occur within the context of an organization. It entails the study of how individuals behave as individuals and in groups within an organization. NATURE AND SCOPE OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Psychology Psychology is the study of human behavior which tries to identify the characteristics of individuals and provides an understanding why an individual behaves in a particular way. This thus provides us with useful insight into areas such as human motivation, perceptual processes or personality characteristics. Sociology- Sociology is the study of people in relation to their fellows human beings. The contribution includes study of topics like Group dynamics, work team, communication, power etc. Social psychology Social psychology is the study of human behaviour in the context of social situations. This essentially addresses the problem of understanding the typical behavioral patterns to be expected from an individual when he takes part in a group. Anthropology:- The study of societies to learn about human being and their activities. The contribution includes stud y of topics like organizational culture, organizational environment, cross-cultural analysis etc. Political science:- The study of individual and groups within a political environment. The contribution includes the study of topics like conflict, Intra-organizational politics, power etc. Why to study O.B / challenges / opportunities of O.B? 1. Responding to globalization Increased foreign assignments Working with people from different cultures Coping with anticapitalism backlash Overseeing movements of jobs to countries with low cost labour 2. Managing workforce diversity Embracing diversity Changing U.S. demographics Implications for managers 3. Improving quality and productivity Quality management Process Reengineering 4. Responding to the labour shortage Changing work force demographics Fewer skilled labourers Early retirements and older workers 5. Improving customer service Increased expectation of service quality Customer responsive culture 6. Improving people skills 7. Empowering people 8. Stimulating innovation and change 9. Coping with Temporariness 10. Working in networked organizations 11. Helping employees to balance work and life 12. Improving ethical behaviour
Job satisfaction What is job satisfaction? The term job satisfaction refers to an individuals general attitude towards his or her job. High job satisfaction-------------------------------positive attitude Low job satisfaction -------------------------------negative attitude Measuring job satisfaction 32 | P a g e The employees assessment is necessary of how satisfied or dis-satisfied with his or her job is complex elements. So then measure this concept in two approaches of job satisfaction 1. Single global rating 2. Summation score Single global rating Single global rating method is nothing more then asking individuals to respond to one question such as all things considered how satisfied are you with your job? Responding then reply individual selects one option like that. 1. Dis-satisfied 2. Just satisfied 3. Highly satisfied Summation score It identifies key elements in a job and asks for the employees feelings about each. Job fads are more sophisticated. Key elements / factors / included. a) The work itself The extent to which the job provides the individual with interesting tasks, opportunities for learning and the chance to accept responsibility. b) Pay The amount of financial remuneration that is received and the degree to which satisfied the human needs. c) Promotional opportunities The chances for advancement in the organization. d) Supervision-The abilities of the supervisor to provide technical assistance and behavioral support. e) Coworkers relationship
Following four factors determine job satisfaction 1- Mentally challenging work If the job will be mentally challenging for worker he will be more satisfied. 2- Equitable rewards If rewards are being paid equally / promptly to employee on the basis of their performance this will increase job satisfaction. 3- Supportive working conditions Supportive working conditions will add to job satisfaction. 4- Supportive colleagues-If a person has supportive colleagues at his work place he will be more satisfied with his job.
Job satisfaction and employee performance Managers insert in job satisfaction tends to center on its effect on employees performance. Researchers have recognized this interest, so find a large number of studies that have been designed to assess the impact of job satisfaction on employee productivity, absenteeism and turnover. 1-Satisfaction and productivity Satisfaction and productivity is directly proportional means satisfaction increase productivity. 2-Satisfaction and absenteeism Satisfaction and absenteeism is proportional means. Satisfaction of job reduces absenteeism. 3-Satisfaction and turnover Satisfaction and turnover is directly proportional which means a satisfied employee work more CHAPTER 2 LEARNING Any relatively permanent change in behavior is called learning. Three theories have been offered explain the process of learning by which we acquire patter us of behavior. These are classical conditioning operant conditioning and social learning. a) Classical Conditioning:- deals with the association of one event with another desired event resulting in desired behavior or learning. b) Operant Conditioning:- A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents punishment. The tendency to repeat such behavior is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement about by the consequences of the behavior. Therefore, reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the like hood that it will be repeated. c) Social learning:- People can learn through observation and direct experience. The influence of this model is central to the social viewpoint. Four processes have been found to determine the influence that a model will have an individual. i) Attention Processes:- People learn from a model only when they recognize and pay attention to its critical features. ii) Retention Processes:- A models influence will depend on how well the individual remembers the models action after the model is no longer readily available. iii) Motor Reproduction Process:- After a person has a new behavior by observing the model the watching must be converted to doing. This process then demonstrates that their individual can perform the modeled activities. Because learning takes place on the job as well as prior to it managers will be concerted with how they can teach employees to behave in ways that most benefit the organization and this change their attitude. When managers attempt to mold individuals by guiding their learning in graduated steps, they are shaping behavior and this changing their attitude. There are four ways in which to shape behavior positive reinforcement negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction. Following a response with something pleasant is called positive reinforcement Negative response happens when individuals learn to avoid or escape from unpleasant consequences. Punishment is causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an unpleasant behavior. Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behavior is called extinction.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT The two major types of reinforcement schedules are: 1. Continuous reinforcement schedule Reinforcing a desired behavior each time it is demonstrated. 2. Intermittent reinforcement schedule Reinforcing a desired behavior often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated. The intermittent reinforcement schedule can be of two types. They are: 1. Ratio schedules Ratio schedules depend on how many response the subject makes. The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of specific types of behavior. The ratio schedules can be of two types. They are: 1. Fixed ratio schedule Initiating rewards after a fixed or constant number of responses. 2. Variable ratio schedule Varying the reward relative to the behavior of the individual. 2. Interval schedules Interval schedules depend on how much time has passed since the previous reinforcement. With interview schedules, the individual is reinforced on the first appropriate behavior after a particular time has elapsed. The interval schedules can be of two types. They are: 1. Fixed interval schedule Spacing rewards at uniform time intervals 2. Variable interval schedule Distributing rewards in time so that reinforcements are unpredictable. 2.3. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION [OB Mod] Emery Air Freight [now part of FedEx] illustrates the use of behavior modification, or what has become more popularly called OB Mod. It represents the application of reinforcement concepts to individual in the work setting. The typical OB Mod program follows a five step problem solving model. The five steps are as follows: 1. Identify critical behaviors The first step in the OB Mod, therefore, is to identify the critical behaviors that make a significant impact on the employees job performance. 2. Develop baseline data The second step requires the manager to develop some baseline performance data. This is obtained by determining the number of times the identified behavior is occurring under present conditions.
3. Identify behavioral consequences The third step is to perform a functional analysis to identify the behavioral contingencies or consequences of performance. This tells the manager the antecedent cues that emit the behavior and the consequences that are currently maintaining it. 4. Develop and implement an intervention strategy Once the functional analysis is complete, the manager is ready to develop and implement an intervention strategy to strengthen desirable performance behaviors and weaker undesirable behaviors. 5. Evaluate performance improvement The final step in the OB Mod is to evaluate performance improvement. That is to evaluate whether employees underwent a relatively permanent change in behavior.
