Journal of the Geological Society

doi: 10.1144/gsjgs.148.6.1115
1991, v.148; p1115-1123. Journal of the Geological Society

P. B. GROENEWALD, G. H. GRANTHAM and M. K. WATKEYS

southeastern Africa and Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica

Geological evidence for a Proterozoic to Mesozoic link between
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Journal ofthe Geological Sociely, London, Vol. 148, 1991, pp. 1115-1123, 1 fig, 2 tables. Printed in Northern Ireland
Geological evidence for a Proterozoic to Mesozoic link between southeastern
Africa and Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica
P. B. GROENEWALD, G. H. GRANTHAMl Y 3 & M. K. WATKEYS
Department of Geology, University of Natal, Box 375, Pietermaritzburg 3200, South Africa
Department of Geology and Applied Geology, University of Natal, Durban, South Africa
3Pre~ent address: Department of Geology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
Abstmft: Comparison of crustal provinces in Southeastern Africa and Dronning Maud Land, Antar-
ctica, reveals considerable similarity in their evolution fromthe Archaean until the Mesozoic
separation. Archaean granites and mid-Proterozoic supracrustal successions in these regions are so
comparable that correlation is suggested. A major mid- to late Proterozoic orogenic terrain in
Dronning Maud Land, comprising the H.U. Sverdrupfjella and Heimefrontfjella subprovinces and
termed the MaudheimProvince, is very similar in age, lithology, structural style and metamorphic
history to the Mozambique and Natal orogenic provinces of Kibaran age (loo0 Ma) in southeastern
Africa. Deformed supracrustal sequences in all three provinces host syn-tectonic granites intruded
during upper amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism. Isoclinal folding was accompanied by
thrusting towards adjacent cratonic areas. Development of orogenic provinces of Kibaran age in
southeastern Africa and Antarctica reflects accretion of marginal basin-volcanic arc sequences onto
older continents. The 500 Ma Pan African event was a widespread, predominantly thermal, overprint-
ingof parts of the older orogenic provinces. Faulting and rifting of the supercontinent preceded
break-up and influenced the stratigraphy of Phanerozoic sedimentary successions in SE Africa.
Recent reconstructions of Gondwana place Dronning Maud
Land, Antarctica and the Mozambique coast of Africa into
juxtaposition at c. 145 Ma on the basis of marine geophysical
evidence (Martin & Hartnady 1986; Lawver & Scotese
1987). The geological similarities of these regions, remarked
on earlier by du Toit (1937), Grantham et al. (1988) and
many others, may be enlarged on the basis of new
information from Antarctica. A major problem in
reassembling Gondwana is the precise juxtapositioning of
Antarctica and Africa. This stems partly from masking of
the original contact areas, in Mozambique by a thick
Cretaceous-Tertiary sequence, and in Antarctica by ice.
The new data from Antarctica allow more detailed
comparison of the marginal regions and offer strong support
for the reassembly proposed by Martin & Hartnady (1986).
Studies of Phanerozoic crustal evolution in SE Africa have
demonstrated that syn-depositional tectonism in the Karoo
basin was related to early stages of Gondwana break-up
(Cox et al. 1967; Flores 1970). These authors also
recognized early rifting (220-145 ma) and transcurrent
faulting, which initiated partial separation of Antarctica and
Africa prior to drifting. Geological evidence for correlation
of events in Africa and Antarctica from early Proterozoic
(and possibly Archaean) to mid-Phanerozoic will be
synthesized here. Implications of the extent and evolution of
Proterozoic orogenic provinces will also be discussed.
Southeastern Africa and Dronning Maud Land may be
considered in terms of ancient, cratonic nuclei separated by
orogenic belts of various ages (Fig. 1). The Kaapvaal and
Zimbabwe cratonic terrains comprise granite-greenstone
provinces overlain by supracrustal sequences ranging in age
from late Archaean to mid-Proterozoic. In Dronning Maud
Land, the Archaean to mid-Proterozoic Grunehogna
Province shows similarities to these provinces in having
3.0 Ga granites and 1.7 Ga red-coloured tenigenous
sediments. Around the cratonic provinces are the accreted
mid- to late Proterozoic orogenic provinces which have
been the focus of several recent studies. It is now known
that the 1OOOMa Kibaran tectonic event extended from
central Mozambique, through Malawi into Zambia in the
west, and northwards into Tanzania and Kenya (Daly
1986a; Shackleton 1986). The Mozambique Province,
important in the present context, has been described in
some detail by Sacchi et al. (1984). Their data are used here.
The Namaqua-Natal orogenic belt, situated some distance
to the south of and geographically discrete from the
Mozambique Province, is of similar age and general
lithological character. The east coast Natal Province is
particularly relevant to this discussion and has been
described in general terms by Cain (1975), Matthews (1981)
and Thomas (1989). More specific aspects of the
geochronology, give by Eglington et al. (1989), reveal that
deformation, metamorphism and granite emplacement in
this area occurred synchronously with the same processes in
Mozambique Province.
In Dronning Maud Land, a high-grade structural and
metamorphic terrain lies to the east, south and west of
Grunehogna Province (Fig. 1). Two sectors of this orogenic
province have been investigated. The eastern sector, first
examined by Roots (1953), consists of H.U. Sverdrupfjella
and Kirwanveggen, described by Grantham et al. (1988) and
Wolmarans & Kent (1982) respectively. The Heimefront-
fjella sector, situated to the west, has been reported on by
J uckes (1972), Spaeth & Fielitz (1987) and Weber et al.
