Industrial Hygiene

Industrial hygiene is defined as the recognition, evaluation, and control of workplace

hazards. Its origins are based on limiting personal exposures to chemicals, and have
evolved to address the control of most other workplace hazards including over-exposure
to noise, heat, vibration, and repetitive motion.
Occupational exposure to chemicals is still considered one of the most wide spread
hazards in industry. The use of engineering controls is the preferred method of limiting
these exposures. ilution and capture ventilation are two important methods to control
occupational exposure. The design and position of hoods and vents, and amount of air
infiltration can substantially change exposure conditions. !aterial "afety ata "heets and
other documentation provide a basis for predicting adverse effects, disposal needs, and
fire and ignition concerns.
Information about several chemicals or groups of chemicals can be found in #eference
ata "heets written by !eridian $ngineering % Technology staff members and
consultants. "ome of these data sheets also include specific topics in the fields of safety
or environmental engineering.
"ampling and monitoring e&uipment is available to &uantify exposures to contaminants,
noise, radiation, and heat. 'orrect sampling strategy and interpretation are essential
elements of an industrial hygiene survey. 'onfined spaces, ventilation changes, the
performance of collection systems, and pressure relief valves are all items of concern for
exposure evaluation.
The selection of appropriate personal protective e&uipment for exposure control often
re&uires both an understanding of the limitations of the e&uipment, and the expected
exposure parameters as determined by an industrial hygiene evaluation. $ngineering
controls are considered the preferred method of control, but personal protective
e&uipment plays an important role for health, safety, and rescue, especially when using
confined space entry procedures. The potential for misuse or misapplication of these
devices should be evaluated.
The Occupational "afety and (ealth )dministration, the )merican 'onference of
*overnmental Industrial (ygienists, and the +ational Institute of Occupational "afety
and (ealth are three organizations which establish many of the rules governing allowable
workplace exposures. ,ermissible exposure limits for noise, chemicals, heat, and other
workplace stressors have been established and often include safety factors.
CHEMICAL STORAGE
,roper chemical storage is re&uired to minimize the hazards associated leaks, spills, and
accidental mixing of incompatible chemicals.
General Storage Guidelines
Observe the following general storage guidelines. -+OT$. "pecific guidelines are
presented in the appendix link/.
0se sources such as !""s for guidance on storage, incompatibility, reactivity
and stability for chemicals.
o not tip bottles when returning them to a shelf. "helves must have enough
clearance to accommodate the largest container.
o not store chemicals -except cleaners/ under sinks. 0se approved flammable
storage lockers, corrosive storage lockers, shelves or cabinets.
)void stockpiling chemicals.
,urchase only what is needed. If possible borrow chemicals from a colleague or
contact the 'hemical !anagement "ystem coordinator to assist you in finding a
source of the chemical at 12+1.
'onduct periodic cleanouts to prevent accumulating unnecessary chemicals.
o not sort and store chemicals alphabetically unless they have first been
separated into hazard classes
$nsure that caps and lids on all chemical containers are tightly closed to prevent
evaporation of contents. ) Teflon or ,3' cap liner may be used to provide a
better seal. These are available through several commercial sources, including
34# "cientific. The 1aboratory has a 5262 contract7 with 34#. These can be
ordered online through ,rocurement8s 4eb page.
)void exposure of chemicals to heat or direct sunlight. This may lead to the
deterioration of storage containers and labels, as well as the degradation of the
chemicals. "ome time-sensitive chemicals such as peroxide-formers can be
affected as well.
"tore solids on shelves or in cabinets.
Install ,lexiglas lips or use e&uivalent means to prevent materials from falling off
storage shelves.
)void storing chemicals on countertops or in fume hoods except for those being
currently used.
Segregation and Storage of Chemicals According to Hazard Class
'hemical storage guidelines are presented below. 0se these to segregate and store
chemicals according to their hazard class. This prevents an undesirable chemical reaction
from occurring should two or more chemicals accidently mix. 'onsult sources such as
the substance8s !aterial "afety ata "heet for specific storage guidelines.
Chemical Incompatibility Matrix
The chemical incompatibilities shown below are not exhaustive. )s a result, it is
important for 1aboratory personnel to research the properties of the chemicals they are
using. 0se sources such as !aterial "afety ata "heets -!""s/ for guidance on
chemical incompatibility. )lso ensure you read the container9s label : it should also have
storage guidelines.


