Adjectives & Prepositions

Adjectives & Prepositions

Some adjectives go with certain prepositions. There is no real pattern you need to learn
them as you meet them. Here are some examples but remember that there are many other adjective +
preposition combinations that are not covered here.
With at
Im quite good at English but Im bad at maths and Im terrible at physics.
With for
Jogging is good for your health but smoking is bad for you.
The town is famous for its cheese.
As well as good for, bad for and famous for we also say qualified for ready for,
responsible for, suitable for and several others.
With of
Im perfectly capable of doing it myself, thank you.
Im very fond of this old sweatshirt.
As well as capable of and fond of we also say aware of, full of, tired of and several others.
With with
Were very pleased with your progress.
Youre not still angry with me are you?
As well as pleased with and angry with we also say bored with, delighted with, satisfied
with and several others.
With to
Shes the one whos married to a doctor, isnt she?
Youll be responsible to the head of the Finance department.
Notice that you can be responsible for something but responsible to someone.
Other common adjective + preposition combinations include interested in and keen on. Its a
good idea to make a note of new combinations in your vocabulary notebook as you meet them.
Remember too that a preposition is followed by a noun or a gerund (ing form).

Adjectives (gradable / non-gradable)
Gradable / Non-gradable adjectives
Adjectives can be either gradable or non-gradable
Gradable
Gradable adjectives are adjectives like cold hot and frightened. You can be very cold or a bit
cold. Gradable adjectives show that something can have different degrees.
Non-gradable
Non-gradable adjectives are adjectives like married or wooden. You cant be very married or
a bit married. Non-gradable adjectives do not have different degrees.
Adjectives like terrifying, freezing amazing are also non-gradable adjectives. They already
contain the idea of very in their definitions freezing means very cold etc.
Using adverbs of degree
When we use adverbs of degree to modify adjectives we usually have to use different adverbs for
gradable and non-gradable adjectives.
NOT Im completely hot.
NOT It was very fantastic!
With gradable adjectives
Its a bit cold in here. Shall I turn the fire on?
Hes very interested in history. Why dont you buy him a history book?
This exercise is really difficult. I dont know any of the answers.
Im extremely tired. Im going to bed.
The adverbs a bit, very, really, extremely and quite can all be used with gradable adjectives.
With non-gradable adjectives
Its absolutely freezing in here. Shall I turn the fire on?
Hes completely fascinated by history. Why dont you buy him a history book?
This exercise is absolutely impossible.
That film is really terrifying. Dont go and see it on your own.
The adverbs absolutely and completely can be used with non-gradable adjectives.
Notice that really can be used with both gradable AND non-gradable adjectives.
NOTE: There are other adverbs of degree that we havent covered in this section. The ones included
here are some of the most common.
Adjectives ending in -ed and ing
-ed and ing adjectives
Adjectives that end -ed (e.g. bored, interested) and adjectives that end -ing (e.g. boring,
interesting) are often confused.
-ed adjectives
Adjectives that end -ed describe emotions they tell us how people feel about something.
I was very bored in the maths lesson. I almost fell asleep.
He was surprised to see Helen. Shed told him she was going to Australia.
Feeling tired and depressed, he went to bed.
-ing adjectives
Adjectives that end -ing describe the thing that causes the emotion a boring lesson makes you feel
bored.
Have you seen that film? Its absolutely terrifying.
I could listen to him for hours. Hes one of the most interesting people Ive ever met.
I cant eat this! Its disgusting! What is it?
Remember that people can be boring but only if they make other people feel bored.
He talks about the weather for hours. Hes so boring.
NOT I was very boring at the party so I went home.
Here are some more adjectives that can have both an -ed and an -ing form
amused
amusing
annoyed
annoying
confused
confusing
disappointed
disappointing
excited
exciting
exhausted
exhausting
frightened
frightening
satisfied
satisfying
shocked
shocking
Articles 1
There are lots of rules about the use of articles. Here well concentrate on 3 golden rules. Most
mistakes with articles are made through breaking one of these rules.
1. When we say what peoples jobs are, we use a/an
Shes an architect.
Hes a doctor.
My grandfather was a teacher.
2. Singular, countable nouns always have an article a/an or the or another determiner (my, your,
this, that etc.)

Remember that we use the indefinite article - a/an - when we talk about something that is not definite.
I saw a good film yesterday. The listener doesnt know which film.
Theres a man at the door. We dont know who the man is.
Do you want a drink? Its not a particular drink.
and we use the definite article - the when we talk about something more certain.
Im going to take the dog for a walk. The dog is a pet its not just any dog.
Have you seen the car key? Speaker and listener know which car. Its not just any car.
They live in the house opposite ours. Theres only one house opposite. Its not any house.
3. When we talk about things in general we usually use a plural noun or an uncountable noun with no
article.
Birds eat worms. NOT The birds eat the worms.
Water flows downhill.
Kangaroos live in Australia.
BUT We went to the zoo and saw the kangaroos. These are particular kangaroos not kangaroos in
general.

There are many other rules about articles but remembering these 3 golden rules will reduce the
number of mistakes you make.


Articles 2
In Articles 1 we looked at the 3 golden rules of articles:
1. Peoples jobs have a/an. Hes an architect.
2. Singular countable nouns have an article. Thats the woman I met last week.
3. Things in general no article. Cats like mice.

Here we look at some other rules for the use of articles.

Special places
My sons at university but my daughter still goes to school.
He was sent to prison for 10 years.
Now that winters here I find it difficult to get out of bed.
I go to work by bus but I go home on foot.
In expressions with a number of places there is no article after a preposition.

These places include: to/at school, to/at university/college, to/in church, to/in/out of prison, to/in
hospital, to/in/out of bed, to/at work, at home.

NOTE: While we say go to school and go to work etc, the expression go home has neither the
nor to.

Transport
I go to work by bus but I go home on foot.
I hate travelling by train.
Modes of transport (by bus, by train, by car, by plane, by bicycle) dont have an article. Notice that on
foot is different.

Geography

No article continents (Africa, Asia etc.) countries (France, Germany, Slovakia etc - but the Slovak
Republic, the United States, the United Kingdom) towns & cities (Bratislava, London
etc.) lakes (Lake Victoria, Lake Balaton etc.) universities (Oxford University, Nitra University etc.)

With the seas & oceans (the Atlantic, the Mediterranean etc.) mountain ranges (the Himalayas,
the Tatras) rivers (the Amazon, the Danube etc.)

Other expressions
I dont watch television very often but I listen to the radio all the time.
Ive got a headache.
Ive got a stomach-ache
Ive got a cold.
BUT
Ive got flu.
Ive got earache.
Ive got toothache.
Other illnesses have no article.

As and Like
As and like are often confused since they are both used to compare actions or situations. There are,
however, important differences.
As
We use as to talk about job or function.
I worked as a shop assistant for 2 years when I was a student.
He used his shoe as a hammer to hang the picture up.
In comparisons, the structure as adjective as is often used.
Hes not as tall as his brother
She ran as fast as she could.
In the following comparisons as is a conjunction its followed by a clause with a subject and a verb.
He went to Cambridge University, as his father had before him.
Shes a talented writer, as most of her family are.
Like
In the following comparisons, like is a preposition and its followed by a noun or a pronoun.
Ive been working like a dog all afternoon.
None of my brothers are much like me.
She looks just like her mother.
Like and As if/As though

Like, as if and as though can all be used to make comparisons. There is no difference in meaning
among the 3 forms.
You look as if youve seen a ghost.
You talk as though were never going to see each other again.
It looks like its going to rain.
Expressions with as

The following expressions all use as.
As you know, classes restart on January 15th.
I tried using salt as you suggested but the stain still didnt come out.
As we agreed the company will be split 50/50 between us.
Their house is the same as ours.