(1987). The geology of these areas is sufficiently well
constrained to allow their interpretation in terms of a single
orogenic belt, henceforth termed the Maudheim Province.
This name is proposed in view of the former existence of
Maudheim base, used by the Norwegian-British-Swedish
Antarctic Expedition from 1950 to 1953. In age, lithology,
1115
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1116 P. B. GROENEWALD ET AL .
deformation and metamorphism, the eastern sector of
Maudheim Province shows significant similarities to the
Mozambique Province. In addition, correlation of the
Heimefrontfjella sector with the Natal Province has been
proposed (Spaeth & Fielitz 1987; Weber et al. 1987). The
parallel tectonic evolution of the late Proterozoic provinces
in the Mozambique, Natal-Namaqua and Dronning Maud
Land regions allows more detailed interpretation of their
evolution and identification of their original tectonic
settings. Furthermore, some inferences made regarding the
extent of this loo0 Ma tectonothermal province have
implications for the original assembly of Gondwana.
A tectonothermal overprinting, spanning the period 600
to 450 Ma, is widely recognized in Africa as the Pan African
and in Antarctica as the Ross Orogeny. It has been
sueprimposed on the Mozambique and Maudheim Prov-
inces, but has not been recognized in Natal Province. It is
characterized by folding, thermal resetting of some isotopic
systems and the generation and emplacement of granites.
Development of predominantly sedimentary successions
across the older terrains occurred in the Phanerozoic. The
widespread Karoo Sequence in southern Africa comprises a
thick succession of sediments accumulated in diverse
environments. Its deposition terminated with widespread
emplacement of doleritic intrusions and tholeiitic volcanic
rocks. A similar, albeit much thinner, succession is present
in the Heimefrontfjella and Kirwanveggen areas of the
Maudheim Province. Likewise, post-Karoo alkaline
intrusions are present both in the J utulstraumen area of
Dronning Maud Land and in the northeastern sector of the
Karoo basin in Africa (Fig. 1). The similarity between the
patterns of jointing and faulting post-dating these intrusions
in both settings has been recognized by Grantham & Hunter
(1991).
Linked cratonic fragments
In Dronning Maud Land, relatively undeformed and
unmetamorphosed Archaean and Proterozoic rocks in the
Ahlmannryggen, Straumsnutane and Borgmassivet areas
constitute the Grunehogna Province. This is bounded to the
east and south by the Maudheim Province (Fig. 1). The
Archaean rocks, occurring only in the Annandagstoppane
area, are c. 3000 Ma granites (Barton et al. 1987). These are
of the same age as some granitic intrusions in the eastern
Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Provinces, but the limited data
available suggest slightly different geochemical characteris-
tics and provenance (Barton et al. 1987).
Proterozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the
Ritscherflya Supergroup occupy the remainder of Gruneh-
ogna Province and have been extensively intruded by mafic
and ultramafic bodies. Ferreira (1986) interpreted the
sedimentary rocks as a sequence, from the base upwards, of
shallow marine, tidal flat, braided stream, and alluvial fan
deposits. Measured palaeocurrent directions were highly
variable but the depocentre was probably situated to the
northeast of Grunehogna. The sediments are characteristi-
cally immature and red in colour. A sequence of continental
tholeiitic basalts overlies the sedimentary rocks (Watters et
al. 1991). The geochronological data are equivocal, with
reported ages ranging from 800 Ma to 1800 Ma (Moyes &
Barton 1990). Watters et al. (1991) obtained Sm-Nd zhur
model ages in the range 1300-1620Ma for the basalts and
interpreted these as representative of the crystallization age,
and ascribed an Rb-Sr age of 876 Ma to later tectonothermal
overprinting.
The sediments of the Ritscherflya Supergroup have
several possible correlates in southeastern Africa such as the
Umkondo, Waterberg and Soutspanberg Groups (Fig. 1).
Farther afield, the Volop Group and the Ntingwe Formation
are situated along the southern margin of the Kaapvaal
Province adjacent to the Namaqua and Natal Provinces
respectively. All these mid-Proterozoic sequences contain
immature fluvial to shallow marine sediments with distinct
ferric pigmentation. However, tholeiitic volcanic rocks are
present only in the Soutpansberg and Umkondo Groups.
Tankard et al. (1982) reported predominantly southwards
palaeocurrent directions in the Soutpansberg Group, which
is opposite to those in the Grunehogna area. The sediments
were deposited in sandy, braided alluvial plain settings,
within either an aulacogen or a yoked basin. The Umkondo
Group situated on the eastern flank of the Zimbabwe
Province, has close similarity to the Ritscherflya Supergroup
in terms of sedimentary characteristics, which led Ferriera
(1986) to suggest correlation. The Umkondo Group
sediments, described by Button (1977), represent tidal
flat-lacustrine, progradational fan delta, and meandering
river depositional environments. Palaeocurrent directions
are to the SE, N and E in the lower, middle and upper parts
of the sequence respectively.