2.7. VALUES DEFINITION Values are constellation of likes, dislikes, viewpoints, inner inclinations, rational and irrational judgments, prejudices, and association pattern that determine a persons view of the world. - Edwards Spranger Values are global beliefs that guide actions and judgments across a variety of situations. - Milton Rokeach CHARACTERISTICS OF VALUES Part of culture Learned responses Inculcated Social phenomenon Gratifying responses Adaptive process IMPORTANCE OF VALUES Values lay the foundations for the understanding of attitudes and motivation. Personal value system influences the perception of individuals. Value system influences the managers perception of individuals. Personal value system influences the way in which a manager views the other individuals and the groups of individuals in the organization. Value system also influences a managers decisions and his solutions to the various problems. Values influence the attitudes and behaviours. An individual will get more job satisfaction if his values align with the organizations policies. If the organizations policies are different from his views and values, he will be disappointed; the disappointment will lead to job dissatisfaction and decline in performance. The challenge and re examination of established work values constitute important cornerstones of the current management revolution all over the world. Hence, an understanding of the values becomes a necessity. Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cultures Nine dimensions on which cultures differ:- Assertiveness:- The extent to which a society encourages people to be tough, assertive, confrontational and competitive verses modest and tender. Future Oriented: - The extent to which a society encourages and rewards future oriented behaviors such as planning, investing in future and laying gratification. Gender Differentiation: - The extend to which society maximizes gender role and differences. Power Distance:- Degree to which members of society expect power to the unequally shared. Performance Oriented:- This refers to the degr ee to which a society encourages and rewards groups members for performances improvement an excellent. Individualism/collectivism:- This is the degree to which individuals are encouraged by societal institutions to be integrated groups within organizations and society. ATTITUDES Attitudes are evaluative statements or Judgment concerning objects, people or events. They reflect how one feel about something. These are three components of an attitude: cognition, affect and behavior. 1) Cognitive component of an attitude is opining or belief segment of an attitude. E.g. discrimination is wrong. Such an opinion is the cognitive component of an attitude. 2) Affective component of an attitude is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude e.g. I dont like Mr. X because he discriminates against minorities. 3) Behavioral component of an attitude is an intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something. These three component:- cognitive, affect and behavior- are helpful in understanding the potential relationship between attitudes and behavior. In contrast to values, attitudes are less stable. E.G. Advertising message attempt to alter your with feeling related to product/services. That attitude may lead to desirable response/behavior i.e. the purchase of product or service. TYPES OF ATTITUDES A person can have thousand of attitudes. The work related attitudes can positive or negative evaluation that employees hold about their work environment. Most of the research in organizational behavior is concerned with three attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment. Job Satisfaction:- The term job satisfaction refers to an individuals general attitudes towards his or her job. A person with high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes about the job, while a person who is dissatisfied with his/ her job holds negative attitudes about the job. Job Involvement:- Job involvement measures the degree to which a person identified psychologically with his/her job and considers his/her perceived performance level important to self work. Employees with high level of job involvement strongly identify with and really care about the kind of work they do. Organization Commitment:- It is a degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. The research demonstrates negative relationship between organizational negative relationship between organizational commitment and both absenteeism and turnover. ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR RELATIONSHIP Attitudes effect behavior and vice-verse. Important attitudes are ones that reflect fundamental values, self interest or identification with individuals or groups that a person values. Attitudes that individuals consider important tend to show a strong relationship to behavior. The more specific the attitude and the more specific the behavior, the stronger the link between the two. Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior are more likely to occur when social pressures to behave in a certain ways hold exceptional power. The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers to something with which the individual has direct personal experience. PERSONALITY Personality is defined as the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts an interacts with others. Adult personality is generally considered to be made up of hereditary and environmental factors, moderated by situational conditional.
PERSONALITY TRAITS Enduring characteristics that describe an individuals behavior. Popular characteristics include shy, aggressive, submissive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid. When someone exhibits these characteristics in a large number of situations, we call them personality traits. SIXTEEN PRIMARY PERSONALITY TRAITS
Figure2d: Big Five personality traits
FACTORS / DETERMINANTS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY .a] Hereditary:- Hereditary refers to those factors that were determined by conception. Physical stature, facial alteration, gender temperament, energy level and biological rhythms are characteristics that are either completely or substantially influenced by parents. Evidence demonstrates that traits such as shyness, fear and distress are most likely caused by inherited genetic characteristics. B]Environment:- Among the factors that exact pressures on our personality formation are the cultures in which we are area raised; our earlier conditioning the norms among our family, friends and social groups and other influences that we experience. These environmental factors play a substantial role in shaping our personalities. Cultural establishes the norms attributes and values that are passed along from generations to the and create consistencies of time ideology that is only moderate intensely fostered in one culture may only have emphasis in another. It can be concluded that both heredity and environment are the primary determinations of personality. C]Situations:- The third factor, the situation influences the effects of heredity and environment on personality. An individuals personality, although generally stable and consistent does change in different situations. The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of ones personality. So we shouldnt look at personality patterns in isolation. THE MYERS BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR [MBTI] The MBTI is the most widely used personality assessment instrument in the world. Its a 100 question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in particular situations. On the basis of their answers, individuals are classified as: 1. Extraverted vs. Introverted Extraverted individuals are outgoing, sociable and assertive. Introverts are quiet and shy. 2. Sensing vs. Intuitive Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order. They focus on details. Intuitives rely on unconscious processes and look at the big picture. 3. Thinking vs. Feeling Thinking types use reason and logic to handle problems. Feeling types rely on their personal values and emotions. 4. Judging vs. Perceiving Judging types want control and prefer their world to be ordered and structured. Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous. Figure2c: MBTI
Major personality attributes influencing 1. Locus of control 2. Machiavellianism 3. Self esteem 4. Self monitoring 5. Risk taking 6. Type a personality 7. Diffensive behavior 1-locus of control Some people believe that they are masters of their own fate. Other people see themselves as pawns of fate, believing that what happens to them in their lives is clue to luck or chance. The first type is Internals and the second type id Externals I) Internals Individuals who believe that they con troll what happens to them. ii) Externals Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by out side forces such as luck or chance. Now the degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate is called locus of control Therefore, Internals do well on sophisticated tasks which include most managerial and professional jobs that require complex information processing and lecturing. In addition internals are more skilled to jobs. On the other hand externals should do well on jobs that are well structured and in which success depends on complying with others. 2-Machiavellianism- Machiavellianism is manipulating or influencing other people as a primary way of achieving one's goal. An individual tends to be Machiavellian, if he tends to be logical in assessing the system around, willing to twist and turn facts to influence others, and try to gain control of people, events and situations by manipulating the system to his advantage. 3- Self esteem Individuals degree of liking or disliking themselves Self esteem is directly related to expectations for success. Individuals with high self esteem will take more risks in jobs selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs their people with low self esteem. In managerial positions, low self esteem will tends to be concerned with pleasing others and therefore less likely to take unpopular stands then are high self esteem,Sot surprisingly, self esteem has also been found to be related to fob satisfaction. A number of studies confirm that high esteem are more satisfied with their jobs then are low self esteem. 4-Self monitoring- Self monitoring is a personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors. 5-Risk taking- People differ in their willingness to take chances. This propensity to assume or avoid risk has been shown to have an impact on how long it takes managers to make a decision and how much information they require before making a choice. Studies showed that high risk taking managers made more rapid decisions and used less information in making their choices than did the low risk taking managers. Interestingly, decision accuracy was the same for both groups. 6- Type A and B Personalities Type A persons feel a chronic sense of time urgency, are highly achievement-oriented, exhibit a competitive drive, and are impatient when their work is slowed down for any reason. Type B persons are easy-going individuals who do not feel the time urgency, and who do not experience the competitive drive. Type A individuals are significantly more prone to heart attacks than Type B individuals. While Type A persons help the organization to move ahead in a relatively short period of time they may also suffer health problems, which might be detrimental to both themselves and the organization in the long run.