)cids,
inorganic
)cids,
oxidizing
)cids,
organic
)lkalis
-bases/
Oxidizers,oisons,
inorganic
,oisons,
organic
4ater-
reactives
Organic
solvents
)cids,
inorganic

X X

X X X X
)cids,
oxidizing

X X

X X X X
)cids,
organic
X X

X X X X X

)lkalis
-bases/
X X X

X X X
Oxidizers
X X X X
,oisons,
inorganic
X X X

X X X
,oisons,
organic
X X X X X X

4ater-
reactives
X X X X X X

Organic
solvents
X X

X X X

; < +ot compatible=do not store together
Segregation and Storage With Respect To Hazard Class
Acids
"egregate acids from reactive metals such as sodium, potassium, and magnesium.
"egregate oxidizing acids from organic acid and flammable and combustible
materials.
"tore acetic acid as a flammable li&uid. This is an organic -carboxylic/ acid that
will react if it comes in contact with an oxidizing acid.
+itric acid and hydrochloric acid may be stored in the same corrosive storage
cabinet, but they must be kept in separate drip trays. These can combine to form
chlorine and nitrosyl chloride gases=both are toxic.
"egregate acids from chemicals that could generate toxic or flammable gases
upon contact, such as sodium cyanide, iron sulfide and calcium carbide.
"egregate acids from bases.
"ee 5'ontrol ,rocedures for )cids and 2ases.7
Bases
"egregate bases from acids, metals, explosives, organic peroxides and easily
ignitable materials.
o not store a&ueous sodium and potassium hydroxide solutions in aluminum
drip trays. These will corrode aluminum.
"ee 5'ontrol ,rocedures for )cids and 2ases.7
Solvents (Flammable and combustible liquids)
"tore in approved safety cans or cabinets.
"egregate from oxidizing acids and oxidizers.
>eep away from any source of ignition. heat, sparks, or open flames.
"ee 'ontrol ,rocedures for ?lammable and 'ombustible 1i&uids.
Oxidizers
>eep away from combustible and flammable materials.
>eep away from reducing agents such as zinc, alkali metals, and formic acid.
Cyanides
"egregate from a&ueous solutions, acids and oxidizers.
Water-Reactive Cemicals
"tore in a cool, dry place, away from any water source.
!ake certain that a 'lass fire extinguisher is available in case of fire.
"ee 'ontrol ,rocedures for 4ater-#eactive 'hemicals.
!yro"oric Substances
If in original container store in a cool, dry place, making provisions for an airtight
seal.
"tore in a glove box after the material has been opened.
#i$t-Sensitive Cemicals
"tore in amber bottles in a cool, dry, dark place.
!eroxide-Formin$ Cemicals
!ost peroxide forming chemicals are also flammable li&uids. Therefore, store in
airtight containers in a flammable storage locker.
"egregate from oxidizers and acids.
"ee 5'ontrol ,rocedures for ,eroxide-?orming 'hemicals.7 for additional
information and controls
%oxic Cemicals
"tore according to the nature of the chemical, using appropriate security where
necessary.
Chemical Incompatibility Table
The following table is another resource for determining chemical incompatibilities. 1ike
the preceding matrix, this is not exhaustive. Therefore, use sources such as !""s to
determine chemical incompatibility. The container9s label should also provide storage
guidelines.
CHEMICAL KEEP OUT OF CONTACT ITH
)cetic acid 'hromic acid, nitric acid, hydroxyl compounds,
ethylene glycol, perchloric acid, peroxides,
permanganates and other oxidizers
)cetone 'oncentrated nitric and sulfuric acid mixtures,
and strong bases
)cetylene 'hlorine, bromine, copper, fluorine, silver,
mercury
)lkali metals 4ater, carbon tetrachloride or other chlorinated
hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, the halogens
)mmonia, anhydrous !ercury, chlorine, calcium hypochlorite, iodine,
bromine, hydrofluoric acid
)mmonium nitrate )cids, metal powders, flammable li&uids,
chlorates, nitrites, sulfur, finely divided organic
or combustible materials
)niline +itric acid, hydrogen peroxide
)rsenic materials )ny reducing agent
)zides )cids
2romine "ame as chlorine
'alcium oxide 4ater
'arbon -activated/ 'alcium hypochlorite, all oxidizing agents
'arbon tetrachloride "odium
'hlorates )mmonium salts, acids, metal powders, sulfur,
finely divided organic or combustible materials
'hromic acid and
chromium trioxide
)cetic acid, naphthalene, camphor, glycerol,
glycerin, turpentine, alcohol, flammable li&uids
in general
'hlorine )mmonia, acetylene, butadiene, butane,
methane, propane -or other petroleum gases/,
hydrogen, sodium carbide, turpentine, benzene,