Despite the similarities of the sedimentary sequences in
the Umkondo, Waterberg and Soutpansberg Groups to
those of the Ritscherflya Supergroup, it is impossible to
correlate them with any certainty. It is significant, however,
that mid-Proterozoic sequences in this part of Gondwana
are of similar character and are situated in reasonable
proximity to one another in the reconstruction (Fig. 1). The
fact that Soutspanberg sediments have been observed
overlying Waterberg Group sediments (J ansen 1976) points
to the development of several intracratonic basins or
aulacogens in the mid-Proterozoic. Certainly, the in-
tracratonic basins on the Kaapvaal craton had a long history
as J ansen (1982) recognized a much more complex
stratigraphy in the Waterberg Group than previously
reported. However, their chronology is not unequivocal.
Allsopp et al. (1989) presented a well constrained age of
1080Ma for the Umkondo Group. Ages derived for
lowermost parts of the Waterberg Group range from
1790Ma to 1420Ma (Oosthuyzen & Burger 1964), which
conflicts with its correlation with the Umkondo Group on
the basis of similar palaeomagnetic poles (J ones &
McElhinny 1967). The proximity of all these sequences to
orogenic provinces, which developed subsequently in the
mid- to late Proterozoic, suggests that initial crustal buckling
and the development of intracratonic basins was a
consequence of widespread tectonic processes prior to the
onset of the Kibaran orogenesis, itself a widespread and
long-lived collisional tectonic regime.
Comparison of the loo0 Ma terrains
The geological characteristics of the 1000 Ma orogenic
terrains in SE Africa and Antarctica are comparable, as
summarized in Table 1 and discussed in more detail below,
and broad correlation of these is almost certain.
The Natal Province may be considered in terms of four
zones (Matthews 1981; Tankard et al. 1982) or terranes
(Thomas 1989). The northern marginal zone or Tugela
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ANTARCTI CA-AFRI CA: PROTEROZOI C-MESOZOI C LI NKAGE 1117
Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of SE Africa and Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica. The continents are juxtaposed as in the reconstruction
of Martin & Hartnady (1986). The continental outline projection is that used by de Wit et al. (1988). Bathograds at 3000 m depth are shown
using short solid dashed line for Africa and longer dashed line for Antarctica.
Terrane, where the orogenic belt abuts the Kaapvaal amphibolite facies. They host several layered mafic-
Province, comprises a narrow, southward dipping thrust belt ultramafic and interleaved granitic intrusions. Tectonic
of low-grade metasediments along its northern extremity, transport was towards the north. This sequence is
and a wider, westward plunging nappe complex farther considered to be ophiolitic in character (Matthews 1972).
south. These nappes consists of a supracrustal suite of basic The northern marginal zone is succeeded southwards by
lavas and clastic and chemical sediments metamorphosed at
one in which synformal structures consisting of paragneiss
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1118 P. B. GROENEWALD ET A L .
sequences are separated by augen gneisses. This is followed
to the south by an area in which granulite facies
paragneisses, granites and charnockites predominate.
Thomas (1989) has argued that Natal Province comprises
three or four sectors, consisting of calc-alkaline granitoid
rocks and subordinate metasedimentary lithologies, which
represent different accreted sequences.
The lithostratigraphy of the eastern Mozambique belt
comprises a migmatitic gneiss basement and a
volcano-sedimentary cover sequence that includes carbonate
and quartzitic units, all having undergone amphibolite facies
metamorphism (Sacchi et al. 1984). Much of the succession
was interpreted as calc-alkaline volcanic in origin.
Interlayering of mafic, ultramafic and sedimentary protoliths
gives parts of the Mozambique Province an ophiolitic
character. A nappe of granulite facies paragneisses, which
was thrust over the volcano-sedimentary succession, consists
of metamorphic rocks ranging from rhyolitic to ultramafic in
composition. Several granites were intruded into this
sequence.
In eastern Maudheim Province, H.U. Sverdrupfjella and
Kirwanveggen are underlain by ortho- and paragneisses of
the Sverdrupfjella Group (Roots 1953, 1969; Hjelle 1974;
Wolmarans & Kent 1982; Grantham et al. 1988). In H.U.
Sverdrupfjella, orthogneisses predominate adjacent to the
Grunehogna cratonic province. They display layering on a
variety of scales but are generally of rather monotonous,
intermediate composition. These gneisses have calc-alkaline
geochemical characteristics and are interpreted to be of
volcanic origin. Farther east are paragneissic meta-
carbonates and pelites interlayered with grey orthogneisses.
These are followed eastwards by paragneisses which are
predominantly quartzofeldspathic but contain widespread
metapelites, iron-rich amphibolites, quartzitic and semi-
pelitic gneisses. This part of the succession is characterized
by granulite facies mineral assemblages. Rocks in
Kirwanveggen have been interpreted as predominantly
volcanic in origin (Wolmarans & Kent 1982). Heimefront-
fjella is still relatively unknown, but amphibolite facies
carbonates, para- and orthogneisses have been reported
(J uckes 1972). Pre- and syn-orogenic mafic intrusions,
represented by amphibolite and pyroxene-garnet boudins or
lenses are also common throughout Maudheim Province.
Several generations of syn-tectonic intrusions have been
recognized in the Maudheim Province. Grantham et al.
(1988) described tabular syn-tectonic granites in H.U.
