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Copper slag is a by-product obtained during smelting and refining of copper. Huge amount of its annual production is disposed in dumps or stockpiles to date. This paper reviews the application area and its allowable use in different activities.
Copper slag is a by-product obtained during smelting and refining of copper. Huge amount of its annual production is disposed in dumps or stockpiles to date. This paper reviews the application area and its allowable use in different activities.
Copper slag is a by-product obtained during smelting and refining of copper. Huge amount of its annual production is disposed in dumps or stockpiles to date. This paper reviews the application area and its allowable use in different activities.
K. K. Jain Received: 18 February 2013 / Accepted: 30 March 2014 Springer Japan 2014 Abstract The utilization of solid waste is the challenge for the civil and environmental engineers to utilize the waste from different industry to excel the sustainable development, and in the same time, it is matching with the cost concern of the present materials. Copper slag is a by- product obtained during smelting and rening of copper. The waste copper slag can be used as abrasive tools, road construction, and ballast. Despite increasing rate of reusing copper slag, the huge amount of its annual production is disposed in dumps or stockpiles to date. One of the greatest potential applications for reusing copper slag is in cement and concrete production. Many researchers have investi- gated the use of copper slag in the production of cement, mortar, and concrete as mixed with lime stone powder, dust, cement replacement, use as partial replacement of coarse, and ne aggregates. The use of copper slag in cement and concrete provides potential environmental as well as economic benets for all related industries, par- ticularly in areas where a considerable amount of copper slag is produced. This paper reviews the application area of copper slag and its allowable use in different activities. Keywords Copper slag Concrete Waste Cement Introduction Increasing urbanization and economical growth by indus- trialization concept and technological innovations in the different eld have contributed to an increase both in the quantity and variety of wastes generated by industrial, mining, domestic, and agricultural activities. Globally the estimated quantity of wastes generation was 12 billion ton- nes in the year 2002 of which 11 billion tonnes were indus- trial wastes and 1.6 billion tonnes were municipal solid wastes (MSW). About 19 billion tonnes of solid wastes are expected to be generated annually by the year 2025. Annu- ally, Asia alone generates 4.4 billion tonnes of solid wastes, and MSW comprise 790 million tones (MT) of which about 48 MT (6 %) is generated in India. By the year 2047, MSW generation in India is expected to reach 300 MT, and land requirement for disposal of this waste would be 169.6 km 2 as compared to 20.2 km 2 occupied in 1997 for management of 48 MT [12, 13]. It is a challenge for the civil and environ- mental engineers to utilize the waste from different industry to ensure the sustainable development and in a way that it is matches with the cost concern of the present materials. The waste generated from different industry can go for the recycling or deposal mechanisms that will be lowering the environmental impact. The status of solid waste generation in India (MT/y) and composition of Municipal Solid Waste in India as per NSWAI are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. Copper slag is a massive metallurgical residue obtained from the transformation of copper ore concentrates into metallic copper in the smelters. Slags are deposited in landlls that occupy large areas of land. Their chemical composition is rich in iron, silicon, and aluminum oxides, and in their mineralogical composition, the presence of fayalite and magnetite among other compounds is common. The use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCM), e.g., y ash K. Murari (&) K. K. Jain Department of Civil Engineering, Jaypee University of Engineering & Technology, Guna, Madhya Pradesh, India e-mail: melokrishna@yahoo.com K. K. Jain e-mail: kk.jain@juet.ac.in R. Siddique Department of Civil Engineering, Thaper University, Patiala, India e-mail: siddique_66@yahoo.com 1 3 J Mater Cycles Waste Manag DOI 10.1007/s10163-014-0254-x (FA), granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS), silica fume (SF), and activated metakaolin (AM) can improve various prop- erties in fresh and hardened state of concrete. In particular, there is the use of metallurgical waste in the construction industry, where one of the studied applications is its use as a substitute for aggregates, both in cement mortar and concrete [10, 14, 15, 22]. The global concern is to making economic friendly material product at lower cost with less harmful effect on environment. In this context, various worldwide experiences point to the appropriate use of the copper slag in the manufacture of concrete and cement mortars, generating a recycling opportunity for what would otherwise be massive metallurgical liabilities. Addition of cost saving materials with replacement of considerable amount of cement reduces CO 2 emission during the manufacture of portland cement [6, 7, 21, 22]. Nonferrous slags are produced during the recovery and processing of nonferrous metal from natural ores. The slags are molten by- products of hightemperature processes that are primarily used to separate the metal and nonmetal constituents contained in the bulk ore. When cooled, the molten slag converts to a rocklike or granular material. In preparation for metal ion reduction (designed to separate the metal from the nonmetal constituents), some monoxide minerals are often converted to oxides byheatingat air temperatures belowtheir meltingpoint roasting. Sulde minerals, whenpresent incopper andnickel ore, are converted to oxides in this process. The reduction of the metal ion to the free metal is normally accomplished in a process referred to as smelting. In this process, a reducing agent, such as coke (impure carbon), along with carbon monoxide and hydrogen, is combinedwiththe roastedproduct and melted in a siliceous ux. The metal is subsequently gravimetrically separated fromthe composite ux, leavingthe residual slag. In general, the following nonferrous slags are there: copper, nickel, phosphorus, lead, leadzinc, and zinc. Copper