British English and American English

British English and American English
British people and American people can always understand each other but there are a few notable
differences between British English and American English

Grammar

Americans use the present perfect tense less than speakers of British English and a British teacher
might mark wrong some things that an American teacher would say are correct.
US Did you do your homework yet?
Brit. Have you done your homework yet?
US I already ate.
Brit. Ive already eaten.
In British English, have got is often used for the possessive sense of have and have got to is
informally used for have to. This is much less common in American English.
Brit. Ive got two sisters.
US I have two sisters.
Brit. Ive got to go now.
US I have to go now.
There are a number of other minor grammatical differences.

Vocabulary

There are a lot of examples of different words being used in British and American English. Here are a
few of the commonest.
angry (Brit.) = mad (US)
autumn = fall
boot (of a car) = trunk
chemists = drug store
cupboard = closet
flat = apartment
lift = elevator
nappy = diaper
pavement = sidewalk
petrol = gas/gasoline
rubbish = trash
tap = faucet
trousers = pants
There are British words which many Americans will not understand and vice versa. There are also
words which exist in both British and American English but have very different meanings.

Spelling

There are also a number of different spelling rules between British English and American English.

1 Some words that end in -tre in British English end in -ter in American English.
US theater, center
Brit. theatre, centre
2 Some words that end in -our in British English end in -or in American English.
US color, labor
Brit. colour, labour
3 Some words are shorter in American English than in British English.
US catalog, program
Brit. catalogue, programme
There are other minor spelling differences between British and American English.

Capital letters and apostrophes

Capital letters and apostrophes
The rules for the use of capital letters and apostrophes are quite easy to remember.

Capital letters

We use capital letters for the days of the week but not for seasons.
One Saturday in autumn.
We use capital letters for planets but not the earth, sun or moon.
Mercury is closer to the sun than the earth is.
We use capital letters for countries and for nationality words.
David is from Germany but Jana is Slovak.
I bought the camera in Hong Kong but its Japanese.
And we use capital letters when we talk about languages as school subjects but other subjects dont
have a capital letter.
Shes got exams in English, French, history and geography this year.
Apostrophes

We use an apostrophe () to show either possession or that there is a letter missing (e.g. the apostrophe
in shes shows that there is a letter missing in she is)

We use apostrophes with people or animals to show possession.
My sisters house.
The dogs blanket.
For things we use of (the front of the car, NOT the cars front.)

The position of the apostrophe depends on whether the noun is singular or plural. look at these two
examples.
My friends house. This is about one friend.
My friends house. This is about two or more friends who share a house.
If a plural noun does not end in s (e.g. men, people, children) we use s to show possession.
The childrens bedroom.
A pair of womens sunglasses.
We also use an apostrophe in some time expressions.
two weeks holiday
ten years experience


Comparing and contrasting modifying comparatives
Comparing and contrasting modifying comparatives
When we want to talk about similarities and differences we can use adjectives in their comparative
forms
Max is taller than Judy.
Youre more intelligent than me.
or we can use (not) as (adjective) as
Her hair is as long as mine.
This ones not as interesting as his first book. Remember that not as interesting as means
less interesting than'.
We can also use expressions like different from, similar to and the same as.
Shes very different from her sister. Theyre very different.
Sri Lankan food is similar to Indian food. Theyre similar.
Andrew is the same age as Lily. Their ages are the same. We use same with nouns.
Modifying comparisons

A big difference much, a lot, far

We can modify comparative adjectives to show that there is a big difference between things.
Sales in July were much higher than sales in June.
Shes a lot taller than you.
This ones far more expensive than the blue one.
We can also say that things are completely or totally different from each other.
They may be twins but theyre completely different from each other.
A small difference slightly, a little, a bit, not much

We can show there is a small difference.
Sales in August were slightly lower than sales in July.
Youre a bit younger than me.
These are not much more expensive than those.
No difference exactly, more or less, roughly

We can show that there is no difference or almost no difference.
Hes exactly the same age as me. ( No difference)
The figures for December are more or less the same as the figures for November. (a tiny
difference)

Conditionals 1
Conditionals are sentences with two clauses an if clause and a main clause that are closely
related. Conditional sentences are often divided into different types.

Zero conditional
We use the zero conditional to talk about things that are always true.
If you heat water, it boils.
When the sun goes down, it gets dark.
It lights up if you push that button.
The present simple is used in both clauses.
First conditional
We use the first conditional when we talk about real and possible situations.
Ill go shopping on the way home if I have time.
If its a nice day tomorrow well go to the beach.
If Arsenal win theyll be top of the league.
In first conditional sentences, the structure is usually if + present simple and will + infinitive. Its not
important which clause comes first.
Second conditional
The second conditional is used to talk about unreal or impossible things.
If I won a lot of money Id buy a big house in the country.
Where would you live if you could live anywhere in the world?
If you didnt smoke so much youd feel a lot better.
The structure is usually if + past simple and would + infinitive. Its not important which clause
comes first.

Look at the difference between the first and second conditionals.
In January: If it snows tomorrow Ill go skiing. It might snow tomorrow.
In August: If it snowed tomorrow Id go skiing. It almost certainly wont snow tomorrow.
NOTE: Although many conditional sentences use if + will/would, conditional sentences can also use
other words instead of if e.g. when as soon as in case Other modal verbs can be used instead
of will/would e.g. can/could, may might.

Other types of conditional sentences are covered in another section.

Conditionals 2
Third conditionals and mixed conditionals

Conditionals are sentences with two clauses an if clause and a main clause that are closely
related. Conditional sentences are often divided into different types.

Third conditional
Third conditional sentences describe the past. They describe something that didnt happen.
If Id studied harder at school I would have gone to university.
He didnt study very hard and he didnt go to university.
We wouldnt have got lost if you hadnt given me the wrong directions.
She wasn't given the correct directions and she didn't find her way.
She might have finished the exam if shed had more time.
She didn't finish the exam and she didn't have more time.

In third conditional sentences, the structure is usually if + past perfect and would + perfect
infinitive (e.g. have done). Its not important which clause comes first.

Notice that other modal verbs can be used instead of would (e.g. could, might may)

Mixed conditionals

In mixed conditional sentences the time in the if clause is not the same as the time in the main
clause. There can be various combinations.
If hed gone to university he might have a better job.
He didnt go to university (past)
He doesnt have a very good job. (present)
This sentence shows the present consequences of a past action.
If Id won the competition Id be going to Florida next week.
She didnt win the competition (past)
She isnt going to Florida (future)
This sentence shows the future consequences of a past action.
If he didnt have to work tomorrow he wouldnt be so miserable today.
He has to work tomorrow (future)
Hes miserable. (present)
This sentence shows the present consequence of a future event.

Countable & Uncountable nouns 1
Countable & Uncountable nouns (1)
Nouns can be countable or uncountable. When you learn a new noun you should make a note of
whether it is countable or uncountable as we use different words with countables and uncountables.

Countable nouns
There is a cat in the garden.
There are some birds in the trees.
For positive sentences we can use a/an or some (with a plural verb form)
There isnt a dog in the garden.
There arent any birds in the tree.
For negatives we can use a/an or any (with a plural verb form).
Is there an orange on the tree?
Are there any chairs in the garden?
How many chairs are there?
In questions we use a/an, any or how many.

Uncountable nouns
There is some milk on the floor.
Uncountable nouns have no plural. The verb form is singular and we use some.
Is there any sugar?
How much wine is there?
In questions we can use any or how much.