2.4. EMOTIONS DEFINITION AND MEANING OF EMOTIONS Emotions can be defined as intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Caused by specific event Very brief in duration [seconds or minutes] Specific and numerous in nature [ many specific emotions such as anger,fear,sadness,happiness,disgust,surprise] Usually accompanied by distinct facial expressions Action oriented in nature EMOTIONAL LABOUR DEFINITION Emotional Labour is defined as an employees expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work. EMOTIONAL DISSONANCE DEFINITION Emotional Dissonance is defined as inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project. FELT Vs. DISPLAYED EMOTIONS Felt emotions An individuals actual emotions Displayed emotions Emotions that are organizationally required and considered appropriate in a given job. EMOTION DIMENSIONS Varity:- Emotions can either be positive or negative. Positive emotions- like happiness and hope express a favorable evolution or feeling. Negative emotions like anger or hate express the opposite emotions can not be neutral. Being neutral is non emotional. Importantly, negative emotions seem to have a greater effect on individuals. Research has identified six universal emotion:- anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust and surprise. Intensity:- People give different responses to identifiable emotion provoking stimuli. In some cases this can be attributed to the individuals personality. Other times it is result of the job requirements. People vary in their inherent ability to express intensity. There are some individual who almost never show their feelings. They rarely get angry. They never show rage. In contrast, there are some individuals who seem to be on an emotional roller-coaster. When they are happy, they are ecstatic. Where they are sad, they are deeply depressed. And two people can be in the same situation- one showing excitement and joy, the remaining calm and collected. Jobs make different intensity demands in terms of emotions labor. For instance, judges and air traffic controllers are expected to be calm and controlled, even in stressful situations. Conversely the effectiveness of public address announces at sporting events and lowers can depend on their ability to alter their displayed emotional intensity as the need arises. Frequency and duration: - Emotional labor that requires high frequency or long durations is more demanding and requires more exertion by employees. So whether an employee can successfully meet the emotional demands of a given job depends not only on what emotions need to be displayed and their intensity, but also on how frequently and for how long the effort has to be made. Gender and emotions:- The evidence does confirm differences between men and women when it comes to emotional reactions and ability to read others, In contrasting the genders, women show greater emotional expressions than men, they experience emotions more intensely and they display more frequent expressions of both positive and negative emotions except anger. In contras to men, women also report more comfort in expressing emotions. Finally women cusses than are men. Women have more innate ability to read others and present their emotions then do men. Emotional intelligence:- (EI) refers to an assortment of non cognitive skills, capabilities and competencies that influence a persons ability to successes in coping with environmental demands and pressures. It is a compound of five dimensions. a) Self awareness:- Being aware of what you are feeling . b) Self management: - The ability to manage ones own emotions and impulses. c) Self motivation:- The ability to persist in the face of setbacks and failures. d) Empathy:- The ability to sense how others are feeling. e) Social skills:- The ability to handle the emotions of others. Several students suggest that EI may play an important role in job performance. Top performance recruiters exhibit high levels of EI. The implications from the initial evidences on EI is that employers should consider it as a factor in selection, especially in jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction Given the same objective data, we should expect people may make different choices when they are angry and stressed out then when they are clam and collected. Negative emotions can result in a limited search for new alternatives and less vigilant use of information. On the other hand, positive emotions can increase problem solving skills and facilitate the integrations of information. Affective Events Theory (AET) Emotions are negative or positive responses to a work environment event. Personality and mood determine the intensity of the emotional response. Emotions can influence a broad range of work performance and job satisfaction variables. Implications of the theory: Individual response reflects emotions and mood cycles. Current and past emotions affect job satisfaction. Emotional fluctuations create variations in job satisfaction. Emotions have only short-term effects on job performance. Both negative and positive emotions can distract workers and reduce job performance.
OB Applications of Understanding Emotions----
Ability and Selection Emotions affect employee effectiveness. Decision Making Emotions are an important part of the decision-making process in organizations. Motivation Emotional commitment to work and high motivation are strongly linked. Leadership Emotions are important to acceptance of messages from organizational leaders. Interpersonal Conflict Conflict in the workplace and individual emotions are strongly intertwined. Customer Services Emotions affect service quality delivered to customers which, in turn, affects customer relationships. Deviant Workplace Behaviors Negative emotions lead to employee deviance (actions that violate norms and threaten the organization). Productivity failures Property theft and destruction Perception Perception is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their seniority impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION 1. Characteristics of the perceiver [Internal factors] Needs and motives Peoples perception is determined by their inner needs. A need is a feeling of tension or discomfort when one thinks he is missing something or requires something. People with different needs usually experience different stimuli. Similarly people with different needs select different items to remember or respond to. Self concept The way a person views the world depends a great deal on the self concept or image he has about himself. The self concept plays an important role in perceptual selectivity. It can be thought of as an internal form of attention getting and is largely based on the individuals complex psychological make up. Beliefs A persons beliefs have profound influence on his perception. Thus, a fact is conceived not on what is but what a person believes it to be. The individual normally censors stimulus inputs to avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs. Past experience A persons past experience mould the way he perceives the current situation. If a person has been betrayed by a couple of friends in the past, he would tend to distrust any new friendship that he might be in the process of developing. Current psychological state The emotional and psychological states of an individual are likely to influence how things are perceived. If a person is depressed, he is likely to perceive the same situation differently than if he is elated. Expectations Expectations affect what a person perceives. Expectations are related with the state of anticipation of particular behavior from a person. In the organizational setting, expectations affect peoples perception. Thus, a technical manager may expect ignorance about the technical feature of a product from the non technical people. 2. Characteristics of the target or perceived [External factors] Size The bigger the size of the perceived stimulus, the higher is the probability that is perceived. Size attracts the attention of an individual. It establishes dominance and enhances perceptual selection. Intensity High intensity increases the chances of selection. If the message is bright, if sentences are underlined, it gets more attention than in normal case. The greater the intensity of stimulus, the more likely it will be noticed. Frequency Repeated external stimulus is more attention attracting than a single time. Repetition increases our sensitivity and alertness to the stimulus. Thus, greater the frequency with which a sensory stimulus is presented, the greater the chances we select it for attention. Status Perception is also influenced by the status of the perceiver. High status people can exert greater influence on perception of an employee than low status people. Contrast Stimuli that contrast with the surrounding environment are more likely to be attention catching than the stimuli that blend in. A contrasting effect can be caused by colour / size or any other factor that is unusual. The contrast principle states that external stimuli that stand out against the background or which are not what are expected will receive better attention. 3. Characteristics of the situation The context in which objects or events is seen, is important. Elements in the surrounding environment influence our perception. The time at which an object or event is seen can influence attention, as can location, light, heat, or any number of situational factors. Q4.3..Personal perception making judgment about others Attribution theory When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused The determination depends largely on three factors 1. Distinctiveness 2. Consensus 3. Consistency Internal behavior Internal caused behaviors are those that are believed to be under the personal control of the individual. External behavior External caused behavior is seen as resulting from out side causes that are the person is seen as having been forced into the behavior by the situation. Example One of your employees is late for the work, you might attribute his lateness to his oversleeping. This would be an internal attribution. But if you attribute his late arriving to an automobile accident, then you would make an external attribution. Distinctiveness Distinctiveness refers to whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations. Consensus If every one who is forced with a similar situation responds in the some way, we can say that the behavior shows census. Consistency Finally an observer looks for the consistency in persons actions. The more consistent the behavior, the more the observer in inclined to attribute it to internal causes. Fundamental attribution error One of the more interesting findings from attribution theory is that there are errors or biases that distort attributions. For instance, there is substantial evidence what we make judgment about the behavior of other people we have a tendency to underestimate the influence of internal or personal factors this is called attribution error. Self serving bias There is also a tendency for individuals to attribute their own success to internal factors such as ability or effort while putting the blame for failure on external factors such as luck. This is called self serving bias. Frequently used shortcuts in the judging others These techniques are frequently valuable. They allow us to make accurate perceptions rapidly and provide valid data for making predications. An understanding of these shortcuts can be helpful in recognizing. 1- Selective perception People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience and attitudes. A group perception of organizational activities is selectively altered to align with the rested interests they represent. In other words, when stimuli are ambiguous, perception tends to be influenced more by an individual base of interpretation then by stimuli itself. 2- Halo-effects drawing a general impression about an individual on the biases of a single characteristics Research suggest that it is likely to be most extreme when the traits to be perceived are ambiguous in behavioral terms , when the traits have moral overtones and when the perceiver is judging traits with he or she has limited experience. For Example If instructor has valuable skill, knowledge but his style lakes, studies would rate him too. 3- Contrast effect Evaluation of a person characteristics that are affected by comparisons with others people recently encountered who make higher or lower on the same characteristics. e.g.( pool of candidates) 4- Projection Attributing ones own characteristics to other people. For instance, if you want challenge and ability in your job assume that others want me 5-Strerotyping Judging some one on the bases of ones perception of the group to which that person belongs. Generalization of course is not without advantages. It is a mean of simplifying a complex word, and it permits us to maintain consistency. The problem arises when we inaccurately stereo type their being wide spread may mean only that may people are making the some inaccurate perception on the bases of false premise about a group. Specific applications in organization People in organizations are always judging each other. Managers must appraise their subordinate's performance. In many cases, these judgments have important consequences for the organizations. Let us look at the more obvious applications of perceptions in organization. Employment Interview A major input into who is hired and who is rejected in any organization is the employment interview. Evidence indicated that interviewers often make inaccurate perceptual judgments. Interviews generally draw early impressions that become very quickly entrenched. If negative information is exposed early in the interview, it tends to be more heavily weighted than if that same information comes out later. As a result, information elicited early in the interview carries greater weight than does information elicited later. A "good applicant" is probably characterized more by the absence of unfavorable characteristics than by the presence of favorable characteristics. The employment interview is an important input into the hiring decision and a manager must recognize that perceptual factors influence who is hired. Therefore, eventually the quality of an organization's labor force depends on the perception of the interviewers. Performance Evaluation An employee's performance appraisal very much depends on the perceptual process. The performance appraisal represents an assessment of an employee's work. While this can be objective, many jobs are evaluated in subjective terms. Subjective measures are, by definition, judgmental. The evaluator forms a general impression of an employee's work. What the evaluator perceives to be "good" or "bad" employee characteristics will, significantly influences the appraisal outcome. An employee's future is closely tied to his or her appraisal - promotions, pay raises and continuation of employment are among the most obvious outcomes Performance application This is an impressive amount of evidence that demonstrates that people will attempt to validate their perceptions of reality, even when those expectations are faulty. This characteristic is particularly relevant even we consider performance, expectation on the job. Employment effort An individuals future in an organization is usually not dependent on performance alone. The level of an employees effort is also important. An assessment of an individual susceptible to perceptual distortion and bias.