Sverdrupfjella subprovince. Charnockites are present in the
Kirwanveggen, but the contact relations are ambiguous in
being gradational (Wolmarans & Kent 1982). Relatively
extensive, coarse-grained, gneissic granites occur in
Heimefrontfjella (J uckes 1972). Similarly, there are
numerous granites and charnockites in Natal Province, in
tabular and batholitic forms of pre-, syn- and late-tectonic
character (Thomas 1989). In Mozambique Province, the
c. loo0 Ma granites are domical and migmatitic (Sacchi et al.
1984).
Table 1. Summary and comparison of Kibaran and RosslPan African lithostratigraphy and tectonothermal histories
Maudheim Province
Mozambique Province Sverdrupfjella/Kirwanveggen Heimefrontfjella Natal Province
Lithostratigraphy
Gneiss-migmatite basement. Meta-
sedimentary & meta-volcanic cover
sequence. Minor carbonates, Fe-
quartzites, greywackes, dominantly
calcalkaline meta-volcanic rocks.
Overthrust granulite metasedimentary
nappe.
Deformation
Intense early folding and thrusting.
Main thrusts to NW in western parts,
to SE in southern zone. Widethrust
belts and shear zones. Later more
gentle folding, possibly accompanied
by thrusting.
Metamorphism
Regional mid-amphibolite facies in
southern zone with klippen of gra-
nulites. In NW widespread granulites,
partly retrogressed.
Magmatism
Early deformed and relatively unde-
formed granites, later with migmatitic
aureoles. Late porphyritic granites
are Pan African.
Migmatitic volcano-sedimentary
succession. No basement-cover
relations. Minor carbonate,
quartzite, greywacke & pelites.
Orthogneisses calcalkaline vol-
canic rocks. Overthrust granulite
sequence in the east.
Early coaxial isoclinal folding
events accompanied by thrusting.
Main thrusts towards NW. Later
open to close folding with minor
thrusts. Major shear zones (?).
Regional amphibolite facies met-
amorphism in west, granulites
above main thrusts to northeast
and in the south. Widespread
retrogression of granulites.
Suites of megacrystic, sheeted
highly deformed early granites
(S-type and calcalkaline?). Char-
nockites in south. Sheeted grano-
toid suites Pan African.
Metamorphosed volcano-
sedimentary sequence.
Basement cover relation
reported. Metavolcanic
rocks are calcalkaline.
Abundant mafic dykes.
Early isoclinal folding with
thrust component to NE
(Kibaran age). Younger
folding, thrusting to NW of
Pan African age. Major
shear zone between cover
and basement.
Regional mid-amphibolite
facies. Granulites in NW.
Retrogressed and over-
printed during Pan
African.
Numerous early granite
intrusions.
Metavolcanic-dominated north-
ern zone, southwards various
metasediments with numerous
intrusive granitoids. Ophiolitic
affinity of amphibolites.
Intense early thrust and fold
nappe development. Abundant.
evidence for thrusting towards N
and NW. Local backthrusts. No
post-Kibaran deformation.
Dominantly amphibolite facies in
north, granulite zone in south.
Local granulites throughout. No
evidence for post-Kilbaran
retrogression/rehydration.
Abundant granite and charnock-
ite batholiths and sheets. S-type,
calcalkaline and A-type bodies.
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ANTARCTICA-AFRICA: PROTEROZOIC-MESOZOIC LINKAGE 1119
Available geochronological data from the various prov-
inces reveal near contemporaneity of tectonothermal events
(Table 2). In all the Kibaran provinces considered here, the
marginal basin-volcanic arc successions accumulated before
about 1200Ma, when metamorphism and deformation
began. The orogeny was particularly prolonged, as revealed
by the presence of granites with ages ranging from 1163 Ma
to 850 Ma. Although these intrusions range from syn-
orogenic to anorogenic alkaline character, all show evidence
of some metamorphic/deformational history. The ages
may, therefore, represent metamorphic resetting rather than
Table 2. Geochronology of the Kibaran orogenic provinces (MSWD
values in brackets if known)
Mozambique Province
Basement': Rb-Sr 1200 Ma R, =0.7060 (3 point isochron)
Cover': Rb-Sr 950 f 40 Ma R, =0.7091
Rb-Sr loo0 Ma R, =0.7013
Early granite': Rb-Sr 1100 Mu R, =0.7027
Amphibo1ites':Rb-Sr whole rock 1391 f 88 Ma R, =0.707 (0.3)
Granulites': Rb-Sr whole rock 1073 f 45 Ma R, =0.707 (0.59)
Maudheim Province
Sverdrupjjella Group, Kirwanveggen
orth~gneisses(?)~
zircon Pb-Pb zircon U-Pb:
1071 f 74 Ma (90) 1112 f 32 Ma (9.5)
1075 f 60 Ma (127)1107 f 127 Ma (260)
1061 f 66 Ma (108) 1045 f 193 Ma (548)
Rb-Sr whole rock3 1015 f 24 Ma R, =0.704 (1.04)
1164 f 78 Ma R, =0.704 (11.2)
Rb-Sr whole rock-biotite ages' 460-485 Ma
Sverdrupjjella Group, H.U. Sverdrupfjella
Amphibolite facies orthognei~ses~
Rb-Sr whole rock 1141 f 43 Ma R, =0.708 (0.4)
Granulite facies paragneisses4
Rb-Sr whole rock 1170 f 26 Ma R, =0.7040 (0.76)
Syn-orogenic granite4
Rb-Sr whole rock 1163 f 99 Ma R, =0.7036 (8.88)
Late syn-orogenic granitoids3
Rb-Sr whole rock 519 f 17 Ma R, =0.708 (1.7)
whole rock-biotite ages4 430-480 Ma
Heimefr~ntfjella~
Volcanism: 1100-1200 Ma
Metamorphism: 1OOO-1100 Ma
Natal Province
All Rb-Sr whole rock6
Northern marginal area metavolcanic rocks
1240 f 23 Ma R, =0.704 (2.2)
Northern marginal area, granites
1194f83MaRO=0.7017(0.8); 1067f20MaR0=0.706(1.72)
examples of granites further south
calc-alkaline 981 f 31 Ma R, =0.7032 (11.3)
A-type 1089 f 14 Ma R, =0.7038 (1.73);
1003 f 29 Ma R, =0.7054 (0.75)
transitional 101 1 f 19 Ma R, =0.7063 (2.36)
syn-orogenic metabasite 1024 f 32 Ma R, =0.7026 (2.21)
tonalitic basement Nd 7' " =1405 Ma
Data source references:
' Sacchi et al. 1984; *Cahen et al. 1984; 3Moyes & Barton 1990;
4Moyes & Groenewald, unpublished; Weber et al. 1987;
1065 f 81 Ma R, =0.707 (0.21)
Eglington et al. 1989.