Other expressions of quantity
There are a lot of apples on the trees.
There is a lot of snow on the road.
A lot of can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
Bill Gates has much money.
Notice that we dont usually use much or many in positive sentences. We use a lot of.
Bill Gates has a lot of money.
Theres a lot of beer but there isnt much wine.
There are a lot of carrots but there arent many potatoes.
We use not many with countable nouns and not much with uncountable nouns.

Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, depending on how they are used, and some
nouns are commonly confused. These are covered in another section.

Countable & Uncountable nouns 2

Countable & Uncountable nouns (2)
Some words can be both countable and uncountable depending on how they are used.
Would you like a chocolate?
Would you like some chocolate?
In a box of chocolates, the chocolates are countable and you can take one.
When you have a bar of chocolate the chocolate is uncountable and you can take some.

There are several other nouns that can be both countable and uncountable.
Can I have a glass of water, please?
Theres some broken glass on the pavement.
Glass is one. Many foodstuffs can be countable or uncountable. Think about the difference between
an ice cream and some ice cream and a coffee and some coffee

few/a few and little/a little

We use few and a few with countable nouns and we use little and a little with uncountable nouns.
A few friends are coming round for dinner tonight.
Weve got a little time before our train leaves. Shall we go to a museum?
A few and a little both mean some. They have a positive meaning.
Ive got very few friends here. I feel really lonely.
Weve got very little time hurry up or well miss the train.
Few and little both mean almost none. They have a negative meaning.

Commonly confused words
Id like an information about train times please
Id like some information about train times please.
Although information is countable in many languages, it is uncountable in English.
Have you had any news from Pete?
I havent brought much luggage with me.
Can you give me some advice please?
As well as information, the following words are all
uncountable: news, luggage, advice, furniture, weather, travel.

in spite of / despite / although

in spite of / despite / although
In spite of, despite and although are all used to show a contrast but there are differences in the
structures used with them.

In spite of / despite

After in spite of and despite we use a noun or a pronoun.
We enjoyed our camping holiday in spite of the rain.
Despite the pain in his leg he completed the marathon.
Despite having all the necessary qualifications, they didnt offer me the job.
Remember that the gerund (-ing form) is the noun form of a verb.

The only difference between in spite of and despite is the of.
Despite of the bad weather, there was a large crowd at the match.
Although

After although we use a subject and a verb.
We enjoyed our camping holiday although it rained every day.
Although he worked very hard, he didnt manage to pass the exam.
The holiday was great although the hotel wasnt very nice.
We can use in spite of and despite with a subject and verb if we include the expression the fact that.
In spite of the fact that he worked very hard, he didnt manage to pass the exam.
Despite the fact that he worked very hard, he didnt manage to pass the exam.
Even though

Even though is a slightly stronger form of although.
We decided to buy the house even though we didnt really have enough money.
You keep making that stupid noise even though Ive asked you to stop three times.
Like although, even though is followed by a subject and a verb.

Just, yet, still, already

Just, yet, still, already
These words are often used with the present perfect tense although yet, still and already can all be
used with other tenses.

Just

Just is usually used only with the present perfect tense and it means a short time ago.
Ive just seen Susan coming out of the cinema.
Mikes just called. Can you ring him back please?
Have you just taken my pen? Where has it gone?
In the present perfect, just comes between the auxiliary verb (have) and the past participle.

Yet

Yet is used to talk about something which is expected to happen. It means at any time up to now. It
is used in questions and negatives.
Have you finished your homework yet? The speaker expects that the homework will be
finished.
I havent finished it yet. Ill do it after dinner.
Yet usually comes at the end of the sentence.

Still

Still is used to talk about something that hasnt finished especially when we expected it to finish
earlier.
Ive been waiting for over an hour and the bus still hasnt come.
You promised to give me that report yesterday and you still havent finished it.
Still usually comes in mid-position

Still is often used with other tenses as well as the present perfect.
Ive still got all those letters you sent me.
Are you still working in the bookshop?
Already

Already is used to say that something has happened early or earlier than it might have happened.
Ive already spent my salary and its two weeks before pay day.
The trains already left! What are we going to do?
Already usually comes in mid-position.

Enough
Enough can qualify an adjective or an adverb or it can go with a noun or even act as a pronoun.

With adjectives and adverbs
She isnt tall enough to be a ballet dancer.
Im afraid your work just isnt good enough.
I couldnt write quickly enough and I ran out of time.
I havent been to lessons often enough to have really learnt much.
Enough comes after adjectives and adverbs.

With nouns
There isnt enough bread to make sandwiches.
Have you got enough money?
There arent enough nails.
Enough comes before nouns.

Enough of
There isnt enough of bread
We dont use enough of unless there is a determiner (an article, this/that, my/your/his etc).
We use enough of when there is a determiner.
Ive had enough of your nonsense! Your is a determiner here.
I havent seen enough of the film to really form an opinion.
Enough can also be used without a noun.
Thats enough! Be quiet!
Enough is enough.
With adjective and noun

When enough is used with an adjective and a noun, two positions are possible but the meaning
changes. Look at these two sentences.
We havent got big enough nails. None of the nails are as big as we need.
We havent got enough big nails. We have some big nails but we need more.
When enough comes between the adjective and the noun (big enough nails) it qualifies the adjective
it tells us that the nails arent big enough. When enough comes before the adjective it qualifies the
noun phrase it tells us that there arent enough nails.

Future continuous & Future perfect
The future continuous (will be + ing form) and the future perfect (will have + past participle)
tenses are used to talk about events in the future.
Future continuous
Dont ring at 8 oclock. Ill be watching Who Wants to be a Millionaire.
This time tomorrow well be sitting on the beach. I cant wait!
We use the future continuous to talk about something that will be in progress at or around a time in
the future.
Dont phone grandma now, shell be having dinner.
The kids are very quiet. Theyll be doing something wrong, I know it!
These sentences are not about the future but we can use the future continuous to talk about what
we assume is happening at the moment.
Future Perfect
Do you think you will have finished it by next Thursday?
In 5 years time Ill have finished university and Ill be able to earn some money at last.
We use the future perfect to say that something will be finished by a particular time in the future.

We often use the future perfect with by or in
I think astronauts will have landed on Mars by the year 2020.
Ill have finished in an hour and then you can use the computer.
By means not later than a particular time and in means 'within a period of time. We dont know
exactly when something will finish.
I promise Ill have done all the work by next Saturday.
We dont know exactly when he will finish the work maybe Thursday, maybe Friday but
definitely before Saturday.

Future Plans
We use different verb forms to talk about our plans for the future depending on what kind of plan it
is.
will
We use will to talk about plans decided at the moment of speaking.
I forgot to phone my mum. Ill do it after dinner. He decides to phone his mum when she is
speaking she didnt have a plan.
I cant decide what to wear tonight. I know. Ill wear my black dress.
Theres no milk in the fridge. Ill buy some when I go to the shops.
going to
We use going to to talk about plans decided before the moment of speaking.
Im going to phone my mum after dinner. I told her Id call at 8 oclock. He decided to phone
his mum before he speaks he already had a plan.
Im going to wear my black dress tonight. I need to pick it up from the cleaners.
I know theres no milk. Im going to get some. Its on my shopping list.
present continuous
We can also use the present continuous to talk about future plans. We usually use it when the plan is
an arrangement more than one person is involved and we know the time and place.
Im meeting Jane at 8 oclock on Saturday.
Were having a party next Saturday. Would you like to come?
Are you doing anything interesting this weekend? We often use the present continuous to ask
about peoples future plans.