finely divided metals
'hlorine dioxide )mmonia, methane, phosphine, hydrogen
sulfide
'opper )cetylene, hydrogen peroxide
'umene hydroperoxide )cids, organic or inorganic
'yanides )cids
?lammable li&uids )mmonium nitrate, chromic acid, hydrogen
peroxide, nitric acid, sodium peroxide, halogens
(ydrocarbons ?luorine, chlorine, bromine, chromic acid,
sodium peroxide
(ydrocyanic acid +itric acid, alkali
(ydrofluoric acid )mmonia, a&ueous or anhydrous, bases and
silica
(ydrogen peroxide 'opper, chromium, iron, most metals or their
salts, alcohols, acetone, organic materials,
aniline, nitromethane, flammable li&uids
(ydrogen sulfide ?uming nitric acid, other acids, oxidizing gases,
acetylene, ammonia -a&ueous or anhydrous/,
hydrogen
(ypochlorites )cids, activated carbon
Iodine )cetylene, ammonia -a&ueous or anhydrous/,
hydrogen
!ercury )cetylene, fulminic acid, ammonia
+itrates "ulfuric acid
+itric acid
-concentrated/
)cetic acid, aniline, chromic acid, hydrocyanic
acid, hydrogen sulfide, flammable li&uids,
flammable gases, copper, brass, any heavy
metals
+itrites )cids
+itroparaffins Inorganic bases, amines
Oxalic acid "ilver, mercury
Oxygen Oils, grease, hydrogen@ flammable li&uids,
solids, or gases
,erchloric acid )cetic anhydride, bismuth and its alloys,
alcohol, paper, wood, grease, and oils
,eroxides, organic )cids -organic or mineral/, avoid friction, store
cold
,hosphorus -white/ )ir, oxygen, alkalis, reducing agents
,otassium 'arbon tetrachloride, carbon dioxide, water
,otassium chlorate and
perchlorate
"ulfuric and other acids
,otassium
permanganate
*lycerin, ethylene glycol, benzaldehyde,
sulfuric acid
"elenides #educing agents
"ilver )cetylene, oxalic acid, tartaric acid, ammonium
compounds, fulminic acid
"odium 'arbon tetrachloride, carbon dioxide, water
"odium nitrite )mmonium nitrate and other ammonium salts
"odium peroxide $thyl or methyl alcohol, glacial acetic acid,
acetic anhydride, benzaldehyde, carbon
disulfide, glycerin, ethylene glycol, ethyl
acetate, methyl acetate, furfural
"ulfides )cids
"ulfuric )cid ,otassium chlorate, potassium perchlorate,
potassium permanganate -or compounds with
similar light metals, such as sodium, lithium,
etc./
Tellurides #educing agents
-?rom !anufacturing 'hemists9 )ssociation, Guide for Safety in the Chemical Laboratory, pp. 6AB:6AC, 3an +ostrand
#einhold, 6nd $dition./
Secondary Containment for Liquids: Drip Trays
"tore all hazardous li&uid chemicals in drip trays . This is to minimize the impact
and spread of a spill resulting from brokenDleaking containers Tray capacity must
be AAEF of the largest container or AEF of the aggregate volume of all containers,
whichever is larger.
rip trays are available in different materials which provide varying resistance to
chemical attack. It is important to use chemical resistance data to select the
proper material when using plastic drip trays. This is discussed in more detail
below. )void using aluminum roasting pans. They do not offer good resistance to
corrosive chemicals such as acids and alkali bases. !oreover, disposable roasting
pans are flimsy and will develop cracks and tears.
,hoto trays
o *enerally, these provide good resistance for a&ueous solutions and some
organic solvents. 2ut may not be a good choice for halogenated solvents
o ,hoto trays are available through several commercial sources, including
34# "cientific. )n additional source of spill containment trays is
"cientific ,lastics. This company provides trays in several depths, with
width and length in A7 increments. These trays have been used at 12+1 to
contain entire shelves in storage cabinets.
,olypropylene and (i ensity ,olyethylene Trays
o These are subGect to attack by some aromatic and halogenated
hydrocarbons.
o The +algene website has a chemical resistance database for these
materials
"tainless "teel and ,yrex Trays
o "tainless steel and ,yrex trays are resistant to a broader spectrum of
chemicals. (owever they are more costly than plastic trays and aren8t
available in as many different sizes and configurations. .
Squeeze Bottles !ash Bottles and "al#ene Bottles
1abel all containers -e.g., s&ueeze bottles, wash bottles and +algene bottles/ to
which hazardous materials are transferred with the identity of the substance and
its hazards. "ee the section entitled Training and (azard Information for
additional re&uirements.