and nickel slags are produced by(1) roasting, in which sulfur in the ore is eliminated as sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ); (2) smelting, in which the roasted product is melted in a siliceous ux and the metal is reduced; and (3) converting, where the melt is de-sulfurized with lime ux, iron ore, or a basic slag and then oxygen lanced to remove other impurities. Copper and nickel slags have been used as granular base and embankment materials, aggregate substitutes in hot mix asphalt, mine backll materials, railway ballast materials, grit blast abrasives, roong granule material, and in the manu- facture of blended cements (granulated copper and nickel slags). Scientists, technologists, environmentalists, and researchers have to play their due role in managing such wastes suitably and economically. This paper presents a detailed review about waste copper slag as a material which can be effectively used in different construction practices. It can used inpavement constructionand can be usedin concrete as a ne and coarse aggregate replacement and in cement mortar as cement replacement. It is a positive effort to explore its use in concrete/asphalt concrete. Recent studies on solid waste generation and their impact in India A 1998 study by TERI (The Energy Resources Institute, earlier Tata Energy Research Institute) titled Solid Waste Fig. 1 Current status of solid waste generation in India (Mt/y) Fig. 2 Composition of municipal solid waste in India as per NSWAI J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 Management in India: options and opportunities calcu- lated the amount of land that was occupied by waste dis- posed post-independence, until 1997. The study estimated the land occupied in multiples of the size of a football eld and arrived at 71000 football elds of solid waste, stacked 9 m high. Based on a business as usual (BAU) scenario of 91 % land lling, the study estimated that the waste gen- erated by 2001 would have occupied 240 sq.km or an area half the size of Mumbai; waste generated by 2011 would have occupied 380 sq.km or about 220000 football elds or 90 % of Chennai, the fourth biggest Indian city area-wise; and waste generated by 2021 would need 590 sq.km which is greater than the area of Hyderabad (583 sq.km), the largest Indian city, area-wise [4]. A lot of effort is given to utilize the coal combustion waste, ceramic industry waste, foundry sand, etc. It is also essential to give a fair focus on the initial waste from aluminum, zinc, copper, and other metal industry waste for their proper economic and sus- tainable utilization. There are solutions for proper utilization of industrial wastes viz. y ash (from thermal power plants), blast fur- nace slag and steel slag (from iron and steel industries), phospho-gypsum (from fertilizer plants), red mud (from aluminum industries), lime sludges (from sugar, paper, calcium carbide industries), leadzinc slag (from zinc industries), and kimberlite (from mining) for manufacture of cement and related building materials. A study con- ducted by the Indian Institute of Soil Science (IISS), Bhopal, found that compost produced from solid waste in India is low grade, with high heavy metal concentrations and low nutrient value. Figure 3 shows the range of con- centration of heavy metals zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cad- mium (Cd), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), and chromium (Cr) in MSW composts from 29 cities. Compost from only two cities out of twenty-nine passed the statutory guidelines by European countries (except the Netherlands) for high quality composts. The study also found that incidence of heavy metals in solid waste compost from cities (population \1 million) is less than half of that from bigger cities, but the compost still does not clear the quality control stan- dards in all instances. If all solid waste generated in India in the next decade is composted as mixed waste and used for agriculture, it would introduce 73000 tons of heavy metals into agricultural soils as shown in Table 1. Heavy metals concentration in mixed solid waste compost in comparison with quality control standards as shown in Fig. 4 can cause harm to public health and environment and is the major concern leading to its restricted agricul- tural use [11]. Mixed waste composting is therefore not an option for sustainable waste management. In countries like India where more than 91 % of solid waste is land lled and there are no other alternatives available, mixed waste composting is widely practiced and considered better (if not the best) than land lling [8]. If all solid waste gen- erated in India from 2011 to 2021 is treated in mechanical biological treatment (MBT) facilities and the compost was used for agriculture, it would introduce 73000 tons of heavy metals into agricultural soils. Industrial waste generated in India and their utilization Industrial and mineral wastes from mineral processing industries, such as metallurgy, petrochemicals, chemicals, paper, and pulp account for nearly 150 million tonnes per annum. The more important wastes from these industries from the view point of building materials are y ash from thermal power plants, slag from steel industry, press mud Fig. 3 Heavy metal concentrations beyond quality control standards in mixed solid waste compost from Indian cities J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 from sugar industry, paper sludge from pulp and paper industry, phospho- chalk and phospho-gypsum from fer- tilizer industry, carbide sludge from the acetylene industry, calcium carbonate sludge from soda ash and chrome sludge from sodium chromate industry, red mud from aluminum industry, and metallurgical slags from nonferrous industry [21, 22]. Data on the availability of these wastes and their areas of utilization are given in report of central pollution control board, India. Types of slag SLAG is a broad term covering all nonmetallic coproducts resulting from the separation of a metal from its ore. Its Fig. 4 Heavy metals concentration in mixed solid waste compost in comparison with quality control standards Table 1 Potential hazard of introducing heavy metals into agricultural soils Years Heavy metals Zinc Copper Cadmium Lead Nickel Chromium Total 2011 1818.4 1625.1 10.1 1106.9 180.1 623.7 5364 2012 1894.2 1692.9 10.5 1153.0 187.6 649.7 5588 2013 1973.1 1763.4 11.0 1201.0 195.4 676.8 5821 2014 2055.3 1836.9 11.4 1251.1 203.5 705.0 6063 2015 2141.0 1913.4 11.9 1303.2 212.0 