Predicting the Future

Predicting the Future
We can say how sure we feel about the future by using modal verbs. There are also other phrases we
can use to express our certainty or uncertainty about future events.

Modal verbs

We can combine modal verbs with adverbs to show a greater or lesser degree of certainty.
People will definitely work longer hours in the future.
People definitely wont work longer hours in the future.
Both of these sentences show that the speaker is sure.
Youll probably enjoy this film.
You probably wont enjoy this film.
The speaker is thinks (s)hes right but isnt 100% sure.
She might pass the exam or she might not pass. I dont know.
The speaker isnt sure at all. You could also use could or may instead of might.

Other expressions

Here are some other ways to talk about how certain we are about something in the future.

1 Im sure
Jan is bound to pass the exam. Hes worked really hard.
Jan is certain to pass.
2 I think so but Im not 100% sure
Katka is likely to pass the exam.
Katka may well pass the exam.
Theres a good chance that Katka will pass the exam.
3 I dont think so
Juraj is unlikely to pass the exam.
Theres not much chance Juraj will pass.
I doubt if Juraj will pass.
Theres no chance of Juraj passing the exam.

Passives

Passives
We make the passive using be in a suitable tense and the past participle (done, played etc.).
We use the passive:

1) when we dont know, or we are not interested in, who does an action.
My car was stolen yesterday.
We dont know who stole the car.
A lot of wine is produced in France.
Its not important who produces the wine.

2) when the main topic of the sentence isnt who did the action.
Television was invented in the 1920s by John Logie Baird.
The main topic here is television we arent particularly interested in who.
Kennedy was assassinated in 1963.
In English we tend to put the most important thing at the start of the sentence.

3) more in written English than in spoken English.
War and Peace was written by Tolstoy.
You often see the passive in textbooks.
The mixture is heated to 500C.
Scientific texts especially use the passive.

Tenses

The passive can be used with all tenses - the form of be changes.
What is tiramisu made from?. Present Simple.
The hall is being painted this week so our class will be in a different room. Present
Continuous.
Oranges have been grown here for centuries. Present Perfect.
When he got home he found that his flat had been burgled. Past Perfect.
The work wont be finished until next week. Future Simple.
Modal verbs also use be and the past participle.
Answers must be written in pencil.
Competition entrants might be chosen to appear on TV.

Past ability & possibility
In the present tense we use can to talk about a general ability e.g. I can swim and also for ability
at a particular moment e.g. I can see you! The rules for talking about past abilities are different.

General ability

We use could to talk about general abilities in the past.
He could speak fluent French when he was 5.
I could read before I started school.
Ability on one occasion

However, when we talk about ability on one particular occasion, we cant use could
The burglar was able to get in through the bathroom window.
The burglar managed to get in through the bathroom window.
We have to use was able to or managed to. We cant use could.
The burglar could get in through the bathroom window.
Ability on one occasion - negative

When we talk about a particular occasion when something wasnt possible, we can
use wasnt/werent able to, didnt manage to, orcouldnt
The burglar wasnt able to get in through the window.
The burglar didnt manage to get in through the window.
The burglar couldnt get in through the window.
Hypothetical past ability

Sometimes things were possible in the past but didnt happen.
I could have gone to university but I decided to get a job.
I would have been able to win the race but I fell over.
We use could have (+ past participle) or would have been able to to talk about these hypothetical
events. They can be used in the positive and the negative.
I couldnt have done it without your help.
I wouldnt have been able to afford it even if it had been for sale.

Past Continuous and Past Simple

Past Continuous and Past Simple
1. The most common use of the past continuous tense is to talk about something that was happening
around a particular time in the past.
What were you doing at 8 oclock last night? I was watching television.
I started watching television before 8 oclock and I continued watching it after 8 oclock.
In 1994 he was working in a small town in Poland.
At 6 oclock on Saturday morning we were travelling to the airport.
2. We often use the past continuous and the past simple tense together. When this happens, the past
continuous describes a longer, background action or situation and the past simple describes the
action or events.
When I woke up this morning it was raining and my father was singing in the kitchen.
I was walking home, whistling happily, when I saw two masked men run out of the bank.
Often, the action described by the past simple tense interrupts the situation described by the past
continuous tense.
I broke my leg when I was skiing.
I was playing a computer game when the doorbell rang.
Notice that the past continuous describes situations that go on for some time skiing and
playing but the past simple describes actions that happen quickly broke and rang.

Notice too the important difference between these two sentences.
When they arrived, Jeff was cooking dinner. Jeff started cooking before they arrived.
When they arrived, Jeff cooked dinner. Jeff started cooking dinner after they arrived.

Past habit used to/would/past simple

Past habit used to/would/past simple
When we talk about things that happened in the past but dont happen anymore we can do it in
different ways.

Used to
We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
There didnt use to be a petrol station there. When was it built?
We can use used to to talk about past states .
I used to go swimming every Thursday when I was at school.
I used to smoke but I gave up a few years ago.
or we can use used to to talk about repeated past actions

Remember that used to is only for past states/actions that dont happen now we cant use it for
things that still happen now. Also, used to + infinitive should not be confused with be/get used to
+ ing form this is covered in a separate section.

Would
Every Saturday I would go on a long bike ride.
My teachers would always say Sit down and shut up!
We can use would to talk about repeated past actions.

Often either would or used to is possible. Both of these sentences are possible.
Every Saturday, I would go on a long bike ride.
Every Saturday I used to go on a long bike ride.
However, only used to is possible when we talk about past states.
We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
We would live in New York when I was a kid.
Past simple
We went/used to go/would go to the same beach every summer.
We can use the past simple in the same way as used to and would to talk about repeated past
actions.
I had/used to have a dog called Charlie.
We can also use the past simple for past states.
I went to Egypt in 1988.
However, if something happened only once we cant use used to or would we must use the past
simple.

Past perfect
When we talk about something that happened in the past we sometimes want to refer back to
something that happened before that time. We can use the past perfect tense (had + past participle)
to do this.

Look at these two sentences.
John left the house at 7:30 yesterday morning.
Mary rang Johns doorbell at 8:15 yesterday.
Both actions happened in the past so we use the past simple tense. But look at how we can combine
the sentences.
Mary rang Johns doorbell at 8:15 yesterday but John had already left the house.
We use the past perfect (had left) because the action happened before another action in the past
(Mary rang the doorbell.)

Look at some more examples of the past perfect.
When Mrs Brown opened the washing machine she realised she had washed the cat.
I got a letter from Jim last week. Wed been at school together but wed lost touch with each
other.
The past perfect is used because they were at school before he received the letter. It refers to an
earlier past.

Look at these 2 sentences.
James had cooked breakfast when we got up.
James cooked breakfast when we got up.
In the first sentence, the past perfect tells us that James cooked breakfast before we got up. In the
second sentence, first we got up and then James cooked breakfast.

Past perfect continuous

The past perfect can also be used in the continuous.
I realised I had been working too hard so I decided to have a holiday.
By the time Jane arrived we had been waiting for 3 hours.
NOTE
The most common mistake with the past perfect is to overuse it or to use it simply because we are
talking about a time in the distant past.
The Romans had spoken Latin
Remember that we only use the past perfect when we want to refer to a past that is earlier than
another time in the narrative.

Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous

Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous
We use the present perfect tense to talk about things where there is a connection between the past and
the present.
Hes written 16 books.
He started writing books at some time in the past. So far, he has written 16 books. He may write more
books.

As well as the present perfect simple, we can use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about
events with a connection to the present.

1 Look at these 2 sentences:
Ive been decorating the house this summer. The focus is on the action decorating and the
action is unfinished.
Ive painted the living room blue. The focus is on the finished result. The activity is finished
but we can see the result now.
We use the present perfect continuous when the focus is on an activity that is unfinished.