emplacement, especially as most were determined using
Rb-Sr isotopes. Nonetheless, the initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios ( R, )
may be particularly significant. Many of the isochrons
(Table 2) have R, values between 0.703 and 0.705 indicative
of a relatively short crustal residence time of the source
rocks.
Metamorphic histories were similar in all the 1000 Ma
terrains. In Natal Province, amphibolite facies conditions
predominated in the northern marginal zone with
P >4.5 kbar, T =550-600 "C and at higher temperature but
lower pressure in the northern zone (Rhodes & Leith 1971).
In the southern part of Natal conditions of P =4.8-6.8 kbar
at T =650-850C persisted through much of the early
tectonic history (Talbot & Grantham 1987). In southern
Mozambique Province, amphibolite facies rocks predomin-
ate except in klippen consisting of granulite facies gneisses
(Sacchi et al. 1984). Andreoli (1984) documented granulite
facies conditions of P =7-9 kbar, T =725-800C in
southern Malawi. Maudheim Province also underwent
predominantly high-grade metamorphism. J uckes (1972)
found that Heimefrontfjella had undergone almandine-
amphibolite facies metamorphism, and Weber et al. (1987)
identified a granulite facies basement underlying amphibol-
ite facies cover. Wallace (in Wolmarans & Kent 1982) has
identified granulite and amphibolite facies assemblages in
Kirwanveggen. Groenewald & Hunter (1991) have recog-
nized early granulite facies conditions of relatively high
pressure ( P =8-10 kbar) and temperature ( T =800 "C),
followed by amphibolite-facies retrogression and rehydra-
tion ( P =6 kbar, T =600C) in the main range of H.U.
Sverdrupfjella. Generally lower grade conditions applied in
the west, closer to the adjacent Grunehogna cratonic
province, where epidote-amphibolite facies conditions were
never exceeded.
The deformational histories of the areas were also
similar (Table 1). Structural evolution in the Mozambique
Province, as documented by Sacchi et al. (1984), was
dominated by thrust-nappe tectonics at c. 1000Ma which
produced strongly linear frontal ramps and imbricate stacks
in areas of more intense deformation. Elsewhere,
recumbent folds are typical. The thrust system had a root
zone in southern Malawi, from which tectonic transport was
towards the SE. Outside this thrust system, NW-trending
folds predating the thrusting were superimposed on earlier
structures. In the southeast, widespread gentle deformation
with a WNW trend may represent a late stage of the
thrusting event. This folding is more intense locally where it
gave rise to new foliation. Kibaran tectonics in Africa,
described in general terms by Daly (1986a, b, 1988) and
Shackleton (1986), involved considerable crustal shortening
through NW- and SE-directed thrusting. This divergence
was related to a postulated regional pop-up rooted in a
mid-crustal shear or decoupling zone. The NW-verging
structures are considered to represent the main thrust
system whereas those to the SE are thought to be
backthrusts (Daly 19866).
A similar orogenic history has been identified in
Maudheim Province. The granulite facies paragneisses in
H.U.' Sverdrupfjella were deformed by almost co-axial
isoclinal folding events and later thrust over the adjacent
amphibolite facies succession (Groenewald & Hunter 1991).
The sense of movement on thrust planes, which are
subparallel to the general SE to E dip of layering, is towards
the northwest. The transgression of thrust planes across the
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1120 P. B. GROENEWALD ET A L .
tectonic foliation indicates that the thrusting postdated much
of the folding. Open to close folding superimposed on the
earlier structures makes interpretation difficult. In Heimefr-
ontfjella older folds trend NW with NE vergence, and
younger folds trend NE and verge NW (Spaeth & Fielitz
1987). An older granulite facies basement is separated from
the amphibolite terrain by a major shear zone. Several
flat-lying thrust faults are present in NE Heimefrontfjella.
The Natal orogenic province also underwent thrust and
nappe-dominated tectonism. The northern parts of this
terrain are inferred to be obducted ophiolites in a series of
N-verging thrust nappes (Matthews 1981). The central part
is characterized by upright synformal structures, whereas
thrust faulting and isoclinal folding occurred in the south
(Thomas 1989).