734.3 6316 2016 2230.2 1993.2 12.4 1357.5 220.9 764.9 6579 2017 2323.1 2076.2 12.9 1414.1 230.1 796.8 6853 2018 2420.0 2162.8 13.4 1473.0 239.7 830.0 7139 2019 2520.8 2252.9 14.0 1534.4 249.6 864.6 7436 2020 2625.8 2346.8 14.6 1598.3 260.0 900.7 7746 2021 2735.3 2444.6 15.2 1664.9 270.9 938.2 8069 Total 24737 22108 137 15057 2450 8485 72975 Fig. 5 General process diagram for copper, nickel, and lead zinc slag production J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 chemistry and morphology depend on the metal being pro- duced and the solidication process used. Slags can be broadly categorized as ferrous (iron/steel) and nonferrous (copper, lead/zinc) depending on the industry from which they come. Figure 5 presents a general schematic diagram for the slag production process for copper, nickel, and lead zinc slags. Nonferrous slags, which are only 12 % of the total annual production and their types and uses, are described below: Ferrous slag products iron blast furnace slag (BFS) This is the by-product from the reduction of iron ores to produce molten iron and molten slag. 1. When allowed to cool slowly to a crystalline rock form, it becomes a light gray vesicular rock known as air-cooled blast furnace slag. Principle uses include (a) uncrushedll and embankments (particularly areas subject to severe loading such as mainline rail systems), working platforms on difcult sites, pave- ments, where binding nes are produced by rolling to break the slag down to ll the voids. (b) Graded road baseon its own or blended with other slags and/or with other natural rocks and sands. (c) Crushed and gradedfor concrete aggregates, concrete sand, glass insulation wool, lter medium, and use under concrete slabs as a platform. 2. By passing the molten slag through high volume high pressure water sprays, a glassy, sand-type (granulated) material is formed, known as granulated blast furnace slag. The color of this product is very similar to normal beach sand. (a) The principal use is as cement replacement (when ground), replacing 3050 % of portland cement in normal concrete, but can replace up to 70 % in specialist applications such as marine concrete. (b) Other uses include glassmaking, trace elements in agriculture, concrete block manufacture, sporting eld sub-base (for drainage), ltration med- ium, reinforced earth embankments, and mine back- lling and grit-blasting medium requiring ne etching. Basic oxygen steelmaking slag (BOS or steel furnace slag) This slag is formed when molten iron, scrap metals, and various uxes, such as lime, are oxidized by injecting large amounts of pure oxygen into the molten iron mix to create molten steel and molten slag. Slow cooling of the molten slag produces a dense rock material. Principal uses include a. blending with many other products such as granulated slag, y ash, and lime to form pavement material, and b. other uses include, skid resistant asphalt aggregate, rail ballast, asphaltic concrete aggregate, soil conditioner, hard stand areas, and unconned construc- tion ll. Electric arc furnace slag (EAF or steel furnace slag) Produced when scrap metal and uxes are oxidized by the use of an electric current, molten slag is generally placed into ground bays for cooling. Both BOS and EAF slags are somewhat heavier than blast furnace slag and most quar- ried rock material. Uses include (a) blending with many other products such as granulated slag, y ash, and lime to form pavement material, skid resistant asphalt aggregate, and unconned construction ll. Copper/lead/zinc slag (CLZS) Formed from the smelting of ores, it is generally granulated to form a sand size product with a top size of about 5 mm, with only a small quantity of material below 1 mm. It is dark in color and has attracted the name of black sand. Mostly spherical in nature, it has been used as concrete sand. Utilization of copper: historical prospective, availability, and use Copper is one of the basic chemical elements. In its nearly pure state, copper is a reddish-orange metal known for its high thermal and electrical conductivity. It is commonly used to produce a wide variety of products, including electrical wire, cooking pots and pans, pipes and tubes, automobile radiators, and many others. Copper is also used as a pigment and preservative for paper, paint, textiles, and wood. It is combined with zinc to produce brass and with tin to produce bronze. It is a ductile metal with excellent electrical conductivity and nd extensive use as an elec- trical conductor, as a heat conductor, as a building material, and as a component of various alloys. Copper has played a signicant part in the history of mankind, which has used the easily accessible uncompounded metal for nearly 10000 years. A copper pendant from about 8700 B.C. was found in what is now northern Iraq. There is evidence that by about 6400 B.C., copper was being melted and cast into objects in the area now known as Turkey. By 4500 B.C., this technology was being practiced in Egypt as well. Most of the copper used before 4000 B.C. came from the random discovery of isolated outcroppings of native copper or from meteorites that had impacted Earth. The rst mention of the systematic extraction of copper ore comes from about 3800 B.C. when an Egyptian reference describes mining opera- tions on the Sinai Peninsula. During the Roman Empire, copper was principally mined on Cyprus, hence the origin J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 of the name of the metal as cyprium, metal of Cyprus, later shortened to Cuprum. Today, the USA and Chile are the worlds top two copper producing countries, followed by Russia, Canada, and China. Nevertheless, the price of copper rose rapidly, increasing 500 % from a 60-year low in 1999, largely due to increased demand. This metal has come into the limelight on account of high volatility in prices. The size of Indian Copper Industry is around four lakh tons, which as percentage of world copper market is three percent. Sterlite Industries, Hindalco, and Hindustan Copper are three major producers of copper in India. The Indian copper industry grew by nearly 50 % in 2011. About a decade ago, the Indian copper industry consisted of a single state-owned company, and now the copper industry in India takes up about 3 % of the global market for copper. In 2011, Indias copper demand is estimated to grow by at least 7 %following a similar forecast in 2010, fed by the power sector. According to Indias 11th 5 year plan (20072012), the countrys power generation