2e aware that s&ueeze bottles and +algene bottles have varying resistances to
different chemicals. -They are usually made from plastics, such as high-density
polyethylene, low-density polyethylene and polypropylene/. !oreover, they may
deteriorate over time, especially when exposed to direct sunlight or 03 sources.
'onsult the +algene 4eb site to determine the chemical resistance of different
plastic materials.
Chemical Stora#e Cabinets
0se approved corrosive storage cabinets constructed of chemically resistant
components for storing acids and bases. 'onsult 'ontrol ,rocedures for )cids and
2ases for additional information.
0se flammable storage cabinets to store flammable li&uids. ,02-HEEE, 'hapter
A6, 5?ire ,revention and ,rotection7 and the 5'ontrol ,rocedures for ?lammable
and 'ombustible 1i&uids7 section contain more information on safe handling and
storage of flammable and combustible materials.
Re&ri$erators
#efrigerators used for storing chemicals, samples or media must be labeled with
words to the effect as follows. 5'aution=o +ot "tore ?ood or 2everages in
This #efrigerator.7
#efrigerators and freezers for storing flammable li&uids must be designed,
constructed, approved, and labeled for that purpose. +OT$. This applies to
ethanol and a&ueous solutions greater than or e&ual to ABF/. omestic
refrigeratorDfreezers as well as units that have been modified to remove spark
sources are not acceptable alternatives. #efrigerators and freezers are also
discussed in 5'ontrol ,rocedures for ?lammable and 'ombustible 1i&uids.7
#efrigerators may not be used for food storage in technical areas.
1abels may be fabricated by users provided they are legible and securely affixed
to the refrigerator.
#efrigerators used for food and beverages that are located in lunch rooms and
office buildings where there is no shop- or laboratory-type chemical usage,
re&uire no posting.
Hazardous Chemicals
Chemicals, for which there is statistically evidence based on at least one study conducted
in accordance with established scientific principles that acute or chronic health effects
may occur in exposed employees, is classifies as a health hazard. Health hazards include
chemicals that are carcinogens, toxin or highly toxic agents, reproductive toxins, irritants,
corrosives, sensitizers, hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins, neurotoxins, agents which act on the
hematopietic systems; and agents that damage the lungs, skin, eye or mucous
membranes are hazardous chemicals.
Many chemicals can cause harm by virtue of their toxicity. n this case, the toxicity of a
chemical refers to its ability to damage an organ system, such as the liver and the kidney
or to disrupt a biochemical process such as the blood clotting mechanism or to disturb an
enzyme system at some sites in the body removed from the site of contact.
n actual practice, hazards do not group themselves in neat categories, but usually occur
in combination and!or se"uence. #he following are some characteristics of flammability, a
common chemical hazard.
Mercury
$xposure to mercury occurs from breathing contaminated air, ingesting contaminated
water and food, and having dental and medical treatments. Mercury, at high levels, may
damage the brain, kidneys, and developing fetus.
What happens to mercury when it enters the environment?
norganic mercury %metallic mercury and inorganic mercury compounds& enters
the air from mining ore deposits, burning coal and waste, and from manufacturing
plants.
t enters the water or soil from natural deposits, disposal of wastes, and volcanic
activity.
Methylmercury may be formed in water and soil by small organisms called
bacteria.
Methylmercury builds up in the tissues of fish. 'arger and older fish tend to have
the highest levels of mercury.
Chromium
$xposure to chromium occurs from ingesting contaminated food or drinking water or
breathing contaminated workplace air. Chromium %(& at high levels can damage the nose
and can cause cancer
What happens to chromium when it enters the environment?
Chromium enters the air, water, and soil mostly in the chromium %& and
chromium%(& forms.
n air, chromium compounds are present mostly as fine dust particles which
eventually settle over land and water.
Chromium can strongly attach to soil and only a small amount can dissolve in
water and move deeper in the soil to underground water.
)ish do not accumulate much chromium in their bodies from water.