2 Look at these two sentences.
Ive read that book you lent me. I finished it yesterday.
Ive been reading that book you lent me. Ive got another 50 pages to read.
The present perfect simple (Ive read) gives the idea of completion while the present perfect
continuous (Ive been reading) suggests that something is unfinished.

3 Look at these two sentences.
Shes been writing emails for 3 hours.
Shes written 10 messages.
The present perfect continuous (has been writing) talks about how long something has been
happening. The present perfect simple (has written) talks about how much/how many have been
completed.

4 Look at these two sentences.
Ive worked here for thirty years.
I usually work in London but Ive been working in Birmingham for the last 3 weeks.
We can use the present perfect simple to talk about how long when we view something as
permanent. But the present perfect continuousis often used to show that something is temporary.

Present Perfect
The present perfect tense has a number of uses.
1 We use it to talk about experience.
Ive worked in 6 different countries.
Have you ever been to Australia?
Shes won many awards for her books.
When these things happened is not important the focus is on the action/state, not when it happened.

NB If we say when we had the experience, we must use the past simple.
Ive visited Russia several times.
BUT I visited Russia for the first time in 1992.
We can never use the present perfect with a time in the past.
I have been to Spain in 2002.
2 We also use the present perfect to talk about things that are unfinished unfinished states and
unfinished time periods.
Ive known him since I was 11. (unfinished state)
I met him when I was 11. I still know him now. The present perfect is acting as a bridge between the
past and the present.
Ive had this watch for almost thirty years.
Weve lived here since I was a boy.
Shes been to the cinema three times this week. (unfinished time period)
This week isnt finished yet she may go to the cinema again.
Weve already had two holidays this year.
Ive eaten too much today.
3 A third use of the present perfect is to show the present result of a past action
Ive lost my keys.
He lost his keys some time in the past but the result he cant get into his house is in the present.
Johns broken his leg and he cant go on holiday.
A storm has blown down the telephone lines. Were stuck here!


Modals 1

Modals (1)
Permission, Prohibition, Obligation, No obligation

To express permission, prohibition, obligation and no obligation we usually use modal verbs.

Permission

Can is often used to ask for and give permission.
Can I sit here?
You can use my car if you like.
Can I make a suggestion?
We can also use may and could to ask for and give permission but can is used more
often.

Prohibition

Both cant and mustnt are used to show that something is prohibited it is not allowed.
You cant park here, sir.
You can wear jeans but you cant wear trainers in that bar.
You mustnt speak when the teacher is speaking.
Cant tells us that something is against the rules. Mustnt is usually used when the obligation comes
from the person who is speaking.

Obligation

Have to and must are both used to express obligation. There is a slight difference between the way
they are used.

Have to shows us that the obligation comes from somebody else. Its a law or a rule and the speaker
cant change it.
Do you have to wear a uniform at your school?
John cant come because he has to work tomorrow.
In Britain you have to buy a TV licence every year.
Must shows us that the obligation comes from the speaker. It isnt a law or a rule.
I must call my dad tonight.
You must hand in your homework on Tuesday or your mark will be zero.
You must come and visit us the next time you come to London.
No obligation

We use dont have to to show that there is no obligation. You can do something if you want to but
its not compulsory.
You dont have to wear a tie in our office. You can wear a tie if you want to but its OK if you
dont.
Itll be nice if you do but you dont have to come with me if you dont want to.
You dont have to dress up for the party. Wear whatever you feel comfortable in.
Modals deduction (present)

Modals deduction (present)
We use modal verbs to say how sure we are about something.

1 must

We use must when we feel sure that something is true because theres very strong evidence.
He must live near here because he comes to work on foot. We dont know where he lives but
were sure its not far away.
Come inside and get warm you must be freezing out there.
Youre a zookeeper? That must be very interesting.
Notice that must is followed by an infinitive without to.

2 might, may, could

We use might, may or could to say that we think something is possible but were not sure.
Did you hear that? I think there might be a burglar downstairs. Shes not sure theres a
burglar but she thinks its possible.
Well try to get there early but we may arrive late if theres a lot of traffic.
Dont put it up there. It could fall off and hit someone.
Might, may and could are also followed by an infinitive without to.

3 cant

We use cant when we feel sure something is not true.
It cant be a burglar. All the doors and windows are locked. He doesnt know its not a
burglar but he feels sure its not.
It cant be far away now. Weve been driving for hours. Wheres the map?
Really? He has to work on Christmas Day? He cant feel very happy about that.
Like the other verbs, cant is followed by an infinitive without to.

Remember that all of these modal verbs must, might, may, could and cant have other uses. These
are covered in another section.

Modals deduction past
Modals deduction (past)
In the same way that we use modal verbs to say how certain we are about things in the present we can
also use them to speculate about the past.

Have + past participle (have done, have been have stolen etc.) is called the perfect infinitive.
When we use modal verbs to talk about the present they are followed by an infinitive without to.
When we use modal verbs to talk about the past they are followed by a perfect infinitive.

must + perfect infinitive

We use must + perfect infinitive when we feel sure about something in the past.
You must have been delighted when you heard youd won the lottery.
The thieves must have come in through the window. Look its still open.
Oh no! Wheres my car? Someone must have stolen it!
might/may/could + perfect infinitive

We use might, may or could with the perfect infinitive to say that we think something was possible
but we arent sure.
The thieves might have escaped by car but we cant be sure.
He should be hour by now. He may have been delayed by a traffic jam or something.
I cant find my purse. I could have left it in the supermarket but I just dont know.
cant + perfect infinitive

We use cant + perfect infinitive when we feel sure something didnt happen in the past.
I thought I saw John in town this morning but it cant have been him hes in Greece this
week.
I cant have left it in the supermarket I had it on the bus on the way home.
You cant have read the instructions properly. Theyre perfectly clear.

Multi-word verbs

Multi-word verbs
There are very many multi-word verbs (sometimes called phrasal verbs) in English and its very
difficult to learn them all. It can sometimes be quite easy to guess the meaning (He picked up the
pencil) but other multi-word verbs are less easy to guess (I picked up Italian quite easily when I lived
there) and you should look them up in a good dictionary. When you record new multi-word verbs in
your notebook it can be helpful to record what type they are.

Multi-word verbs are made up of a verb and a particle or, sometimes, two particles.

Separable
He cut the tree down.
He cut down the tree.
With separable verbs the verb and particle can be apart or together the meaning doesnt change.

Look at another example:
Can you turn the radio down please?
Can you turn down the radio please?
However, when we use a pronoun usually it in place of the subject it must come between the
verb and the particle in separable multi-word verbs.
Can you turn it down please?
Can you turn down it please? is NOT possible.
Non-separable
Who looks after the baby when youre at work?
In non-separable verbs the verb and particle cannot be separated.
Who looks the baby after is NOT possible.
When there is a pronoun the verb and particle remain together.
Who looks after her when youre at work?
With two particles
Who came up with that idea?
I dont know how you put up with it.
There are a few verbs with two particles and they act like inseparable multi-word verbs.

Intransitive
What time do you get up?
The plane took off and rose into the sky.
Intransitive verbs do not have an object. Multi-word verbs can also be intransitive.

