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(3rd Level)
Superposition
1. Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of waves when they pass through an opening or around an obstacle.
2. Principle of superposition
If two or more waves of the same kind meet at a point, the resultant displacement is the vector sum of the
individual displacements due to the waves at the point.
3. Coherence
Two wave sources are said to be coherent if they have a constant phase difference. This necessarily means that the
two waves are of the same frequency.
4. Path difference
The difference between the distances traveled by the two waves from the sources to the point where they meet.
5. Interference
Interference occurs when two or more waves of the same type superpose at a point in space to give a resultant wave
whose amplitude is given by the principle of superposition.
Constructive interference occurs when the two waves meet in phase, or the path difference is an integer number of
wavelengths, i.e. path difference = nλ and phase difference n 2 2n
Destructive interference occurs when the two waves meet in antiphase, or the path difference is an odd number of half
( 2n 1)
wavelengths, i.e. path difference = (2n + 1) λ/2 and phase difference 2 2 ( 2n 1)
6. For a two-source interference to be observable, the conditions required are that the two waves
(i) must be coherent. This is to ensure that their phase relationship does not change with time so that our eyes can
observe a ‘stationary’ pattern.
(ii) must have roughly the same amplitude. This is to ensure good contrast between maxima and minima of intensity.
(iii) for transverse waves, must be completely unpolarised or polarized in the same plane.
All points on AB are equidistant from S1 and S2. The path difference is zero and the two waves meet along AB in phase.
At all points along EF the path difference is one wavelength, and the two waves also meet in phase. There is constructive
interference. Lines AB and EF are called antinodal lines.
Points on CD are half a wavelength nearer to S1 than S2. The path difference is half a wavelength. The crests (or troughs)
from S1 arrive simultaneously with troughs (or crests) from S2. The waves arrive in antiphase and there is destructive
interference. Similarly, there is destructive interference along GH where the path difference is 1½ wavelengths. Lines CD
and GH are called nodal lines.
8. Interference of light
Fringe separation x D , where λ is the wavelength of the light, D is the distance between the double slits and the
a
screen and a is the separation of the double slits.
Note that if more than one wavelength is used, each wavelength will form its own fringe pattern and the patterns will
overlap one another.
When certain parameters are changed, you may be asked to comment on the change to the fringe separation, intensity
etc.
9. Diffraction grating
Frequency All particles vibrate in SHM with the same frequency All particles vibrate in SHM with the frequency of
(except for those at the nodes which are at rest) the wave.
Wavelength It is equal to twice the distance between two It is equal to the distance between adjacent
adjacent nodes or two adjacent antinodes particles which have the same phase
Phase Phase of all particles between two adjacent nodes is All particles within one wavelength have different
the same. phases.
Waveform Does not advance. Advances with the velocity of the wave.
Energy No translation of energy, but there is energy stored Energy translation in the direction of travel of the
in the wave. wave.
f1 = v/λ1 = v/2L
f2 = v/λ2 = v/L = 2 f1
f3 = v/λ3 = 3v/2L = 3 f1
f4 = v/λ4 = 2v/L = 4 f1
The closed end of a column is a displacement node where the particles cannot vibrate. The open end of a column is a
displacement antinode because the air there is free to vibrate.
Closed tube
Let the fundamental frequency be f1.
f2 = v/λ2 = 3v/4L = 3 f1
L = ¾ 2
f3 = v/λ3 = 5v/4L = 5 f1
L = 5/4 3
The frequencies of vibration in a closed tube are odd multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Open tube
Let the fundamental frequency be f1.
f1 = v/λ1 = v/2L
L = ½ 1
Verify for yourselves that the frequencies of vibration in an open tube are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
15. Measurement of wavelength of sound using stationary waves through the resonance air tube method
Choose a frequency.
Adjust the length of the tube until there is resonance
– a loud sound will be heard.
Adjust the length until the next loud sound is heard.
The difference in length is equal to half a wavelength,
i.e. λ = 2 (L2 – L1).
Obtain the speed of sound from v = fλ.
1. Two loudspeakers S1 and S2 each emit sound of frequency 330 Hz uniformly in all directions. S1
has an acoustic output of 1.2 x 10-3 W while S2 has an acoustic output of 1.8 x 10-3 W. S1 and S2
vibrate in phase. A point P is 4 m from S1 and 3 m from S2. The speed of sound in air is 330 m s-1.
(a) How are the phases of the two waves arriving at P related?
(b) What is the intensity of sound at P with
(1) S1 on alone,
(2) S2 on alone, and
(3) S1 and S2 both on. [5.97 x 10-6 W m-2, 1.6 x 10-5 W m-2, 4.15 x 10-5 W m-2]
S1 4m
x 43
P a) Phase Difference = 2 2 2 rad
1
The two waves are in phase
S2 3m
P1 1.2 10 3
b) (1) S1 alone: I1 5.97 10 6 Wm-2
A1 4 (4) 2
P2 1.8 10 3
(2) S2 alone: I 2 1.59 10 5 Wm-2
A2 4 (3) 2
(3) S1 and S2 ?
We cannot add intensity, but can only add amplitude. This is because adding of intensity
itself does NOT take into consideration the effects of superposition.
I1
I 1 a1 I1 ka1
2 2
a1
k
I
I 2 a2 I 2 ka2
2 2
a2 2
k
I1 I 2
aresultant = a1 + a2 =
k
I1 I 2
Iresultant = karesultant2 = k ( ) 2 I1 I 2 2 I1 I 2 4.14 10 5 Wm-2
k