1.10. MOTIVATION DEFINITION Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drives, desires, aspirations, and strivings or needs direct, control or explain the behavior of human beings. - Dalton E. McFarland Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by the effort and ability to satisfy some individual need. - Stephen P Robbins
1]The hierarchy of need theory Introduction The hierarchy of need theory was presented by Maslow. Abraham Maslow saw human needs in the form of hierarchy, ascending from the lowest to the hi hghest He concluded that when one set of needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to be motivators Definition There is a hierarchy of five needs, and as each needs substantially satisfy, the next need becomes dominated. Explaination a) Types of needs The needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order are these. 1- Psychological needs These are the basic need necessary for human life. Such as food, water, warmth, shelter and sleep Maslow said that until these needs are satisfied to the degree necessary to maintain life their needs, will not motivate people 2- Security or safety needs These are the needs to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing of job, property, food and shelter 3- Affiliation or acceptance needs Since people are social beings, they need to belong to be accepted by other 4- Esteem needs According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by others. Esteem need produces such satisfactions as power, prestige, status and self confidence. 5- Needs for self actualization Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is desire to become what one is capable of becoming B) Satisfaction of needs one by one Maslows hierarchy of needs theory is follow in sequence if one need is satisfied then next need is dominated C) Classification of above five needs Maslows further seprated five needs into higher or lower order needs. 1- lower order needs Needs that are satisfy externally, physiological, and satfey needs 2- Higher order needs Needs that are satisfied internally, social esteem and self actualization needs. Criticism The main criticism on maslows herierchy of needs theory is ,a man normally do not follow the sequence mention by maslows Figure 2j: Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory
2] Frederick Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory Frederick has tried to modify Maslows need Hierarchy theory. His theory is also known as two-factor theory or Hygiene theory. He stated that there are certain satisfiers and dis-satisfiers for employees at work. Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. He devised his theory on the question: What do people want from their jobs? He asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he received, he concluded that opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He states that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and the presence of the same does not lead to motivation. However, their non-presence leads to de- motivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence of which causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact. Figure2k: Frederick Herzbergs motivation-hygiene theory Examples of Hygiene factors Security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal life, salary, work conditions, relationship with supervisor and company policy and administration. Examples of Motivational factors 1. Growth prospectus. 2. Job advancement. 3. Responsibility. 4. Challenges. 5. Recognition. 6. Achievements. 3]Theory X and Theory Y of Douglas McGregor McGregor, in his book The Human side of Enterprise states that people inside the organization can be managed in two ways. The first is basically negative, which falls under the category X and the other is basically positive, which falls under the category Y. After viewing the way in which the manager dealt with employees, McGregor concluded that a managers view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior towards subordinates according to these assumptions. Under the assumptions of theory X Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions are issued. Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display little ambition. In contrast under the assumptions of theory Y Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play. People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are committed to those goals. Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving the problems of the organization. That the way the things are organized, the average human beings brainpower is only partly used. On analysis of the assumptions it can be detected that theory X assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals and theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. An organization that is run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature, the word authoritarian suggests such ideas as the power to enforce obedience and the right to command. In contrast Theory Y organizations can be described as participative, where the aims of the organization and of the individuals in it are integrated; individuals can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the organization. However, this theory has been criticized widely for generalization of work and human behavior. 4) Clayton Alderfers ERG Theory Alderfer has tried to rebuild the hierarchy of needs of Maslow into another model named ERG i.e. Existence Relatedness Growth. According to him there are 3 groups of core needs as mentioned above. The existence group is concerned mainly with providing basic material existence. The second group is the individuals need to maintain interpersonal relationship with other members in the group. The final group is the intrinsic desire to grow and develop personally. The major conclusions of this theory are: 1. In an individual, more than one need may be operative at the same time. 2. If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire to satisfy a lower need intensifies. 3. It also contains the frustration-regression dimension. ) McClellands Theory of Needs David McClelland has developed a theory on three types of motivating needs: 1. Need for Power 2. Need for Affiliation 3. Need for Achievement Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and control. They like to be at the center and are good orators. They are demanding in nature, forceful in manners and ambitious in life. They can be motivated to perform if they are given key positions or power positions. In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to affiliate themselves with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and faith. They like to build a friendly environment around themselves. Social recognition and affiliation with others provides them motivation. People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of failure. Their need for achievement is moderate and they set for themselves moderately difficult tasks. They are analytical in nature and take calculated risks. Such people are motivated to perform when they see at least some chances of success. McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for power and achievement increased rather than Affiliation. He also observed that people who were at the top, later ceased to be motivated by this drives. 5) Equity Theory As per the equity theory of J. Stacey Adams, people are motivated by their beliefs about the reward structure as being fair or unfair, relative to the inputs. People have a tendency to use subjective judgment to balance the outcomes and inputs in the relationship for comparisons between different individuals. If people feel that they are not equally rewarded they either reduce the quantity or quality of work or migrate to some other organization. However, if people perceive that they are rewarded higher, they may be motivated to work harder.