Participle clauses

Participle clauses
Participle clauses are a bit like relative clauses they give us more information.
People wearing carnival costumes filled the streets of Rio de Janeiro.
The paintings stolen from the National Gallery last week have been found.
The participle clauses (wearing and stolen .) act like relative clauses. We could say:
People who were wearing carnival costumes filled the streets of Rio de Janeiro.
The paintings which were stolen from the National Gallery last week have been found.
With the Past Participle
A pair of shoes worn by Marilyn Monroe have been sold for fifty thousand dollars.
Trees blown down in last nights storms are being removed this morning.
We use the past participle blown in the last example but the ending -ed is used in regular verbs
when the meaning is passive.

With the Present Participle
A woman carrying a bright green parrot walked into the room.
A man holding a gun shouted at us to lie down.
We use the present participle - the -ing form to form the participle clause when the meaning is
active.

Notice that the participle clauses with the present participle have a continuous meaning. If we
replaced them with a relative clause it would be in a continuous tense.
A man holding a gun has the same meaning as A man who was holding a gun.
We cant make a participle clause with a present participle when the meaning is not continuous.
The woman living next door is on holiday.
The woman who lives next door is on holiday.

Question forms & subject/object questions

Question forms & subject/object questions
Review of question forms

Yes/No questions
Is he a teacher? Yes he is.
Can you swim? No, I cant.
Have they got a car? Yes they have.
To form yes/no questions where there is an auxiliary verb or a modal verb, we invert the word order
of a positive sentence. (He is a teacher > Is he a teacher?)
Do you eat fish? No I dont.
Does she know you. Yes she does.
When there is no auxiliary verb we use do to form the question.

With question words

The same rules apply when there is a question word (what, where, when, why, who, which,
how, how much, how many)
Where is the hotel?
What can you smell?
Who has just arrived?
Where there is an auxiliary or modal verb, that verb is used to form the question.
How did you get here?
When do your parents get back?
How much does it cost?
Where there is no auxiliary verb, we use do.

Subject/Object questions

Sometimes you might see questions like this.
Who broke the window?
What happened next?
Who told you that?
There is no auxiliary verb and the word order is not inverted.

These are called subject questions because the question word is the subject of the sentence.

Look at these two questions.
Who does Romeo love? Romeo loves Juliet.
Who loves Romeo? Juliet loves Romeo.
In the first question, Romeo is the subject of the verb.
In the second question who is the subject and Romeo is the object.

Question tags

Question tags
Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of sentences particularly in spoken
English. There are lots of different question tags but the rules are not difficult to learn.

Positive/negative

If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative .
Hes a doctor, isnt he?
You work in a bank, dont you?
... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.
You havent met him, have you?
She isnt coming, is she?
With auxiliary verbs

The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary verb
(have, be) then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.
Theyve gone away for a few days, havent they?
They werent here, were they?
He had met him before, hadnt he?
This isnt working, is it?
Without auxiliary verbs

If the main part of the sentence doesnt have an auxiliary verb, the question tag uses an appropriate
form of do.
I said that, didnt I?
You dont recognise me, do you?
She eats meat, doesnt she?
With modal verbs

If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question tag uses the same modal verb.
They couldnt hear me, could they?
You wont tell anyone, will you?
With I am

Be careful with question tags with sentences that start I am. The question tag for I am is arent I?
Im the fastest, arent I?
Intonation

Question tags can either be real questions where you want to know the answer or simply asking for
agreement when we already know the answer.

If the question tag is a real question we use rising intonation. Our tone of voice rises.
If we already know the answer we use falling intonation. Our tone of voice falls.

Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns
English doesnt really have reflexive verbs the way that many other languages do. However, when the
same person is the subject and object of the verb we usually use a reflexive pronoun.
I cut myself shaving this morning.
The subject I is also the object of the sentence so we use the reflexive pronoun, myself.
Why dont you buy yourself a new car? This ones really unreliable.
He looked at himself in the mirror.
She taught herself Italian using a book.
The washing machine switches itself off when its finished.
We kept ourselves warm around the fire.
Tell me all about yourselves.
Hedgehogs protect themselves from predators by rolling into a ball.
Enjoy is often used with a reflexive pronoun.
Did you enjoy yourself at the party?
From their postcard it sounds as if theyre really enjoying themselves.
By yourself means alone
He lives by himself in a cottage by the sea.
Im rather anti-social. I love being by myself.
Reflexive pronouns can also be used with nouns to mean Me (or you/him/her etc) and nobody else
Did you do this homework yourself or did you get help?
Did you talk to the manageress herself or just to one of her assistants?
There is an important difference between reflexive pronouns and reciprocal pronouns
They looked at themselves in the mirror. This is reflexive.
They looked at each other lovingly. This is reciprocal. He looked at her and she looked at him.

Relative clauses defining relative clauses



Relative clauses defining relative clauses

Relative clauses add extra information to a sentence by defining a noun. They are usually divided into
two types defining relative clauses and non-defining relative clauses.

Defining relative clauses

Look at this sentence:

The woman who lives next door works in a bank.
who lives next door is a defining relative clause. It tells us which woman we are talking about.

Look at some more examples:

Look out! Theres the dog that bit my brother.
The film that we saw last week was awful.
This is the skirt I bought in the sales.
Can you identify the defining relative clauses? They tell us which dog, which film and which skirt we
are talking about.

Relative pronouns

Relative clauses are often introduced by a relative pronoun (usually who, which, that, but when,
where and whose are also possible)

With defining relative clauses we can use who or that to talk about people.

Shes the woman who cuts my hair.
Shes the woman that cuts my hair.
And we can use that or which to talk about things.

The dog that bit my brother.
The dog which bit my brother.
It is also sometimes possible to omit the relative pronoun.

This is the skirt that I bought in the sales.
This is the skirt which I bought in the sales.
This is the skirt I bought in the sales.
In this sentence skirt is the object of the verb (buy). I is the subject. When the relative pronoun is
the object, it can be omitted.

The film we saw last week was awful.
BUT The dog bit my brother. This is not possible because the dog is the subject of the verb, bite.


Relative clauses defining relative clauses

Relative clauses defining relative clauses
Relative clauses add extra information to a sentence by defining a noun. They are usually divided
into two types defining relative clausesand non-defining relative clauses.

Defining relative clauses

Look at this sentence:
The woman who lives next door works in a bank.
who lives next door is a defining relative clause. It tells us which woman we are talking about.

Look at some more examples:
Look out! Theres the dog that bit my brother.
The film that we saw last week was awful.
This is the skirt I bought in the sales.
Can you identify the defining relative clauses? They tell us which dog, which film and which skirt
we are talking about.

Relative pronouns

Relative clauses are often introduced by a relative pronoun (usually who, which, that,
but when, where and whose are also possible)

With defining relative clauses we can use who or that to talk about people.
Shes the woman who cuts my hair.
Shes the woman that cuts my hair.
And we can use that or which to talk about things.
The dog that bit my brother.
The dog which bit my brother.
It is also sometimes possible to omit the relative pronoun.
This is the skirt that I bought in the sales.
This is the skirt which I bought in the sales.
This is the skirt I bought in the sales.
In this sentence skirt is the object of the verb (buy). I is the subject. When the relative pronoun is
the object, it can be omitted.
The film we saw last week was awful.
BUT The dog bit my brother. This is not possible because the dog is the subject of the verb,
bite.

Relative clauses - non-defining relative clauses

Relative clauses - non-defining relative clauses
Relative clauses add extra information to a sentence by defining a noun. They are usually divided
into two types defining relative clausesand non-defining relative clauses.

Non-defining relative clauses

Look at this sentence.
My grandfather, who is 87, goes swimming every day.
who is 87 is a non-defining relative clause. It adds extra information to the sentence. If we take the
clause out of the sentence, the sentence still has the same meaning.