sector is likely to make a huge investment with 150 power projects for the various stages of installation. The most favorable contributing factors for the growth of the Indian copper industry include changes in global usage, industrial development in India, domestic increases in the construc- tion, power, telecommunications, and automobile sectors. Copper is used broadly in the manufacture of electrical machinery, building, cabling for power and telecommuni- cations, and automobiles. Growing trend in the building construction and automobile sector is expected to keep demand of copper high. At the same time, the waste gen- erated by the copper industry is also increasing at the same percentage. Properties of waste copper slag Physical properties Copper slag grains have a color of black glassy type and a neness modulus of 3.5. The hardness is about 7 Mohs scale. Other typical physical properties are given in Table 2. In order to use copper slag as a mineral admixture, it was necessary to carry out an experimental study associating grinding time, average diameter, and pozzolanic activity assessed in mortars [3]. Based on this study, it was veried that 60 min was the optimal grinding time in horizontal ball mills to achieve an average diameter of 27.2 lm. The copper slag presented a pozzolanic activity index of 87 % according to spec- ication requirements of ASTM 618_C for portland cement mineral additives. Copper slag has a specic gravity at 25 C is of value 3.5. Its chemical composi- tion is showed in Table 3. Figure 6 shows the X-ray diffraction, and Fig. 7 shows secondary electron scanning electronic microscopy of sample cooper slag. The results obtained from the copper slag micrograph demonstrate that the materials grains are originally spherical, with a smooth and nonporous surface. The X-ray diffraction results indicated the presence of fayalite and magnetite. Some high peak frequencies were observed, which suggests a basically crystalline structure. Air-cooled copper slag has a black color and glassy Table 2 Typical physical properties of copper slag Property Typical value Grain shape Angular, multifaced Specic gravity at 25 C 3.5 Bulk density at 25 C 1.87 tonnes/m 3 pH 7.0 Weight raise on ignition 4 % Moisture content \0.1 % Table 3 Chemical analysis of copper slag Constituent % Weight Silica SiO 2 (combined as silicate) 32 % Free silica \0.5 % Alumina Al 2 O 3 2 % Iron oxide as FeO 43 % Calcium oxide CaO 1.5 % Magnesium oxide MgO 0.8 % Copper oxide CuO 0.6 % Sulfates 0.1 % Chlorides 0.001 % Fig. 6 X-ray diffractogram of the copper slag sample J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 appearance. As a general rule, the specic gravity will vary with iron content, from a low of 2.8 to as high as 3.8. The unit weight of copper slag is somewhat higher than that of conventional aggregate. The absorption of the material is typically very low (0.13 %). Granulated copper slag is more porous and therefore has lower specic gravity and higher absorption than air-cooled copper slag. The granu- lated copper slag is made up of regularly shaped, angular particles, mostly between 4.75 mm (3/4 in) and 0.075 mm (no. 200 sieve) in size. During slag production, the sudden cooling that results in the vitrication of copper slags (typically in the granulating process) prevents the mole- cules from being locked up in crystals. In the presence of an activator (such as calcium hydroxide from hydrating portland cement), vitried nonferrous slags react with water to form stable, cementitious, hydrated calcium sili- cates. The reactivity depends on the neness to which the slag is ground (reactivity increases with neness) and the chemical composition of the slag and its glass content. These vitried slags can be of such composition that when ground to proper neness, they may also react directly with water to form hydration products that provide the slag with cementitious properties. High iron content (essentially ferrous silicate slags) in this slags appears to limit hy- draulicity and makes grinding difcult. Cooper slag as a abrasive media The term abrasive in blasting refers to a wide range of materials (blasting media) used to establish a prole on clean steel and remove unwanted coatings or contaminants from the surface of steel or other substrates. During blasting, there are a number of physical considerations in the selection of suitable media. As the grains impact the surface, there is a tendency for them to break down forming a potentially harmful dust. In addition, the clean- ing action is the result of energy transfer, which is trans- ferred from the abrasive to the substrate. As the kinetic energy is proportional to the mass of the grain and the square of its velocity, a small, heavy grain moving at high speed will have more effect on a substrate than a larger, lighter grain. From this, it can be seen that heavier (denser) materials such as steel and garnet are more efcient blasting media than lighter (less dense) media such as sand Fig. 7 Shows secondary electron scanning electronic microscopy Table 4 Different abrasive media along with their properties Abrasive Composition Mohrs hardness Density (g/cu.cm) Dusting Recycling Silica sand Crystalline silica 7.0 1.6 Low No Best quality Average quality same 6.5 1.6 High No Staurolite/zircon Iron aluminum silicate 7.5 2.0 Mod No Garnet Iron aluminum silicate 7.5 2.0 Low Yes Almandite Andradite Calcium silicate 6.5 1.8 High No Olivine Iron silicate 6.5 1.9 High No Spec. hematite Iron oxide 6.0 2.3 Mod No Copper slag Iron silicate glass 6.0 1.6 Mod No Nickel slag Nickel iron glass 6.0 1.6 High No Iron slag Iron silicate glass 6.0 1.6 High No Coal boiler slag Ca iron silicate glass 6.0 1.4 High No Steel grit/short Iron (steel) 6.0 2.2? Low Yes Baking soda Sodium carbonate 2.03.0 1.1 High/Low No Crushed glass Alkaline silicate GLASS 6.0 1.6 High No Organic media Various 23 01.0 N/A No J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 and slag. Since slags are almost always associated with copper mines, the general term copper slag has come to be used even for slags that might be more accurately be called lead slags, zinc slags, or even arsenic slags. Copper slags carry small amounts of the metals that were present in the original ores and smelter concentrates [14]. The purpose of the slag was to act as a collection mecha- nism of these undesirable contaminates during the recovery of the metal of interest. Copper slags are common substi- tutes for silica sand in countries where