Figure 2m: Equity Theory
6]Reinforcement Theory B.F. Skinner, who propounded the reinforcement theory, holds that by designing the environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering internal factors like impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behavior, individuals are directed by what happens in the environment external to them. Skinner states that work environment should be made suitable to the individuals and that punishment actually leads to frustration and de-motivation. Hence, the only way to motivate is to keep on making positive changes in the external environment of the organization
Job Design and Scheduling 1]Job Rotation-The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another. 2] Job Enlargement-The horizontal expansion of jobs. 3] Job Enrichment-The vertical expansion of jobs EFFECT OF MOTIVATION ON WORK BEHAVIOUR Motivation is a term in organizational behavior which leads the employee inside the organization to attain the specific goals and objectives. The goal oriented behavior come when only a kind of intrinsic or extrinsic motivational force is there, enforcing the employees to fill the gap between the tension recognition and the goal attainment. When a motivated employee attains its specific goal, a positive reinforcement is brought along the work performance. According to the instrumental theory of work motivation and learning, if this positive reinforcement is compensated through any intrinsic or extrinsic reward, the situation / stimulus becomes instrumental into the habit of employees and they feel more satisfied inside the organization. Thus, it can be overlooked that motivation, job satisfaction and their outcomes are closely bound with each other. Increase in one factor automatically gives an increment in another factor. Motivation is termed as a major factor behind the job satisfaction. The overall effects of job satisfaction through motivation are as follows: Job satisfaction through motivation and job performance Happy workers are more likely to be productive workers, although it is hard to tell which way the causality runs. However, some researchers used to believe that the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance was a management myth. But a review of 300 studies suggested that the correlation is pretty strong. As we move from the individual level to that of the organization, we also find support for the satisfaction performance relationship. When satisfaction and productivity data are gathered for the organization as a whole, we find that organizations with more satisfied employees tend to be more effective then organizations with fewer satisfied employees. Job satisfaction through motivation and OCB It seems logical to assume that job satisfaction should be a major determinant of an employees Organizational Citizenship Behaviour [OCB]. Satisfied employees would seem more likely to talk positively about the organization, help others, and go beyond the normal expectation in their job. Moreover, satisfied employees might be more prone to go beyond the call of duty because they want to reciprocate their positive experiences. Consistent with this thinking, early discussion of OCB assumed that it was closely linked with satisfaction. More recent evidence, however, suggests that satisfaction influences OCB, but through perceptions of fairness. Job satisfaction through motivation and customer satisfaction Employees in service jobs often interact with customers. Since the management in service organizations should be concerned with pleasing those customers, it is reasonable to ask : Is employee satisfaction related to positive customer outcomes? For front line employees who have regular contact with customers, the answer is Yes. The evidence indicates that satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. Why? In service organizations, customer retention and defection are highly dependent on how front line employees deal with customers. Satisfied employees are more likely to be friendly, upbeat, and responsive which customers appreciate. And because satisfied employees are less prone to turnover, customers are more likely to encounter familiar faces and receive experienced service. These qualities build customer satisfaction and loyalty. In addition, the relationship seems to apply in reverse. Dissatisfied customers can increase an employees job dissatisfaction. Employees who have regular contact with customers report that rude, thoughtless, or unreasonably demanding customers adversely affect the employees job satisfaction. Job satisfaction through motivation and absenteeism A consistent negative relationship is found between satisfaction and absenteeism, but the correlation is moderate to weak. While it certainly makes sense that dissatisfied employees are more likely to miss work, other factors have an impact on the relationship and reduce the correlation coefficient. For example, organizations that provide liberal sick leave benefits are encouraging all their employees including those who are highly satisfied to take days off. Assuming that you have a reasonable number of varied interests, you can find work satisfying and yet still take off work to enjoy a 3 day weekend or tan yourself on a warm summer day if those days come free with no penalties. Job satisfaction through motivation and turnover Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover, but the correlation is stronger than what we found for absenteeism. Yet, again, other factors such as labour market conditions, expectations about alternative job opportunities, and length of tenure with the organization are important constraints on the actual decision to leave ones current job. Evidence indicates that an important moderator of the satisfaction turnover relationship is the employees level of performance Job satisfaction through motivation and workplace deviance Job dissatisfaction predicts a lot of specific behaviours, including unionization attempts, substance abuse, stealing at work, undue socializing, and tardiness. Researchers argue that these behaviours are indicators of a broader syndrome that we would term deviant behavior in the workplace [or employees withdrawal]. The key is that if employees do not like their work environment, they will respond somehow. It is not always easy to forecast exactly how they will respond. One workers response might be to quit. But another may respond by taking work time to surf the internet, taking work supplies home for personal use and so on. If employers want to control the undesirable consequences of job dissatisfaction, they had best attack the source of the problem the dissatisfaction rather than trying to control the different responses Group A group is defined as two or more individuals interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can either be formal or informal. Formal groups are designated work group defined by the organizations structure. Informal groups are network of personal and social relations not established or required by the formal organizations but arising spontaneously as people associate with on another. Groups are further sub classified into command, task interest or friendship groups command and tasks groups are dictated by the formal organizations, while interest and friendship groups are informal alliances. The organizational chart determines a command group. It is composed of individuals who report directly to a given manager. Task group are also organizationally determined. Represents those working together to complete the job task. However, as task groups boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It can cross command relationship. All command groups are also task group, but because tasks groups can cut across the organization, the reverse needs not be true. Interest groups includes those working together to attain a specific objective with each is concerned. Employees who band together to have their vacation schedules altered, to support to peer who has been forced, or to seek improvement in working conditions represents the formations of unified body to further their common interests. Friendship groups are formed by those who share on or more common characters. People join groups for various reasons like: Security: By joining a group individuals can reduce the insecurity of standing alone. People feel stronger, have fewer self doubts, and more resistant to threats when they are part of the group. Status: Inclusions in a group that is viewed as important by others, provides recognition and status for its members. Self esteem Groups can provide people with feelings of self worth. That is , in additi9on to conveying status to those outside the group, membership can also give increased feelings of worth to the group members themselves. Affiliation: Groups can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the regular interactions that come with group membership. For many people, these on the job interactions are their primary source for fulfilling their needs for affiliation. Power: what cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible through group action. There is power in numbers. Good achievements: There are a times it takes more than one person to accomplish a particular tasks- there is need to pool talents, knowledge or power in order to complete a job. In such instances, management will rely on the use of a formal group. Stages of group development Groups go through five distinct stages 1. Forming stage 2. Storming 3. Norming 4. Performing 5. Adjourning 1-Forming stage The first stage in development characterized by which uncertainty about the groups purpose, structure and leadership. 2-Stroming stage The second stage in group development characterized by intergroup conflict. There is conflict over who will control the group. 3-Norming The third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness 4-performing stage The 4th stage in group development, when the group is fully functional. 5-Adjourning stage The final stage in group development for temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up abilities rather then task performance.
Key group concepts are, Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness refers to degree to which group members are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group. For instance, some work groups are cohesive because the members have spent a great deal of time together, or the group small size of facilitates high interaction or the group has experienced externa l threats that have brought the member together. Cohesiveness is important because is has been found to be related to the groups productivity. Relationship of cohesiveness and productivity depends on the performance- related norms established by the group. If performance related norms are high (for example high output,quality work , cooperation with individuals outside the group) a cohesive group will be more productive than will a less cohesive group. Factors that encourage group cohesiveness 1) Make the group smaller 2) Encourage agreement with group goals 3Increase the time members spend together 4) Increase the status of the group and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership in the group. 5) Stimulate competition with other groups. 6) Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members Norms group Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by group members Types of norms There are two types of norms Formal norms Formal norms are written up in organization manual setting out rules and procedures for employees to follow. For example do not misuse any property of organization. Informal norms Informal norms are not written or told to employees. For example you do not need to tell employees not to smoke in air-conditioned office. 106 | P a g e Common classes of norms Some common classes of norms that appears in most work groups a) Performance norms Performance norms tells members how hard they should work, how to get the job done and their level of output b) Appearance norms A second category encompasses appearance norms. This include things like appropriate dress, loyalty to the work group or organization, when to look busy, and when its acceptable to gordoff c) Social arrangement norms These norms come from informal work group and primarily regulate social intersections within the group. With whom group members eat lunch, friendships and of the job social games and the like are influenced by these norms. d) Allocation of resource norms These norms can originate in the organization and cover things like they, assignment of difficult jobs, and allocation of new tools and equipment e) Inter group conflicts Means difference of opinions of members of a group These differences can be over Distribution of resources Allocation of authority Recognition of services Foundation of group behavior In foundation of group behavior include two main things 1- Group decision making 2- Communication Group decision making two heads are better then one Know today many decisions in organization are made by groups, teams, or committees. Because two heads are better then one. Strength of group decision making 1- Group generate more complete information and knowledge 2- Increased diversity of views. 3- Higher quality decision making 4- Increased acceptance of a solutions Weakness of group decision making 1- Time consuming 2- Conformity pressures in groups 3- Dominated by one or few members 4- Ambiguous responsibility