Cadmium
$xposure to cadmium happens mostly in the workplace where cadmium products are
made. #he general population is exposed from breathing cigarette smoke or eating
cadmium contaminated foods. Cadmium damages the lungs, can cause kidney disease,
and may irritate the digestive tract.
What happens to cadmium when it enters the environment?
Cadmium enters air from mining, industry, and burning coal and household
wastes.
Cadmium particles in air can travel long distances before falling to the ground or
water.
t enters water and soil from waste disposal and spills or leaks at hazardous waste
sites.
it binds strongly to soil particles.
*ome cadmium dissolves in water.
t doesn+t break down in the environment, but can change forms.
)ish, plants, and animals take up cadmium from the environment.
Cadmium stays in the body a very long time and can build up from many years of
exposure to low levels.
Arsenic
$xposure to higher than average levels of arsenic occur mostly in the workplace, near
hazardous waste sites, or in areas with high natural levels. ,t high levels, inorganic
arsenic can cause death. $xposure to lower levels for a long time can cause a
discoloration of the skin and the appearance of small corns or warts.
What happens to arsenic when it enters the environment?
,rsenic occurs naturally in soil and minerals and it therefore may enter the air,
water, and land from wind-blown dust and may get into water from runoff and
leaching.
,rsenic cannot be destroyed in the environment. t can only change its form.
.ain and snow remove arsenic dust particles from the air.
Many common arsenic compounds can dissolve in water. Most of the arsenic in
water will ultimately end up in soil or sediment.
)ish and shellfish can accumulate arsenic; most of this arsenic is in an organic
form called arsenobetaine that is much less harmful.
Lead
'ead is a heavy, low melting, bluish-gray metal that occurs naturally in the $arth+s crust.
However, it is rarely found naturally as a metal. t is usually found combined with two or
more other elements to form lead compounds
What happens to lead when it enters the environment?
'ead is a naturally occurring element that people have used almost since the beginning of
civilization. Human activities have spread lead widely throughout the environment-the air,
water, soil, plants, animals, and man-made constructions. /ecause lead is spread so
widely throughout the environment, it can now be found in everyone+s bodies; most
people have lead levels that are orders of magnitude greater than that of ancient times
%)legal and *mith 0112, 0113& and within an order of magnitude of levels that have
resulted in adverse health effects.
I+T#O0'TIO+ TO ()I)#O0" 4)"T$
(azardous 4aste is a Jsolid wasteJ which because of its &uantity, concentration, or
physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics may.
,ose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment
when impropoerly treated, stored or disposed of, or otherwise mismanaged@ or
'ause or contribute to an increase in mortality, or an increase in irreversible or
incapacitating illness.
) Jsolid wasteJ is defined as any discarded material that is abandoned by being disposed
of, burned or incinerated, recycled or considered Jwaste-like.J ) solid waste can
physically be a solid, li&uid, semi-solid, or container of gaseous material.
) waste is classified as a hazardous waste if it has a hazardous characteristic listed below
or is listed as a hazardous waste in $,)9s page with the list of identifies hazardous
wastes. 4e could only find the list for Ohio.
http.DDwww.epa.ohio.govDdnwmDwelcome.html
(azardous 'haracteristics.
Ignitable (azardous 4aste
) li&uid waste which has a flash point of less than or e&ual to
AKE degrees ? -LE degrees '/ as determined by an approved test
method.
) non-li&uid waste which, under standard conditions, is
capable of causing a fire through friction, absorption of moisture or
a spontaneous chemical change and when ignited, the waste burns
so vigorously and persistently that it creates a hazard.
)n ignitable compressed gas or oxidizer.
'orrosive (azardous 4aste
)n a&ueous waste with a p( ofless than or e&ual to 6 or
greater than or e&ual to A6.B is considered to be a corrosive
hazardous waste.
) li&uid waste that corrodes steel at a minimum rate of .6B
inch per year as determined by an approved test method.