mines and smelters are abundant. The different materials used for the abrasive media is given in the Table 4. Use of cooper slag in pavement industry In India, there is great demand of aggregates mainly from civil engineering industry for road and concrete construc- tions. The construction of highways and development of several expressways for high-speed corridors exert tremen- dous pressure on natural resources. Many highway agencies, private organizations, and individuals are in the process of completing a wide variety of studies and research projects concerning the feasibility, environmental suitability, and performance of using waste industrial products in highway construction [1, 2]. These studies try to match societys need for safe and economic disposal of waste materials with the highway industrys need for better and more cost-effective construction materials. Various studies explore the potential use of copper slag as ne aggregate (up to 30 %) in the design of bituminous mixes like bituminous macadam, dense bitu- minous macadam, bituminous concrete, and semi-dense bituminous concrete, which enhance the property of the bituminous mixes. Nonferrous slags are produced during the recovery and processing of nonferrous metal from natural ores. The slags are molten by-products of high temperature processes that are primarily used to separate the metal and nonmetal constituents contained in the bulk ore. Use of cooper slag in cement and concrete The copper slag obtained may exhibit pozzolanic activity and may therefore be used in the manufacture of addition- containing cements. Blends of copper slag with portland cement generally possess properties equivalent to portland cement containing y ash, but very different to the silica fume incorporation. Copper slag and y ash reduce the heat of hydration more effectively than silica fume in mortars. The replacement of 30 % cement by copper slag reduces the exural and compressive strength in a similar way to y ash; however, after 28 days, the reduction is less than the percentage of substitution. The pozzolanic activity of copper slag is similar to that of y ash and higher than silica fume. In the presence of low water/cement ratios, certain pozzolanic materials produce a very compact cement paste that limits the space available for hydration products, a determining factor in the formation of hydrated calcium aluminates. SEM was found to be a useful ana- lytical technique when aluminates are formed and can be clearly detected by XRD. Land lling is not a desirable option for the disposal of solid hazardous and nonhazardous waste materials. It is not a liable method because of future environmental costs and problems associated with land lling regulations. This method increases load of toxic metals and other contami- nants in the landll, potentially increasing the threat to groundwater contamination. Increasing economic and nancial factors also dictates that industry should look forward to recycling and reuse of waste material as a better option to land lling. Wastes and by-products can be used in addition to concrete without the need for large changes in its preparation. For all waste and by-product contents, the strengths increase as the curing time of the concrete increases. In general, it would be suitable for any applica- tion that does not require high strengths, especially not in the short term [14, 17]. The porosity and the absorption coefcient increase with an increase in waste content and decrease as the curing time increased [15, 18, 19]. The deformability of concrete also increases with the increase in waste contents [8, 9, 20]. The density of the concrete decreases with an increase in waste content and increases as the curing time increases. In previous study on concrete M15 and geopolymer, the mixed concrete is a desirable option to utilize or reuse of solid hazardous waste materials shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Solidied materials are weak and contain signicantly less cementitious materials and more water, for example concrete. Due to waste addition, CSH hydration is poisoned. In these situations, ettringite plays an important roleit increases strength and durability char- acteristics. UCS increases with a decrease in crystalline phases. Aggregate, which makes up 70 % of the concrete volume, is one of the main constituent materials in concrete production. However, due to the high cost of natural sand used as a ne aggregate and the rising emphasis on sus- tainable construction, there is a need for the construction industry to search for alternative materials as ne aggre- gates in concrete production. Copper slag, which is the waste material produced in the extraction process of copper metal in renery plants, has low cost, and its application as a ne aggregate in concrete production reaps many environ- mental benets such as waste recycling and solves disposal problems. Currently in Singapore, the Building Construc- tion Authority limits the replacement of sand by copper slag to a maximum of 10 % by mass in construction engineering with additional precautionary measures in place. Hwang and Laiw in 1989 make an attempt to nd out the usability of copper used as a ne aggregate. The physical and J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 chemical properties of copper slag were investigated. Cop- per slag, in amounts of 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 %, was substituted for ne aggregate in cement mortar and concrete. The neness modulus of the combination of copper slag and ne aggregate was roughly 2.6, the optimum neness mod- ulus for concrete mix design. At this value, workability was found to be satisfactory with minimal bleeding. Addition of copper slag also improved the strength of the concrete. When the substitutional amounts exceeded 80 %, lower strengths were obtained, possibly due to the formation of ettringite. It was also found that the effect of copper slag on long-term strength development was also dependent on the amount used and its neness. Ayano and Sakata in 2000 studied the lack of natural ne aggregate in Japan is serious because the commitment to protect the natural environment is increasing. Many concrete engineers are eager to nd ne aggregate sources other than the traditional river and sea sand. Copper slag ne aggregate is expected to be one of the alternatives although the location where the copper slag is available is limited. In this paper, some characteristics of concrete with copper slag will be