Group discussion making techniques When we improve group discussion making then we use some techniques 1-Interacting groups Typically groups, in which members interact with each other face to face 2-Brainstroming An idea generation process that specifically encourage any and all alternatives, while with holding any criticism of those alternatives. 3-Nominal group technique A group discussion making methods in which individuals members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion. 4-Electronic meeting A meeting in which member interact on computers, allowing for anoemity of comments and aggregation of votes Work Team:- Work team is defined as a group whose individual efforts results in a performance that is greater then the sum of the individual inputs. Management looks for positive synergy that will allow their organization to increase performance. The extensive use of teams create the potential for an organization to generate greater outputs with increase in inputs. Four most common types of work teams found in the organization:- 1) Problem solving teams ii)Self managed work teams iii) Cross functional teams and iv) Virtual teams 1) Problems Solving Teams:- Groups of 5 to 12 employees from the same department who meet for few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency and the work environment. Rarely, however, are these teams given the authority to unilaterally implement any of their suggested actions. 2) Self Managed work teams:- Are group of employees 10 to 15 who performs highly related or interdependent jobs and take on many of the responsibilities of their former supervisors. Typically this includes planning and scheduling of work, assigning tasks to members, taking action on problems, and working with suppliers and customers. Fully self-managed work teams even select their own members and have the members evaluate each others performances. As a result, supervisory positions take on decreased importance and many even be eliminated. 3) Cross functional teams:- Employees from about the same hierarchical level but from different work areas who come together to accomplish a task. 4) Virtual teams:- Teams that use computers to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal. Three primary factors that differentiate virtual teams from face to face teams are 1) The absence of preverbal and non verbal cues. 2) Limited social context 3) The ability to overcome time and space constrains. The key components making up effective teams can be subsumed into four general categories:- 1) Work design:- Effective teams need to work together and take collective responsibility to complete significant tasks. The work design category includes variables lake freedom and autonomy, the opportunity to use different skills and talents, the ability to complete a whole and identifiable task or product and working on a task or project that has a substant ial impact on others. 2) Composition:- This category includes variables that related to how teams should be staffed. It includes the ability and personality of team members, allocating roles and diversity, size of the team, members flexibility and members preference for team work. Ability of members:- To perform effectively, a team requires three different types of skills. First it need people with technical skills, second, people with problem solving and decision making skills and finally people with good listening, feedback conflict resolution and other interpersonal skills. Personality:- Personality of members has a significant influence on the individual employee behavior. This can also be extended to team behavior. Hence, five basic dimensions i.e. extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness; emotional stability and openness to experience are relevant for the success of a work team. Allocating roles and diversity:- Nine potential team roles have been identified. These are:- 1) Organizer(Provides structure) 2) Producer(Provide direction and follow through) 3) Controller(Examines details and enforce rules) 4) Maintainer(Fights external batter) 5) Advisor(Encourages the search for more information) 6) Linker(Coordinates and integrates) 7) Creator (Initiates creative ideas) 8) Promoter (Champions ideas after they are initiated) 9) Assessor (offers insightful analysis of options) Successful work teams have people to fill all these roles and have selected people to play in these roles based on their skills and preferences. Size of teams:- Ideally a team should have seven to nine people. Generally speaking, the most effective teams have fewer then 10 people. minimum four to five members may be necessary to develop diversity of views and skills. When teams have excess members, cohesiveness and mutual accountability declines, social loafing increases and more and more people do less, talking more with others. Member flexibility:- Teams made up of flexible individuals have members who can complete each others tasks. This makes it le ss reliant on any single member. Member preference:- Not every employee is a team player. When people who would prefer to work alone are required to team- up, there is a direct threat to the teams moral and to individual member satisfaction. Hence when selecting team members individual preferences should be considered. Context:- Four contextual factors that appear to be most significantly related to team performance are the presence of adequate resources; effective leadership, a climate of trust end a performance and reward system that reflects team contribution. Process:- The final category related to effectiveness is process variables. These include member commitment to a common purpose, establishment of special team goal, team efficacy, a managed level of conflict and minimizing social loading. Conflict Conflict is defined as process that begins when one party perceives than another party has affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. The parties to it must perceive conflict; whether or not the conflict exists is a perception issue. If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed that no conflict exists. Conflict can either be functional or dysfunctional. Functional Conflicts supports the goals of the group and improves its performance. It is constructive in nature. Functional conflict can be either a task conflict or process conflict. Task conflict is over the context and goals of the work. Process conflicts are over how work gets done. Dysfunctional conflicts hinder group performance. It is destructive in nature. It includes relationship conflict, which is based on interpersonal relationships. There are various conflicts resolution techniques. These include: 1) Problem Solving: Face to face meeting of the conflicting parties for the purpose of identifying the problem and resolving it through open discussion. 2) Super ordinate goals: Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of each of the conflicting parties. 3) Expansion of resources: When a conflict is caused by the scarcity of a resources- say money. Promotion opportunities, office space- expansion of the resource can create win- win solutions. 4) Avoidance: Withdraw from or suppression of, the conflict. 5) Smoothing: Playing down differences while emphasizing common interest between the conflicting parties. 6) Compromise: Each party to the conflicts gives up something of value. 7) Authoritative Command: Management uses its formal authority to resolve the conflict and then communicates its desires to the parties involved. 8)Altering the human variables: Using behavioral change technique such as human relations training to alter attitudes and behaviors that cause conflict. 9)Altering the structural variables: Changing the formal organization structure and interaction patterns of conflicting parties through job redesign, transfers, creation of coordination positions and the like. In order to differentiate functional and dysfunctional conflict, it is necessary to look into type of conflict. Specifically , there are three types: tasks relationship and process Task conflict : relates to the contents and goals of the work Relationship Conflict: focuses on interpersonal relationship. Process conflict relates to how work gets done. Studies demonstrate that relationship conflicts are almost always dysfunctional. It appears that the friction and interpersonal hostilities inherent in relationship conflicts increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding which hinders the completion of organizational tasks. On the other hand, low level of process conflict and low to moderate level of tasks conflicts are functional. The conflict process The conflict process can be seen as comprising five stages (1) potential opposition or incompatibility (2) Cognition and personalization (3) intentions (4) Behavior (5) Outcome. Potential opposition or incompatibility: The first step in the conflict process is the presence on conditions that create opportunities for conflict to rise. These cause or create opportunities for conflict to rise. These causes or sources of conflict have been condenses into three general categories(1)Communications (2) Structure (3) Personal Variables. (1)Communications: Different words connotations, jargon insufficient exchange of information and noise in communication channel are all antecedent conditions to conflict. Too much communication as well as too little communication can rely foundation for conflict. (2)Structure: The term structure is used, in this context to include variables such as size, degree of specialization in the tasks assigned to group members, jurisdictional clarity, members/ goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems and the degree of dependence between groups. The size and specialization act as forces to stimulate conflict. The larger the group and the more specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict. Tenure and conflict have been found to be inversely related,. The potential for conflicts tends to be greatest when group members are younger and when turnover is high. The greater the ambiguity in defining where responsibility for action lies, the greater the potential for conflict to emerge. Such Jurisdictional ambiguity increases inter group fighting for control or resources and territory. (3)Personal Variables: Certain personality types- for example individuals who are highly authoritarian and dogmatic- lead to potential conflict. Another reason for conflict is difference in value systems. Value differences are the best explanations of diverse issues such as prejudice disagreements over ones contribution to the group and rewards one deserves. Stage 2) Cognition and personalization: conflict must be perceived by the parties to it whether or not conflict exists is a perception issue. If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed that no conflict exists. Because conflict is perceives does not mean that is personalized.For e.g. A may be aware that B and A are in serious disagreements but it may not make A tense or nations and it may have no effect whatsoever on As affection towards B It is the felt level ,when individuals become emotionally involved that parties experience anxiety , tension or hostility. Stage2 is the place in the process where the parties decide what the conflict is about and emotions plays a major role in shaping perception. Stage3 Intentions: Intentions are decisions to act in a given way intentions intervene between peoples perception and emotions and their overt behavior. Using two dimensions cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other partys concerns)and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns)- five conflict handling intentions can be identified. 1) Competing: when one person seeks to satisfy his or her own interests regardless of the impact on the other parties to the conflict, he is competing. 2) Collaborating : A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all the parties. In collaborating, the intention o the parties are to solve the problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view. 3) Avoiding: a person may recognize that a conflict exists and want to withdraw from it or suppress it. Avoiding included trying to just ignore a conflict and avoiding others with whom you disagree. 