#eactive (azardous 4aste
) solid waste that is normally unstable, reacts violently with
water, or generates toxic gases when exposed to water or other
materials.
Toxic (azardous 4aste
) waste that contains certain substances determined to be
harmful at or in excess of the maximum concentration. "ome of
those substances include lead, arsenic, and mercury. ?or a
complete list, see the istrict of 'olumbia !unicipal #egulations
-'!#/, Title 6E, "ection KAEH.
$;,1O"IO+
)n e!"l#si#n is a rapid increase in volume and release of energy in an extreme manner,
usually with the generation of high temperatures and the release of gases. )n explosion
creates a shock wave. If the shock wave is a supersonic detonation, then the source of the
blast is called a Jhigh explosiveJ. "ubsonic shock waves are created by low explosives
through the slower burning process known as deflagration.
'atural
$xplosions can occur in nature. !ost natural explosions arise from volcanic processes of
various sorts. $xplosive volcanic eruptions occur when magma rising from below has
much dissolved gas in it@ the reduction of pressure as the magma rises causes the gas to
bubble out of solution, resulting in a rapid increase in volume. $xplosions also occur as a
result of impact events. $xplosions can also occur outside of $arth in the universe in
events such as supernova. $xplosions fre&uently occur during 2ushfires in $ucalyptus
forests where the volatile oils in the tree tops suddenly combust
MAN
.
(edit) Cemical
!ain article. $xplosive material
The most common artificial explosives are chemical explosives, usually involving a rapid
and violent oxidation reaction that produces large amounts of hot gas. *unpowder was
the first explosive to be discovered and put to use. Other notable early developments in
chemical explosive technology were ?rederick )ugustus )bel9s development of
nitrocellulose in AOLB and )lfred +obel9s invention of dynamite in AOLL.
(edit) 'uclear
!ain article. $ffects of nuclear explosions
) nuclear weapon is a type of explosive weapon that derives its destructive force from
the nuclear reaction of fission or from a combination of fission and fusion. )s a result,
even a nuclear weapon with a small yield is significantly more powerful than the largest
conventional explosives available, with a single weapon capable of completely
destroying an entire city.
(edit) *lectrical
) high current electrical fault can create an electrical explosion by forming a high energy
electrical arc which rapidly vaporizes metal and insulation material. )lso, excessive
magnetic pressure within an ultra-strong electromagnet can cause a magnetic explosion.
(edit) +a"our
2oiling li&uid expanding vapour explosions are a type of explosion that can occur when a
vessel containing a pressurized li&uid is ruptured, causing a rapid increase in volume as
the li&uid evaporates.
(edit) Astronomical
)mong the largest known explosions in the universe are supernova, which result from
stars exploding, and gamma ray bursts, whose nature is still in some dispute. "olar flares
are an example of explosion common on the "un, and presumably on most other stars as
well. The energy source for solar flare activity comes from the tangling of magnetic field
lines resulting from the rotation of the "un9s conductive plasma. )nother type of large
astronomical explosion occurs when a very large meteoroid or an asteroid impacts the
surface of another obGect, such as a planet.
(edit) ,ecanical
"trictly a physical process, as opposed to chemical or nuclear, eg, the bursting of a sealed
or partially-sealed container under internal pressure is often referred to as a 9mechanical
explosion9. $xamples include an overheated boiler or a simple tin can of beans tossed into
a fire. ) boiling li&uid expanding vapor explosion -21$3$/ -see above/ is one type of
mechanical explosion, but depending on the contents of the container, the effects can be
dramatically more serious - consider a propane tank in the midst of a fire. In such a case,
to the limited effects of the simple mechanical explosion when the tank fails are added
the chemical explosion resulting from the released -initially li&uid and then almost
instanteaously gaseous/ propane in the presence of an ignition source. ?or this reason,
emergency workers often differentiate between the two events.
[edit] Properties of explosions
(edit) Force