claried. The carbonated thickness, resistance to freezing and thawing, thermal resistance, shrinkage strain, creep, and setting time have been exam- ined. The strength, slump, and durability of concrete with copper slag are not inferior to those of normal concrete. However, copper slag sometimes delays the setting time of concrete even if it produced at the same renery. The delay of setting time is more than one week in some cases although the durability in concrete is not affected by it. Tay et al. [6] studied on the reuse of industrial waste from copper slag plant. This study describes the use of sintered sludge pellets as a complete replacement for regular granite aggregates in concrete. The pelletized sludge was red to a temperature of 1,1357 C at which the sintering process occurs, producing a hard fused basalt-like mass. TGDTA plots of copper slag are shown in Fig. 10. In comparison with normal granite aggregates, the sintered sludge pellets display a higher aggregate strength, a higher porosity, and a lower aggregate density that manifests attributes better than that required of construction aggregates. The concrete cast with the pelletized aggregates achieved a compressive strength of 38.5 N/mm 2 after 28 days and was comparable to the control specimen. The experimental results indicated that a complete replacement of conventional aggregates with sintered sludge pellets for structural concrete is both technically and envi- ronmentally feasible. Mobasher et al. (1996) has a research paper in material engineering conference about the effect of copper slag on the hydration of cement-based materials. Up to 15 % by weight of copper slag was used as a portland cement replacement. Activation of pozzolanic reactions was stud- ied using up to 1.5 % hydrated lime. Hydration reactions were monitored using quantitative X-Ray diffraction (QXRD), and the porosity was examined using mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). Results indicate a signicant increase in the compressive strength for up to 90 days of hydration. A decreases in capillary porosity measured using MIP indicated densication of the microstructure. Tixier et al. (1997) investigated the effect of copper slag on the hydration of cement-based materials. Up to 15 % by Fig. 10 Strength development of copper slag mortar as age and dosage of copper slag Fig. 8 Strength development of alkali-activated slag/y ash mortars Fig. 9 Strength of alkali-activated copper slag and portland cement mortars J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 weight of copper slag was used as a portland cement replacement. Two types of paste were studied with and without microsilica. In Fig. 11, copper slag is shown to sig- nicantly increase the compressive strength of concrete mixtures. This added increase is expected to be due to the densication of the microstructure in the capillary pore region. Arino and Mobasher [5] studied the effect of ground copper slag (GCS) on the strength and fracture of cement- based materials is studied. Up to 15 % by mass of ground copper slag was used as a portland cement replacement. Compressive strength results are shown in Fig. 12. The strength and fracture toughness of concrete samples were studied using closed-loop controlled compression and three-point bending fracture tests. The compression test utilized a combination of the axial and transverse strains as a control parameter to develop a stable post-peak response. A cyclic loadingunloading test was conducted on three- point bending notched specimens under closed-loop crack mouth opening control. Moura et al. (1999) emphasis on recycling of solid by-products as construction materials can be an alternative to reduce costs of the latter and the impact on the environment. Nevertheless, it is fundamental that the characteristics of these new materials be equivalent to the traditional ones or even better, if possible. In this context, the use of electric steel slag and copper slag can be a potential alternative to the admixtures used in concrete and mortars. Results of physical, chemical, and physical chemical characterizations of electric steel lags from Rio Grande do Sul and copper slags from Bahia, both in Brazil, are presented in his work. Also presented are results of compressive tests, exural tests, and Brazilian tests in concrete specimens with these admixtures, indicating the viability of their use. Shi and Qian [7] studied that most industrial slags are being used without taking full advan- tage of their properties or disposed rather than used. The industrial slags, which have cementitious or pozzolanic properties, should be used as partial or full replacement for portland cement rather than as bulk aggregates or ballasts because of the high cost of portland cement, which is attributable to the high energy consumption for the pro- duction of portland cement. The traditional way to utilize metallurgical slags in cementing materials is to partially replace portland cement, which usually results in a lower early strength and longer setting times. Presence of acti- vator(s) can accelerate the breakup of structure and hydration of slags. Many research results have indicated that clinker less alkali-activated slags even exhibit higher strengths, denser structure, and better durability compared with portland cement. In the paper, the recent achievements in the development of high performance cementing materials based on activated slags such as blast furnace slag, steel slag, copper slag, and phosphorus slag are reviewed. Rai et al. [9] studied the metallurgical slags (granulated and air-cooled) are disposed as waste from the ferroman- ganese and ferromanganesesilicon alloys manufacturing plants. They nd little use unlike blast furnace slags from steel plants. Investigations were carried out to explore the possibility of using high MnO and low MnO metallurgical slags on samples obtained from an alloy plant in India. Low MnO granulated slag was used in making blended slag cement with ordinary portland cement (OPC). Addi- tion of slag lowered the compressive strength of the blen- ded cement as compared to that of OPC used. However, the composition of a 50:50 blend, ground to 3000 cm 2 /g (Blaine), was found to conform to IS 455:1989 for portland slag cements and also to IS 269:1989, 33 grade OPC, with respect to standard consistency, setting times, soundness, and compressive strength (22 MPa at 7 days and 33 MPa at 28 days) tests carried out as per IS 4031:1988. X-Ray diffraction analysis