Look at some more examples.
The film, which stars Tom Carter, is released on Friday.
My eldest son, whose work takes him all over the world, is in Hong Kong at the moment.
The car, which can reach speeds of over 300km/ph, costs over $500,000.
Non-defining relative clauses add extra information to sentences.

Defining or non-defining?

Remember that defining relative clauses are used to add important information. The sentence would
have a different meaning without thedefining relative clause.
Im going to wear the skirt that I bought in London. The defining relative clause tells us
which skirt.
The skirt, which is a lovely dark blue colour, only cost 10. The non-defining relative clause
doesnt tell us which skirt it gives us more information about the skirt.
Non-defining relative clauses can use most relative pronouns (which, whose etc,) but
they CANT use that and the relative pronoun can never be omitted.
The film, that stars Tom Carter, is released on Friday.
Non-defining relative clauses are more often used in written English than in spoken English. You
can tell that a clause is non-defining because it is separated by commas at each end of the clause.
Reported questions

Reported questions
When we report what people say, we usually change the tense of the verbs to reflect that we are
reporting not giving direct speech. This pattern is followed when we report questions and there are
also other important changes between direct questions and reported questions.

Yes/no questions
Direct question: Do you like working in teams? Reported question: He asked if I like
working in teams.
When we report yes/no questions we use if or whether.
Direct question: Did you enjoy the party? Reported question: She asked me whether Id
enjoyed the party.
The tense of the verb changes as it does in reported speech but we dont use auxiliary verbs. The
word order is the same as in an affirmative sentence.

Questions with a question word
Direct question: What time does the train leave? Reported question: He asked what time
the train left.
When there is a question word (what, where, why, who, when, how) we use that question word in the
reported question but there is no auxiliary verb and the word order is like an affirmative sentence
(what time the train left not He asked me what time did the train leave.)

Look at some more examples:
Direct question: Who did you see?
Reported question: She asked me who Id seen.
Direct question: Where did you go to school?
Reported question: He asked me where Id gone to school.
Direct question: Why are you crying?
Reported question: She asked him why he was crying.
Notice that the reported questions do not have a question mark at the end.

Indirect questions

Similar to reported questions are indirect questions.
Can you tell me what time the train leaves? NOT Can you tell me what time does the train
leave?
Id love to know what he said to her. NOT Id love to know what did he say to her.

Reported speech 1

Reported speech (1)
When we report someones words we can do it in two ways. We can use direct speech with quotation
marks (I work in a bank), or we can use reported speech (He said he worked in a bank.)

In reported speech the tenses, word-order and pronouns may be different from those in the original
sentence.

Present simple and present continuous tenses
Direct speech: I travel a lot in my job Reported speech: He said that he travelled a lot in
his job.
The present simple tense (I travel) usually changes to the past simple (he travelled) in reported
speech.
Direct speech: Be quiet. The babys sleeping. Reported speech: She told me to be quiet
because the baby was sleeping.
The present continuous usually changes to the past continuous.

NB:
I work in Italy Reported speech: He told me that he works in Italy.
It isnt always necessary to change the tense. If something is still true now he still works in Italy
we can use the present simple in the reported sentence.

Past simple and past continuous tenses
Direct speech: We lived in China for 5 years. Reported speech: She told me they had lived
in China for 5 years.
The past simple tense (we lived) usually changes to the past perfect (they had lived) in reported
speech.
Direct speech: I was walking down the road when I saw the accident. Reported speech: He
told me hed been walking down the road when hed seen the accident.
The past continuous usually changes to the past perfect continuous.

Perfect tenses
Direct speech: Theyve always been very kind to me. Reported speech: She said theyd
always been very kind to her.
The present perfect tense (have always been) usually changes to the past perfect tense (had always
been).
Direct speech: They had already eaten when I arrived Reported speech: He said theyd
already eaten when hed arrived.
The past perfect tense does not change in reported speech.

You can find more information about reported speech in another section.

Reported speech 2

Reported speech (2)
Remember that in reported speech we usually change the tense of the direct statement. The present
simple tense changes to the past simple, the past simple changes to the past perfect and so on.

Here are some other points to consider.

Can and will
Direct speech: I cant remember his name. Reported speech: She said she couldnt
remember his name.
Can and cant in direct speech change to could and couldnt in reported speech.
Direct speech: Ill be there for 3 weeks. Reported speech: He told me hed be there for 3
weeks.
Will and wont in direct speech change to would and wouldnt in reported speech.

Other modal verbs
Direct speech: You could be right. Reported speech: I said that he could be right.
Direct speech: You must call me. Reported speech: She said that I must call her.
Other modal verbs dont change in reported speech.

Reporting orders, requests and advice
Direct speech: Sit down and shut up! Reported speech: The teacher told me to sit down and
shut up.
Direct speech: Can you hold this for me please? Reported speech: He asked me to hold it.
Direct speech: You should do more exercise. Reported speech: He advised me to do more
exercise.
Orders, request and advice can be reported using an infinitive.

Reporting verbs

There are a number of verbs that we use to report statements. These can make your speech and writing
more interesting than simply reporting every word of the direct speech.
Direct speech: It wasnt me who broke the window. > He denied breaking the window.
Direct speech: Ill help you if you want > She offered to help.
There are a number of verbs that can be used to report. They
include: promise, claim, suggest, advise, refuse, argue, confirm and others.

So
So
So has a number of different meanings and is used in different ways.

so and neither short answers

We can use so in short answers to mean also
I like this film So do I.
Im tired So am I.
Shes got a happy face and so has he.
As in questions, the verb with so in these short answers is the same as the auxiliary verb. If there is
no auxiliary we use do.

To show negative agreement we use neither.
I havent done the homework. Neither have I.
I dont want another drink Neither do I.
He doesnt look very happy and neither does she.
so with certain verbs

So is used in place of a clause after certain verbs,
Is John coming? I think so.
Are you going to tell him? I suppose so.
As well as think and suppose we can make this kind of sentence with hope, believe and expect.

Note that we can also say I dont think so but all the other verbs would use not.
Is John coming? I hope not.
so and such with adjectives and nouns

So can be followed by an adjective
Its so hot today!
She looks so young in that photo.
Such is used if there is a noun or adjective + noun.
Its such a hot day today!
Theyre such lovely trousers. Where did you buy them?
Both these so and such structures are often used with a that clause
It was so cold that the water in the lake froze.
He was such a good teacher that we all passed the exam.

Stative verbs

Stative verbs
Some verbs are not usually used in the continuous form, even when we are talking about temporary
situations or states. These are calledstative verbs.
So, we say Im sorry, I dont understand rather than Im not understanding.
1. Stative verbs are often verbs connected with thinking and opinions.
She doesnt know what to do NOT She isnt knowing what to do
Do you agree with me?
I dont recognise it, do you?
Other verbs in this group include: believe, doubt, guess, imagine, mean, remember, think

2. Other stative verbs are connected with feelings and emotions
I like this song. Who sings it? NOT Im liking this song
What do you want to do now?
I hate my new boss!
Other stative verbs in this group include: dislike, love, prefer. want, wish

NB although enjoy is a verb of emotion, it is used in the continuous tense
Im enjoying the party.
3. see, hear, taste, smell, feel are verbs that describe senses.

These verbs arent usually used in continuous forms. They are often used with can.
It smells of smoke in here. NOT Its smelling of smoke in here
I cant see anything. Its too dark.
4. Stative verbs describe things that are not actions.