Summary of the 10o0Mu provinces
The three provinces described above appear to constitute
parts of a single, extensive orogenic province on the basis of
similarities in lithology, tectonic style (Table 1) and age
(Table 2). Thrust faulting in Natal Province and Dronning
Maud Land involved tectonic transport towards the cratons,
whereas that in the Mozambique Province was bi-directional.
Thrusting in Mozambique and H.U. Sverdrupfjella
emplaced granulite-facies successions above amphibolites.
The lithologies in all three provinces are interpreted to have
been volcanic and sedimentary deposits typical of marginal
basins, with a sense of polarity in that metavolcanics
predominate close to, and metasediments further away
from, the adjacent cratonic areas. Geochronological data
suggest contemporaneity. Metamorphism shows the same
general pattern of initial granulite and amphibolite facies,
followed by amphibolite facies retrogression. Direct
correlation of lithostratigraphic units is not possible, and
variations in level of exposure may account for some of the
major differences. If the interpretation of the lithological
sequences as marginal basin-volcanic arc deposits is correct,
the Kibaran orogeny was one of accretion of newly formed
crust onto an older continental nucleus.
It is therefore suggested that the Kibaran Province
encompasses sub-provinces in east Africa, Antarctica and
south Africa, and was thus of considerable extent. It
represents major accretion at a relatively early stage in the
construction of Gondwana. Groenewald & Hunter (1991)
reported the P-T-t path of H.U. Sverdrupfjella and argued
that the metamorphism was related to plate collision. The
generally low PIT conditions, which applied in Natal, may
be at variance with collision orogeny, and Tankard et al.
(1982) argued for an ensialic rather than ensimatic marginal
basin, although more than one accretionary segment was
recognized by Thomas (1989). Isotopic evidence that
supports accretion of juvenile sialic crust was presented by
Eglington et al. (1989). The ophiolites in Natal and
Mozambique Provinces are also evidence that accretion
occurred through collision of segments of continental crust
that were once separated by oceanic crust.
Pan African and Row orogenic events
A widespread tectonothermal event affected Gondwana in
the period 600-450Ma, resulting in several fold belts. The
Gariep, Damara and Saldanian orogenic provinces and
pervasive thermal overprinting of larger tracts of Africa
(Fig. 1) are ascribed to the Pan African event, whilst the
extensive tectonothermal province in Antarctica is termed
the Ross Orogeny. In SE Africa evidence for tectonother-
mal overprinting is restricted to the Mozambique Province
where Sacchi et al. (1984) recognized that gentle refolding
was related to the emplacement of 500 Ma granites. Despite
the limited new fabrics and retrogression associated with
this event, widespread resetting of isotope systems occurred,
particularly Rb-Sr and K-Ar, which resulted in the
Mozambique Province being considered as entirely of Pan
African age in some early publications (for example
Bloomfield 1981).
Orogenesis also occurred in the Maudheim Province at
this time. Many of the granitic intrusions in H.U.
Sverdrupfjella were emplaced during D3, which was
characterized by open to close folding and minor reverse or
thrust faulting. These granites form subhorizontal to
subvertical tabular bodies highly variable in thickness and
associated with NW-directed thrust faulting. The Brattskar-
vet alkalic granitoid body, the largest of these intrusions
(100km), has yielded a well constrained whole rock Rb-Sr
age of 519 f 17Ma (MSWD =1.7, R,, =0.708) (Moyes &
Barton 1990). Other late granites, characterized by
tourmaline or magnetite phenocrysts, are considered to be
younger because they cut monzonitic dykes of the
Brattskarvet suite. The latter predates a poorly defined
tectonic foliation in which biotite crystallized. This biotite,
in conjunction with whole-rock data, has provided Rb-Sr
ages of 460-490 Ma in the Brattskarvet intrusion (Moyes &
Groenewald, unpublished data), similar to biotite blocking
temperature ages of 475 Ma from Kirwanveggen (Elworthy,
in Wolmarans & Kent 1982). Most of the K-Ar age
determinations by Russian workers in the 1960s ranged from
400-500Ma throughout the region (Ravich & Solovev
1966), suggesting that the thermal effect of this orogeny was
pervasive isotopic resetting, perhaps through retrogressive
rehydration.
In Heimefrontfjella, a rnafic dyke disturbed by one of
the thrust faults provided an age of 450 Ma (J uckes 1972).
Spaeth & Fielitz (1987) and Weber et al. (1987) recognized
folding younger than the main 1000Ma deformation. These
folds, which trend NW and verge NE, are associated with
thrust faulting. Extensive retrogression accompanied this
deformation. Weber et al. (1987) interpreted these events to
be of Pan African age. The vast extent of this thermal event
in Antarctica is revealed by the occurrence of gneisses of
this age in the Shackleton Range, at the western limit of
Dronning Maud Land, and in the S c Rondane, to the east
(Fig. 1) as described by Rex (1972) and Picciotto et al.
(1964), respectively, and the considerable extent of the Ross
Orogeny outlined by Craddock (1972). In the case of S0r
Rondane, 1OOOMa ages have been suggested recently by
Shiraishi & Kagami (1989), which reveal difficulties similar
to those experienced in earlier dating of the Mozambique
and Maudheim Provinces.