showed that low MnO granulated slag was noncrystalline, whereas the air-cooled slags were crystalline containing mainly quartz, MnO, and Mn 2 O 2 , indicating pozzolanic reactions contributing to a great extent in the strength development of blended slag cement compositions studied. High MnO (15 %) and MgO (8 %) containing slags were considered unsuitable for blended cements because of their deleterious effects. Air-cooled lumpy slag was evaluated for use as aggregates in concrete. The results of the investigations provide a direction for protable plans for making blended slag cements. Gorai et al. (2003) studies in National Mineral Labora- tory, Jamshedpur, about the copper slag, which is produced during pyrometallurgical production of copper from copper ores, contain materials like iron, alumina, calcium oxide, and silica. The favorable physico-mechanical characteris- tics of copper slag can be utilized to make the products like cement, ll, ballast, abrasive, aggregate, roong granules, glass, and tiles apart from recovering the valuable metals by various extractive metallurgical routes. He performed an investigation of cement-based solidication/stabilization Fig. 11 Compressive strength with the variation of copper slag percentage J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 process for the safe disposal of blasted copper slag. The treatments evaluated were based on ordinary portland cement (OPC). Mortar specimens with ground copper slag ranging from 0 to 10 % by weight of cement were tested for whole block and crushed block leachability, compres- sive strength, and hydration. Addition of copper slag to cement increased initial and nal setting times. The pri- mary hydration process was the OPC hydration. The strength of the copper slag mortar was generally lower than that of the control mortar, and the amount of ground copper slag to replace cement for optimum strength was about 5 %. Al-Jabri et al. (2006) study the effect of copper slag (CS) and cement bypass dust (CBPD) addition on concrete properties The modulus of elasticity of these mixtures was also evaluated. Results showed that 5 % copper slag sub- stitution for portland cement gave a similar strength per- formance as the control mixture. Results also demonstrated that the use of CS and CBPD as partial replacements of portland cement has no signicant effect on the modulus of elasticity of concrete, especially at small quantities substitution. Taha et al. [11] dene the CLSM as A controlled low strength material (CLSM) is a self-compacted, cementi- tious material used primarily as a backll. It is also known as a owable ll which is usually a mixture of ne aggregates, small amount of cement, y ash, and water. To be classied as a CLSM, the mixture must have a compressive strength between 345 and 8400 kPa. This paper evaluates the potential use of cement bypass dust, incinerator ash, and copper slag as a CLSM. Mixtures were designed to produce a CLSM, with a low com- pressive strength (\1034 kPa), that can be excavated without using any mechanical equipment. Slump, unit weight, and unconned compressive strength tests were conducted on various mixtures. Cubical and cylindrical specimens were prepared and cured at room temperature and in sealed plastic bags. Results indicate that with a good mix design, it is possible to produce a CLSM with good mechanical properties to meet design requirements. Mixing these materials with cement and sand produced better results than using them alone due to their low pozzolanic activity. Curing method and period can have considerable effects on the strength of a CLSM shown in Fig. 13. Kim et al. (2008) studied that slag, which consists of calcium oxide, aluminum oxide, and other metal oxides, is an abundant by-product in steel-making process. It has been used as adsorbents to remove various heavy metals, and the major removal mechanisms are precipitation and adsorption on the surface of metal oxide. However, the Fig. 12 TGDTA plots of copper slag Fig. 13 Comparison between the effects of different materials on the compressive strength of cement mortars J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 relative contribution of two removal mechanisms has not reported. In this study, the removal characteristics of cop- per were investigated in terms of sorption kinetics and sorption isotherms. As initial pH of solution increased, the sorption capacity of slags increased dramatically. Kim et al. evaluated the relative contribution of two mecha- nisms in the copper removal by steel-making slag. At above pH 3.0, contribution of adsorption to overall removal of copper was \12 %. As a result, most of copper was removed by slag as a form or copper hydroxide. Alp et al. studied that the copper slag wastes, even if treated via processes such as otation for metal recovery, still contain heavy metals with hazardous properties posing environmental risks for disposal. This study reports the potential use of otation waste of a copper slag (FWCS) as iron source in the production of portland cement clinker. The FWCS appears a suitable raw material as iron source containing [59 % Fe 2 O 3 mainly in the form of fayalite (Fe 2 SiO 4 ) and magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ). The clinker products obtained using the FWCS from the industrial scale trial operations over a 4-month period were characterized for the conformity of its chemical composition, and the physico-mechanical performance of the resultant cement products was evaluated. The results have shown that the chemical compositions of all the clinker products including those of FWCS are typical of a portland cement clinker. These ndings suggest that otation wastes of copper slag (FWCS) can be readily utilized as cement raw material due to its availability in large quantities at low cost with the further signicant benets for waste management/envi- ronmental practices of the FWCS and the reduced pro- duction and processing costs for cement raw materials. Khalifa et al. [16] investigate the performance of high- strength concrete (HSC) made with copper slag as a ne aggregate at constant workability and study the effect of super plasticizer addition on the properties of HSC made with copper slag. The water content was adjusted in each mixture in order to achieve the same workability as that for the control mixture. The results indicated that the water demand reduced use of copper slag replacement compared to the control mixture shown in Fig. 14. The strength of HSC was