4) Accommodating: The willingness of one partying a conflict top lace the opponents interest above his or her own. 5) Compromising: A situation in which each party to a conflict is wiling to give up something. Intentions provide general guidelines for parties in a conflict situation. They define each partys purpose. Yet people intention is not fixed. During the course of conflict, they might change because of reconceptualization or because of an emotional reaction to the behavior of other party. Stage 4: Behavior: This is a stage where conflict becomes visible. The behavior stage includes the statements, actions and reactions made by the conflicting parties. These conflict behaviours are usually overt attempt to implement each partys intentions. Stage 5 Outcomes: The action reaction interplay between the conflicting parties result in consequences. These outcomes may be functional in that the conflict results in an improvement in the groups performance, or dysfunctional in that it hinders group performance. Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions simulates creativity and innovations encourages interest and curiosity among group members provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released and fosters an environment of self evaluation and change. Conflict is dysfunctional when uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve common ties and eventually leads to the destruction of the group. Among the more undesirable consequences are a retarding of communication, reductions in group cohesiveness and subordination of group goals to the primacy of infighting between members. NEGOTIATION Negotiation is defined as a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree on the exchange rate for them. There are two general approaches to negotiation- distributive bargaining and integrative bargaining. Distributive Bargaining:- Distributive bargaining is defined as negotiations that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources, a win lose situation. Its most identifying feature is that it operates under zero sum conditions i.e. each party bargains aggressively and treats the other as an opponent who must be defeated. The essence of distributive bargaining is that each party has a target point that defines what he/she would like to achieve. Each also has a resistance point, which marks the lowest outcome that is acceptable the point below which they would break off negotiations rather then accept a less favorable settlement. The area between these two points makes up each ones aspiration range. As long as these is some overlap between the aspiration ranges, their exists a settlement range in which each ones aspiration can be met. When engaged in distributive bargaining ones tactics focus on try to get ones opponent to agree to ones specific target point or to get as close to it as possible. Examples of such tactics are persuading to his/her target point and the advisability of accepting a settlement near yours arguing that your target is fair, which your opponents is not and attempting to get you opponent to feel emotionally generous toward you and thus accept an outcome close to your target point. B) Integrative Bargaining :- Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements than create win win situation. In terms of intra-organizational behavior all things being equal integrative bargaining is preferable to distributive bargaining. Integrative bargaining builds long term relationships and facilitates working together in the future. It bonds negotiators and allows each to leave the bargaining table feeling that he/she has achieved a victory. Distributive bargaining on the other hand, leaves one party a loser. It tends to build animosities and deeper divisions when people have to work together on an ongoing process. The Negotiation Process :- Negotiation is made up of five steps:- preparation and planning, Definition of ground rules, Clarification and justification, bargaining and problem solving and closure and implementation. a) Preparation and planning:- Before the start of negations one must be aware of conflict the history leading to the negotiation the people involved and their perception of the conflict expectations from the negotiations etc. b) Definition of ground rules:- Once the planning and strategy is development one has to begin defining the ground rules and procedures with the other party over the negotiation itself that will do the negotiation. Where will it take place? What time constrains, if any will apply? To what issues will negotiations be limited? Will there be a specific procedure to follow in an impasse is reached? During this phase the parties will also exchange their initial proposals or demands. c) Clarification and justification: - When initial positions have been exchanged both the parties will explain amplify, clarify, bolster and justify their original demands. This need not be confrontational. Rather it is an opportunity for educating and informing each other on the issues why they are important and how each arrived at their initial demands. This is the point where one party might want to provide the other party with any documentation that helps support its position. d) Bargaining and problem solving :- The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give and take in trying to hash out an agreement. It is here where concessions will undoubtedly need to be made by both parties. e) Closure and Implementation:- The final step in the negotiation process is formalization the agreement that has been worked out and developing and procedures that are necessary for implementation and monitoring. For major negotiations this will require hammering out the specifics in a formal contract. Third Party Negotiations:- If the group or parties reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through direct negotiation they may turn to a third party to help them find a solution. The different third party roles are:- a) Mediator:- Mediator is a neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning and persuasion, suggesting alternatives and like. Mediators are widely used in labor-management negotiations and in civil court disputes. To be effective the mediator must be perceived as neutral and non-coercive. b) Arbitrator: - An arbitrator is a third party with the authority to dictate an agreement. Arbitration can be voluntary (requested) or compulsory. The authority of the arbitrator varies according to the rules set by the negotiators LEADERSHIP DEFINITION Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen.
LEADERSHIP STYLES Leadership style refers to a leader's behavior. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. There are 3 major types of leadership style. They are as follows: 1. Authoritarian / Autocratic Leader Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with dictators. Leaders do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The autocratic management has been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to him/herself until he/she feels it needs to be shared with the rest of the group. 2. Participative / Democratic Leader The democratic leadership style favors decision-making by the group. Such a leader gives instructions after consulting the group. They can win the cooperation of their group and can motivate them effectively and positively. The decisions of the democratic leader are not unilateral as with the autocrat because they arise from consultation with the group members and participation by them. 3. Delegate / Free Rein / Laissez Faire Leader A free-rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself. Such a leader allows maximum freedom to subordinates; they are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and methods. Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style adopted should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members. Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad leaders tend to stick with one style. LEADERSHIP THEORIES Many leadership theories have been suggested since time immemorial. Early leadership theories focused on the behaviour and qualities of successful leaders where as later theories gave more importance to the role of associates and followers. Some of the leadership theories are as follows: Great Man Theory According to Great Man theory, a leader is born and cannot be made. This theory believed that leaders are people who have inborn exceptional qualities and are destined to lead. Here the term Man is used since leadership was considered as a concept that would be primarily dominated by males. Great leaders would arise only when there is an urgent need of it. It also suggests that leadership qualities are inherent. Trait Theory According to Trait theory, few people are born with qualities that are suited to leaderships. People who transform into good leaders posses right combination of leadership qualities. Through this approach, people with such leadership qualities could be separated and then people with such qualities could be recruited or selected into leadership positions. This approach was commonly used in military and is even today used to recruit candidates for commission. Contingency Theory This theory focuses on variables that are related to environment and that would determine which style of leadership is suitable for a particular situation. It says that it is impossible to determine which leadership style will suit best for any situation. Success depends on qualities of followers and other variables. Situational Theories This theory suggests that on the basis of situational variable, leaders should choose the course of action. Diverse styles of leadership will me more suitable to make certain types of decisions Behavioral Theories This theory believes that great leaders are not born but are made. The prime focus of this theory is on actions of leaders. The focus is not on internal states or mental qualities. This theory believes that people can become leaders through the process of teaching, learning and observation. Participative Theory This theory defines ideal leadership style. An ideal leadership style takes into consideration the input of its associates. Such leaders encourage contribution and participation from group members. The leader also has the right to say no to any suggestion of other team member. Management Theories This theory gives more importance to the role of organization, supervision and most importantly the group performance. This theory is based on the system of punishment and reward. Managerial theory is often used in many companies. When employees performance is very good, he or she is given a reward. If the employees performance decreases below a certain level, he or she is punished. Relationship Theory This theory also called Transformational theory focuses on the connections that are formed between followers and leaders. These leaders inspire and motivate people. They also help group members in case of any difficulty. Such leaders focus on performance of members of group. These leaders have high moral values. Path Goal Theory This theory focuses on what leaders should do to motivate and inspire people so that the employees can perform well. LEADERS Vs. MANAGERS Leadership and managership are two synonymous terms is an incorrect statement. Leadership doesnt require any managerial position to act as a leader. On the other hand, a manager can be a true manager only if he has got the traits of leader in him. By virtue of his position, manager has to provide leadership to his group. A manager has to perform all five functions to achieve goals, i.e., Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, and Controlling. Leadership is a part of these functions. Leadership as a general term is not related to managership. A person can be a leader by virtue of qualities in him. For example: leader of a club, class, welfare association, social organization, etc. Therefore, it is true to say that, All managers are leaders, but all leaders are not managers. A leader is one who influences the behavior and work of others in group efforts towards achievement of specified goals in a given situation. On the other hand, manager can be a true manager only if he has got traits of leader in him. Manager at all levels are expected to be the leaders of work groups so that subordinates willingly carry instructions and accept their guidance. A person can be a leader by virtue of all qualities in him. Leaders and Managers can be compared as follows: The manager administers; the leader innovates. The manager is a copy; the leader is an original. The manager maintains; the leader develops. The manager focuses on systems and structure; the leader focuses on people. The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust. The manager accepts reality; the leader investigates it. The manager has a short-range view; the leader has a long-range perspective. The manager asks how and when; the leader asks what and why. The manager has his or her eye always on the bottom line; the leader has his or her eye on the horizon. The manager imitates; the leader originates. The manager accepts the status quo; the leader challenges it. The manager is the classic good soldier; the leader is his or her own person. The manager does things right; the leader does the right thing.