Look carefully at these 2 sentences.
He smells of fish.
Hes smelling the fish.
The second sentence is an action not a state. The man wants to know if the fish is OK to eat.
I think we should go to Croatia for our holiday this year.
Sorry, what did you say? I was thinking about my holiday.
The first sentence is an opinion but the second sentence is an action.
Verbs & Prepositions

Verbs & Prepositions
Some verbs are usually followed by prepositions before the object of the verb. these are called
dependent prepositions and they are followed by a noun or a gerund (ing form).
Hes waiting for a bus.
For is the dependent preposition for wait

We can use other prepositions with wait e.g. He waited at the bus stop but for is the dependent
preposition.

Here are some other verbs with their dependent prepositions.

Verbs with for
He apologised for being late. You can also apologise to someone
I applied for the job but I didnt get it.
How do you ask for a coffee in Polish?
She spent many years caring for her aged parents.
I cant go out tonight because I have to prepare for my interview tomorrow.
With from
This spray should protect you from mosquitoes.
Has he recovered from his illness yet?
He won an award because he saved someone from drowning.
I suffer from hay fever.
With in
She believes in ghosts.
Our company specialises in computer software.
You have to work hard if you want to succeed in life.
With of
I dont approve of your language, young man.
Our dog died of old age.
This shampoo smells of bananas.
With on
The film is based on the novel by Boris Pasternak.
If you make so much noise I cant concentrate on my work.
Come on! Were relying on you!
We dont agree on anything but were good friends.
With to
Can I introduce you to my wife?
Please refer to the notes at the end for more information.
Nobody responded to my complaint.
With with
I agree with everything youve said.
My secretary will provide you with more information if you need it.
There are many more verb + dependent preposition combinations make a note of them as you meet
them.

Verbs followed by ing or by to + infinitive 1
When one verb is followed by another, the second verb can either be an
infinitive
or an
ing
form. Some verbs can be followed by only an
infinitive
, others by only an
ing
form and some by both but with a change in meaning. To know which structure to use, you can
consult a good dictionary but here are some common examples.


Verb + infinitive
I want to speak to the manager.
Shes learning to ride a horse.
He offered to help us wash up.
Want, learn and offer are followed by to + infinitive

Other verbs in this group
include: afford, agree, ask, choose, decide, expect, hope, prepare, promise, pretend, refuse, woul
d like.

Verb + ing form
I enjoy travelling.
He admitted stealing the necklace.
I dont mind waiting if youre busy.
enjoy admit and mind are followed by the ing form

Other verbs in this group include: avoid, consider, dislike, feel like, finish, give up, cant
help, practise, suggest.

Verb + infinitive or ing form with no change in meaning

A few verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or the ing form and the meaning does not
change.
I started to work here in 1994.
I started working here in 1994.
The meaning of these two sentences is the same.

There arent many verbs that can take an infinitive or an ing form with no change in meaning.
Begin and continue are two more examples.

There is also a group of verbs that can be followed by an infinitive or an ing form with a change in
meaning. These verbs will be covered in another section.

Verbs followed by ing or by to + infinitive 2

Verbs followed by ing or by to + infinitive (2)
When one verb is followed by another, the second verb can either be an infinitive or an ing form.
Some verbs can be followed by either aninfinitive, or an ing form but with a change in meaning.
These are some of the most common ones.

like
I like watching old films on TV.
With an ing form, like means enjoy
I like to wash up as soon as I finish eating.
I might not enjoy washing up but I think its the right thing to do.

Remember that would like can only be followed by an infinitive.
Id like to go to Japan next year, if possible.
try
Im trying to learn Japanese but its very difficult.
Try + to + infinitive means that something is difficult and you make an attempt to do it.
Have you tried using butter instead of oil?
Try + ing means make an experiment. Its not difficult it might work, it might not.

stop
Stop + ing tells us what has stopped. in this example, buying a newspaper.
Ive stopped buying a newspaper every day to try to save money.
Stop + to + infinitive tells us why something stopped. In this example the reason that the bus stopped
was to pick up the children.
The bus stopped to pick up the children.
remember /forget
Dont forget to post that letter for me.
Did you remember to post that letter for me?
Remember/forget + to + infinitive means that you remember something you have to do a duty or a
chore.
Ill always remember meeting you for the first time.
Ill never forget meeting you for the first time.
Remember/forget + ing form means remember something you did in the past an event or an
activity.

Wish and If only

Wish and If only
Wish and If only are both used to talk about regrets things that we would like to change either
about the past or the present.

Talking about the present
If only I didnt have so much homework I could go to the concert tonight. She has a lot of
homework and she cant go to the concert.
I wish you didnt live so far away.
I wish I knew what to do.
When we talk about present regrets, both wish and if only are followed by the past simple tense. The
past tense emphasises that we are talking about something unreal.

Talking about the past
I wish Id studied harder when I was at school. He didnt study harder when he was at school.
I wish I hadnt eaten all that chocolate. I feel sick.
If only Id known you were coming.
Both wish and if only are followed by the past perfect tense when we talk about past regrets.

Wish/if only and would

We use wish + would to talk about something in the present that we would like to change usually
something that we find annoying.
I wish you wouldnt borrow my clothes without asking.
I wish it would rain. The garden really needs some water.
I wish youd give up smoking. its really bad for you.
NB We can only use wish + would to talk about things we cant change.

So I wish I wouldnt eat so much chocolate is not possible although we can say I wish I didnt eat so
much chocolate.


Words that are often confused

Words that are often confused
Some words are often confused by language learners because they are similar to another word or
because they look like a word in your own language but have a different meaning. Here are some
words that often cause confusion.

sensible and sensitive

sensible means practical or having good judgement
sensitive means easily affected by the things people say or do
Come on darling, be sensible and put a coat on. Its freezing outside.
Dont be so sensitive - he didnt say you were fat, it was just a joke.
sympathetic

Usually we are sympathetic when someone has a problem or is in trouble.
They were very sympathetic when our house was burgled but they couldnt do much to help.
We dont use it to mean nice or pleasant
My uncle is a very sympathetic man.
nervous

We are nervous in a particular situation, like an exam. We dont generally use nervous to describe
someones character.
Ive never been as nervous as the time I had to give a speech to 500 people.
My sister is very nervous. Shes always shouting at me.
journey and travel

Journey is countable. Travel is uncountable and refers to the general idea of travelling.
Did you have a good travel?
Travel is something I recommend to all young people.
The journey took about 8 hours.
recipe, receipt and prescription

A recipe is a set of instructions for cooking something.
A receipt is a piece of paper you are given after you pay for something.
A prescription is a piece of paper a doctor gives you to get the medicine you need.


used to + infinitive and be/get used to
used to + infinitive and be/get used to
People often get confused about the use of used to + infinitive and be/get used to + ing
form because they look similar. They are, however, completely different.

used to + infinitive

We use used to to talk about things that happened in the past actions or states that no longer
happen now.
She used to be a long distance runner when she was younger.
I used to eat meat but I became a vegetarian 5 years ago.
The negative is didnt use to and questions are formed with Did you use to ?
There is no present tense equivalent of used to. To talk about present habits we use the present
simple and an adverb of frequency (usually, always, often, never, etc.)
e.g. I often eat at the Japanese restaurant in the city centre.

be/get used to

If you are used to something, you are accustomed to it you dont find it unusual. If you get used
to something or you are getting used tosomething you are becoming accustomed to it it was
strange, now its not so strange.
I found Slovak food very strange at first but Im used to it now.
Im getting used to driving on the right.
Both be used to and get used to are followed by a noun (or pronoun) or the gerund the ing
form of a verb.
I cant get used to getting up so early. Im tired all the time.
Hes not used to the weather here yet. Hes finding it very cold.
Be/get used to can be used with past, present and future tenses.
You might find it strange at first but youll soon get used to it.
He wasnt used to the heat and he caught sunstroke.