generally improved with the increase in copper slag content in the concrete mixture. Khanzadi et al. [15] presents the results of a study undertaken to investigate the feasibility of using copper slag as coarse aggregates in high-strength concrete. The effects of replacing limestone coarse aggregate by copper slag coarse aggregate on the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength are evaluated in this work. The use of copper slag aggregate compared to limestone aggregate resulted in a 28-day compressive strength increase of about 1015 % and a splitting tensile strength increase of 1018 %. Zhang et al. (2009) have investigated the mechanical properties of high-strength concrete incorporating copper slag as a ne aggregate and concluded that \40 % copper slag as sand substitution can achieve a high-strength con- crete that comparable or better to the control mix, beyond which, however, its behaviors decreased signicantly. The results indicated that the strength of the concrete with less than 40 % copper slag replacement was higher than or equal to that of the control specimen and the workability even had a dramatic growth [10]. Sandhyarani (2009) studied about the copper slag for wear resistance. In his study, he uses copper slag as a ller in glassepoxy composites, and the tensile modulus increased from 8.77 to 9.64 GPa when using up to 10 wt% of copper slag but on further addition of copper slag (up to 20 wt%), the tensile modulus started to decrease down to 7.11 GPa. Similar trends were observed in the case of exural strength and shear strength. With the incorporation of copper slag particles, the impact strength increased about 1015 %. This work includes the processing, char- acterization, and study of the erosion behavior of a class of such copper-slag-lled glassepoxy composites based on Taguchis experimental approach to characterize erosion behavior. The investigation is also performed for the pos- sible utilization of copper slag as ller material for the preparation of composite materials and preparation of added value products such as abrasive tools, cutting tools, and railroad ballast. Use of industrial wastes and by-products as an aggregate or raw material is of great practical signicance for developing building material components as substitutes for the traditional materials and providing an alternative or supplementary materials to concrete industry in a cost- effective manner. In order to effectively utilize all these Fig. 14 Relationship between workability and strength of HPC J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 1 3 solid wastes, effort has been made and mathematical models were also established universally and as a conse- quence, considerable quantity of wastes is now being recycled and used to achieve environmentally sound management. Studies on potential use of different mining tailings in bricks have revealed that this waste along with clay can be effectively utilized for making better quality red bricks and use of copper has resulted in achieving high strength. The potential environmental risk by the geotechnical utilization of wastes needs to be avoided. Many waste materials might be contaminated by toxic and hazardous substances and require treatment for safe disposal. Waste utilization can serve not only to prevent the negative envi- ronmental impact but also to preserve and protect nature. In this study, we are put steps in such a waste called copper slag which is by-product of industry. The merits of the copper slag for using it in the construction industry and with the con- struction materials are initially listed it as general properties. The optimal solution for solid waste management is to minimize the quantity of waste both at generation and dis- posal stage followed by preventive environmental manage- ment action. Recycling of solid wastes is another major productive area in which considerable quantity can be uti- lized for manufacturing new advanced, durable, and sus- tainable material. Copper slag is produced during the recovery and processing of nonferrous metal from natural ores. The slags are molten by-products of high temperature processes that are primarily used to separate the metal and nonmetal constituents contained in the bulk ore. When cooled, the molten slag converts to a rocklike or granular material. Conclusions Concrete serves as a better alternative for the utilization or recycle of the solid industrial waste materials. Properties of mixed concrete can be enhanced by using these waste mate- rials. Addition of copper slag shows 6070 %strength of pure concrete, and in some optimumamount of replacement, it can show much higher strength in comparison with control con- crete. All the other properties are also well in control status by adding the copper slag as a replacement of ne as well as coarse aggregate. It also shows more strength when it is used with other cement supplement material like lime dust and silica fume. Concrete made with copper slag shows long-term durability as a ne or coarse aggregate replacement or in addition use of different mineral admixtures. Important structures are manufactured using this concrete, which posi- tively affects on durability aspects. Initially it is used as lling materials, pavements, and roadbeds. The concrete which is the major material in the construction industry and for infrastructural development made with waste copper slag also affects the cost of con- struction comparable to pure concrete. This concrete is safe enough to be used in environmental applications in roadbeds and as lling material. Thus, due to the benecial use of the immobilized material, this type of industrial wastes and by- products usability appears to offer a promising way to improve sustainable environment in developing countries. The user of copper slag in cement can be assured of the nonleachability of copper and other elements. This further ensured the performance of cement and using copper slag in different cement types shall also help the manufacturers to reduce the cost of production. References 1. Miler RH, Collins RJ (1976) Waste materials as potential replacement for highway aggregates. NCHRP, TRB, Washington, DC 2. Emery JJ (1982) Slag utilization in pavement construction extending aggregate resource. ASTM STP 774:95 3. Pinamonti F, Stringari G, Gasperi F, Zorzi G (1997) The use of compost: its effects on heavy metal levels in soil and plants. Resour Conserv Recycl 21(2):129143 4. 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