4.2. POWER MEANING The term 'Power' may be defined as the capacity to exert in influence over others. If a person has power, it means that he is able to influence the behaviour of other individuals. The essence of power is control over the behaviour of others. "In one's role as a supervisor, a manager's power may be seen as the ability to cause subordinates to do what the manager wishes him to do". A manager's power may be measured in terms of the ability to: 1] Give rewards 2] Promise rewards 3] Threaten to withdraw current rewards 4] Withdraw current rewards 5] Threaten punishment, and 6] Punish. Power is the degree of influence an individual or group has in decision making, without being authorized by the organization to do so. Power is used not only in getting a certain result achieved but it includes impact on negative decisions, or the action of not deciding also. Therefore, power is not only one's influence over the decision - making, but also one's capability of limiting the scope of actual decision - making. DEFINITION Power is defined as the ability to influence and control anything that is of value of others. - Stephen P. Robbins NATURE OF POWER 1. Power can be potential or enacted. 2. Power represents the capacity, ability or potential to influence the behaviour of other people to achieve a certain goal. 3. Leaders exercise power to accomplish goals of an organization. 4. Leaders have only as much power as others allow them to have. 5. Some times appearing to be powerful is just as important as being powerful. 6. Power is neither completely formal nor informal. It is rather a judicious mixture of two. IMPORTANCE OF POWER 1. Necessary for coordinated activities 2. Basis for authority and responsibility. SOURCES OF POWER Power is a force of influence and authority. Most leaders wield power, but how power is manifested and used often differs between leaders. Where does a leader get power from? Or do a leaders followers give it to them? Well its both. In this , well be looking at the five different sources of power a leader can use, with some advice on when these powers should be used, and perhaps when not. The five sources of a leaders power come from distinctly different sources. Heres an overview: 1. Expert Power When a leader has significant domain knowledge/skills. E.g. an expert accountant influences how junior accountants go about their tasks Use expert power when: You have a genuine expertise in a subject You have access to resources within your control who do Dont use expert power when: Youre unsure of your competence in a subject 2. Positional Power Comes when a leader has a legitimately held position of authority. E.g. typically, the CEO of an organization has the highest positional power Use positional power when: You need something done quickly when you don't have time to explain why If a political situation has grown that needs stemming Your accountabilities are in serious jeopardy Don't use positional power when: You are feeling impatient or frustrated You have purely personal reasons to influence an outcome Your values are at odds with someone else's You have recently entered a new post with an unfamiliar team 3. Reward Power Is evident when a leader can give, or take away, a reward. E.g. a leader can influence a followers behavior by awarding a bonus, or taking away perks Use reward power when: You need something done quickly Your team needs a motivation boost You are asking your followers to go above and beyond their duty You want to create friendly competition Don't use reward power when: Resources are scare, so that someone wins, someone loses You have doubts about your ability to provide the reward They are targeted towards individuals in situations where there are petty jealousies exhibited in your team 4. Coercive Power This is felt when a leader creates the perception of a threat. E.g. a leader has coercive power if her followers believe that she will initiate disciplinary action Use coercive power when: You need to ensure standards and policies are adhered to There is a significant risk in a situation You have no other opinion Don't use coercive power when: You have the ability to apply other power. Rather, use positional power if you must. You won't be around to put things right, afterwards You are feeling frustrated and emotional 5. Personal Power Influence gained by persuasion. E.g. a manager may have to rely on nothing more than a friendly please and thank you for an employee to perform a task Use personal power when: There is a strong relationship between you and your followers Your desired outcomes does not conflict with your followers values, or the values of your organization Your desired outcome is flexible Don't use personal power when: There is not a strong relationship between you and your followers It is perhaps only personal power that can be used singularly, but this comes at a cost in terms of the time and resources it takes for you to build relationships. All other forms of power should be used in conjunction with each other. It is unlikely that you can use the same mix of power for every situation. The skill of leadership is knowing when to use these powers and when not too. Judgment is key. Like any other skill, using power must be practiced, and we will make mistakes. Dont be afraid! Let us learn from these mistakes. POLITICS MEANING Politics relates to the way a person is able to get power over others and the way in which he uses power over others. In other words, it is the process whereby power is acquired and exercised upon others to influence their behaviour or to get things done. Thus, it is a method of operating in order to influence the behaviour of others. DEFINITION Politics in organization are those activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization. - Stephen P Robbins FEATURES OF POLITICS Political behaviour involves some kind of power either directly or indirectly. Power can be exercised by those who are in formal positions and enjoy authority. It can also be influenced by other persons close to those who hold formal authority. Politics involves behaviour that is self - serving. It suggests that either organizational resources are used for personal benefits or benefits to be given to one person are given to another. In both the cases, the decision is not rational from organization's point of view. Politics takes place when an individual recognises that achievement of his goals is influenced by the behaviour of others. In such a case, politicking involves the elimination of adversaries by the influential manueuvers of a member of the organization. All self - serving behaviours which do not involve use of power or threat of use of power cannot be termed as politics. For example, an employee's asking for a rise in pay is not political behaviour, but the use of threat to unionize to obtain a pay rise amounts to political behaviour. FACTORS INFLUENCING POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR A number of factors are responsible for political behaviour. These factors are grouped into individual factors and organizational factors. 1. Individual factors High self - monitors Skilled in political behaviour High Machiavellian personality Proactive and prone to manipulate situation in their favour Investment in organization Investment in terms of expectations forces the individual to use illegitimate means. Perceived job alternatives 2. Organizational factors Reallocation of resources The reallocation or resources is necessary when the resources available either increase or decrease. These situations force the individuals to resort to politics. Promotion opportunities Normally, the opportunities for promotion or advancement are lesser than the candidates expecting promotion. This situation leads to competition and thereby political behaviour by the competing candidates. Low trust Low trust in organization leads to tight control which in turn makes the subordinates to behave illegitimately. Role ambiguity The unclear expectation from the employee makes him to act politically. Unclear performance appraisal system Employee does not know what to do? And to what level of perfection he has to do? etc., under the unclear performance appraisal system. This situation creates ambiguity and leads to political behaviour. Zero - sum reward system The win - lose approach in reward allocation is called zero - sum approach. People perceive that they won double if others lose. Therefore, this situation makes people take the chance, even through illegitimate means. Democratic decision making The traditionally autocratic managers cannot make the decisions democratically in its true sense. Therefore, they refer the issues to committees and commissions to offer recommendations, and finally they make the decisions as they desire. High performance pressures High performance pressures make the people to find short-cuts and politics to show superfluously high performance or through window - dressing. Self - serving senior managers The political behaviour by the top management with rewards encourages the people at the lower level to resort to politics. TACTICS USED TO GAIN POLITICAL POWER Bargaining or Trade - off It refers to negotiation of a quid pro quo [this for that] agreement between two groups. Each party to the conflict offers some benefits to the other so that there can be some stability in their relationship. Competition The resources at the command of the organization are limited. Various groups compete with each other to have a greater share of such resources. For this, they try to influence the criteria used as the basis for resource distribution in the form of funds, space, support staff, etc. Co-optation Co-optation occurs when a group gives some of its important positions to members of other groups or includes them in its policy - making committees. Coalition It is a temporary alliance of a number of individuals or groups who combine their efforts and energy for their common goals. For example, National Democratic Government was formed in India on the basis of coalition arrangement between a numbers of political parties. By forming a coalition, the members are able to increase their power or area of influence. Pressure It is a hostile method of gaining power. For example, a trade union might threaten a strike or slow down if the management does not accept its demands. In a similar vein, the management might threaten a lock - out in the factory if the trade union does not accept its terms. Control over information It is very much a part of political behaviour to control the dissemination of critical information to others. Releasing good or bad news when it is likely to have its fullest impact can promote someone's self interest and may ruin the hopes of others. Control over communication channels People who are in lower level positions but have some control over the channels of communication can acquire considerable political power. For example, the secretary may have considerable power in deciding who sees the boss and who doesn't at a given time. LEVELS OF POLITCAL ACTION IN ORGANIZATIONS Figure4b: Levels of political action in organizations