There is no evidence that the Pan African orogeny had
any effect on Natal Province as isotopic data reveal no ages
younger than 850 Ma. Nor is there any published evidence
for deformation or retrogression post-dating the main
orogeny, which was entirely Kibaran in age. There is,
however, an orogenic province of Pan African age in the
southernmost part of Africa, termed the Saldanian, in which
thrust faulting, intense folding and granite emplacement
have been documented (see Tankard et al. 1982, for
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ANTARCTI CA-AFRI CA: PROTEROZOI C-MESOZOI C LI NKAGE 1121
references). It would therefore seem likely that the Pan
African swathe of tectonism passed from the Mozambique
Province through the Maudheim Province, then extended
southwest, but it did not reach westwards into Natal
Province.
Phanerozoic-Palaeozoic deposition, volcanism and
tectonism
Major intracratonic depositional basins developed in
Gondwana after the Ross/Pan African orogeny. The Karoo
Sequence of southern Africa (Fig. 1) is of particular interest
because its accumulation spanned the critical period during
which initial stages of rifting began. Tectonic adjustments
which heralded the main phase of continental fragmentation
influenced depositional patterns throughout the develop-
ment of the Karoo basin. These tectonic controls also
applied to the succeeding Karoo volcanism which has been
related, in the Lebombo area, to a failed triple junction
(Burke & Dewey 1973). These volcanic rocks erupted
between 200-175 Ma (Erlank 1984) and are significantly
older than the earliest marine geophysical anomaly used in
the reconstruction of Gondwana by Martin & Hartnady
(1986).
The Karoo Sequence of central and southern Africa
represents a Carboniferous to Triassic sedimentary succes-
sion capped by late Triassic to J urassic flood basalts
(Tankard et al. 1982; Dingle et al. 1983; Erlank 1984).
Karoo sedimentation proceeded after accumulation of the
Cape Sequence and, in the main basin in southern Africa,
was influenced by deformation in the Cape fold belt (Rust
1975). Termination of activity in the fold belt was followed
closely by eruption of the Karoo basalts, an event
considered to be closely related to the break-up of
Gondwana (Cox 1970; Eales et al. 1984).
The stratigraphy of Karoo sediments in southern Africa
will be described in terms of lower and upper subdivisions
for the purposes of this paper (using Tankard et al. 1982
and references cited therein as sources). The lower sequence
has a basal succession of tillites, diamictites and associated
sediments which reaches its maximum thickness of 750 m in
the southwestern Karoo basin, but which is absent in the
extreme northeast. This succession is overlain by lower
Permian basinal mudstones deposited in a large, possibly
marine, body of water. In the northeast part of the
depository alluvial sandstones are present at this strat-
igraphic level and host coal deposits. Overlying the
mudstones and sandstones is a sequence of upward-fining
fluviatile cycles which may once have exceeded 5000111 in
thickness in the southern Karoo basin, but which thins
considerably towards the northeast.
The upper Karoo sedimentary succession commences
with a middle to upper Triassic coarse sediment wedge, up
to 500m thick in the south-central part of the basin, which
is overlain by laterally persistent red mudstone up to 490 m
thick. This has low sandstone/mudstone ratios, lacks
carbonaceous shales, and marked the onset of aridity which
culminated in deposition of sandstones under aeolian
conditions during the upper Triassic. Although the aeolian
sandstones attain maximum thickness in the southwestern
Karoo basin, they do not become thinner to the northeast as
is characteristic of the other units. In contrast, they occupy a
NE-trending trough within which there are a variety of local
thickness variations. Outside the trough, an approximately
constant thickness of 150 m is present throughout almost the
entire region affected by Karoo sedimentation, making this
the most widely developed sedimentary unit of the Karoo
Sequence.
Deposition of the Karoo Sequence occurred in two
broadly different tectonic settings (Rust 1975). South of the
Limpopo River, a marginal cratonic shelf to miogeosynclinal
trough environment existed, whereas to the north
sedimentation took place in separate, fault-controlled
troughs. Although complicated by fault control which led to
considerable thickness variation and intra-strata1 unconfor-
mities, the stratigraphic sequences in the two terrains are
very similar. In the northeast there is, however, evidence for
a long-lived palaeo-high where the late Karoo volcanic rocks
rest directly upon basement. This is the Nuanetsi Igneous
Province, situated in the Limpopo region (Fig. 1). Nearby,
in the Lebombo region, there is a thin veneer of aeolian
arenites between the basement and the volcanic rocks, a
feature particularly relevant in the present context of
correlating between the Karoo Sequence and Permian
sedimentary rocks of Maudheim Province. In Heimefrontj-
fella, the thin (<500m) sedimentary succession described
by J uckes (1972) must be marginal to the main Karoo basin
or rest upon a palaeo-high because there are areas where
the overlying J urassic basalts rest directly upon basement.
J uckes did, however, recognize an erosive hiatus between
deposition of the sedimentary rocks and eruption of the
volcanic rocks. Similarly, in Kirwanveggen the Phanerozoic
(Permian) sediments are relatively thin (100m) and poorly
developed (Wolmarans & Kent 1982). In both these areas
the sedimentary successions consist of a lower, heterolithic
unit comprising conglomerate, sandstone and argillite, and
an upper sandstone unit which is characterisically immature.
The basal conglomerates may be interpreted as diamictites,
possibly of glaciogenic provenance (J uckes 1972).
The Karoo volcanic rocks in SE Africa comprise a
substantial thickness of predominantly tholeiitic lavas which
were extruded in the final stage of Karoo sedimentation.
Two volcanic events can be distinguished: the first
widespread in the period 200-175 Ma; the second at
145-133 Ma in a limited area of the eastern Lebombo (Eales
et al. 1984). A broad geochemical similarity exists
throughout the wide extent of the early volcanic rocks, but
there is a variation in the trace element characteristics (Cox
et al. 1967). A northern province is characterized by higher
incompatible element abundances than are found in the
south. The boundary between these provinces (Fig. 1) has
been documented as traceable from W to E across southern
Africa (Duncan 1987).
In Maudheim Province, volcanic rocks equivalent in
composition and age to those of the Karoo basin are found
overlying the sediments discussed above. They are generally
substantially thicker than the sedimentary succession
(J uckes 1972; Furnes et al. 1987; Harris et al. 1990). Harris
et al. (1991) demonstrated a considerable geochemical
similarity between these volcanic rocks and those of the
Karoo. They found that the Kirwanveggen volcanic rocks
have the characteristics of the lower incompatible element,
more primitive, southern Lebombo type of Africa.
However, J urassic dykes in the H.U. Sverdrupfjella have
geochemical characteristics of the enriched northern
Lebombo Karoo Province (Groenewald, unpublished data),
as do a few dykes in the Grunehogna Province. The
boundary between the enriched and normal provinces is
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1122 P. B. GR OE NE WA L D ET AL .
probably situated between Grunehogna Province and the
Kirwanveggen, but is not yet sufficiently well-constrained to
contribute precision to the Gondwana reconstruction.
Discussion
The reconstruction and geological parallelism of these parts
of Gondwana have implications for an understanding of its
crustal evolution from Mid-Proterozoic until Mesozoic time.
Much of the supercontinent, in particular the parts adjacent
to SE Africa, was almost certainly complete 1000Ma ago.
Subsequently, about three Wilson cycles occurred in the
northern hemisphere, but the evidence from this part of
Gondwana indicates predominantly ensialic orogenesis.
Repeated accretion of continental crust fragments and
intervening volcanic arc-marginal basin complexes onto
Africa requires evaluation as a viable mechanism for
assembly, or construction, of the supercontinent. A
continuous record of geological evolution after Gondwana
assembly provides insights into the breakup mechanism.
This may have broader implications for the current cycle of
plate tectonic activity from which almost all understanding
of the hypothesis stems.
Similarities between the Grunehogna supracrustal
succession and that of the Kaapvaal Province suggest
continuity between these terrains during the mid-
Proterozoic. This continuity could possibly have existed as
early as the Archaean if the Annandagstoppane granite is
equivalent to granites of the Swaziland region. This
correlation should perhaps be approached with caution, but
the proposed mid-Proterozoic juxtaposition of these
terrains requires that it be considered. If these crustal
segments were originally separate and only juxtaposed after
deposition of the Soutspanberg and Ritscherflya Super-
groups, then a suture zone of some kind should be
recognizable. There is no direct evidence that such a zone
exists in the eastern Kaapvaal province, although Stettler
et al. (1989) have reconized a variety of very early
discontinuities in the patterns defined by magnetic trends in
Kaapvaal Province. The reason why the line followed by
subsequent breakup passed through this crustal fragment of
considerable longevity requires further investigation.
The similarities between the provinces of Kibaran age
have been detailed above. Clearly, their correlation would
provide evidence for one of the largest orogenic provinces
on Earth, extending southward from Kenya through
Mozambique into Antarctica, then back into Africa in a
westerly direction, and across southern Africa into South
America. Of significance in this proposed correlation is
evidence that late pre-breakup tectonics modified the
original construction, leading to non-linear fracturing across
the Gondwana supercontinent and complicating the
present-day reassembly. Furthermore, the Muhlig Hofmann
mountains, extending eastwards from the H.U. Sverdrup-
fjella to the Sbr Rondane area (Fig. l ), have
lithostratigraphy, metamorphic history and age closely
similar to those of the Maudheim Province (Ravich &
Solov'ev 1966; Asami et d. 1989; Shiraishi & Kagami 1989),
which suggests an even greater extent for this orogenic
province. Kibaran orogenesis is also known in Madagascar
(Cahen et al. 1984), and Berhe (1990) argued that the
Mozambique Province and Arabian-Nubian Shield may
have been contiguous.
On a regional scale, the tectonic history of the Karoo
basin reflects jostling of crustal segments prior to and during
the break-up of Gondwana as different crustal blocks were
subjected to the vast stress field associated with this event.
Karoo sedimentation and magmatism in the Limpopo
region were controlled by faults which were, in part,
reactivated structures of Archaean and early Proterozoic
age. Flores (1970) recognized a transcurrent component to
some of these faults which suggests that they may have been
related to break-up and excision of the Grunehogna
segment from Kaapvaal Province.
Much of the Antarctic data reported here were acquired during
work on the South African National Antarctic Research Program,
supported by the Department of Environment Affairs, to whom
P.B.G. and G.H.G. are grateful for sponsorship. D. Hunter is
thanked for his help and guidance. We gratefully acknowledge
constructive analysis of the manuscript by A. B. Moyes and T. S .
Brewer.
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