$xplosive force is released in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the explosive. If
the surface is cut or shaped, the explosive forces can be focused to produce a greater local
effect@ this is known as a shaped charge.
(edit) +elocity
#apidity of reaction distinguishes the explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion
reaction by the great speed with which it takes place. 0nless the reaction occurs rapidly,
the thermally expanded gases will be dissipated in the medium, and there will be no
explosion. )gain, consider a wood or coal fire. )s the fire burns, there is the evolution of
heat and the formation of gases, but neither is liberated rapidly enough to cause an
explosion. This can be likened to the difference between the energy discharge of a
battery, which is slow, and that of a flash capacitor like that in a camera flash, which
releases its energy all at once.
(edit) *volution o& eat
The generation of heat in large &uantities accompanies most explosive chemical reaction.
The exceptions are called entropic explosives and include organic peroxides such as
acetone peroxide.
M6N
It is the rapid liberation of heat that causes the gaseous products of
most explosive reactions to expand and generate high pressures. This rapid generation of
high pressures of the released gas constitutes the explosion. It should be noted that the
liberation of heat with insufficient rapidity will not cause an explosion. ?or example,
although a pound of coal yields five times as much heat as a pound of nitroglycerin, the
coal cannot be used as an explosive because the rate at which it yields this heat is &uite
slow.
(edit) -eat o& ex"losion
4hen a bomb is formed from its constituents, heat may either be absorbed or released.
The &uantity of heat absorbed or given off during transformation is called the heat of
formation. (eats of formations for solids and gases found in explosive reactions have
been determined for a temperature of AB P' and atmospheric pressure, and are normally
given in units of kilocalories per gram-molecule. -"ee table A6-A/. ) negative value
indicates that heat is absorbed during the formation of the compound from its elements@
such a reaction is called an endothermic reaction.
The arbitrary convention usually employed in simple thermochemical calculations is to
take heat contents of all elements as zero in their standard states at all temperatures
-standard state being defined as natural or ambient conditions/. "ince the heat of
formation of a compound is the net difference between the heat content of the compound
and that of its elements, and since the latter are taken as zero by convention, it follows
that the heat content of a compound is e&ual to its heat of formation in such non-rigorous
calculations. This leads to the principle of initial and final state, which may be expressed
as follows. JThe net &uantity of heat liberated or absorbed in any chemical modification
of a system depends solely upon the initial and final states of the system, provided the
transformation takes place at constant volume or at constant pressure. It is completely
independent of the intermediate transformations and of the time re&uired for the
reactions.J ?rom this it follows that the heat liberated in any transformation accomplished
through successive reactions is the algebraic sum of the heats liberated or absorbed in the
several reactions. 'onsider the formation of the original explosive from its elements as an
intermediate reaction in the formation of the products of explosion. The net amount of
heat liberated during an explosion is the sum of the heats of formation of the products of
explosion, minus the heat of formation of the original explosive. The net difference
between heats of formations of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction is
termed the heat of reaction. ?or oxidation this heat of reaction may be termed heat of
combustion.
In explosive technology only materials that are exothermic=that have a heat of reaction
that causes net liberation of heat=are of interest. (ence, in this context, virtually all
heats of reaction are positive. #eaction heat is measured under conditions either of
constant pressure or constant volume. It is this heat of reaction that may be properly
expressed as the Jheat of explosion.J
(edit) .nitiation o& reaction
) chemical explosive is a compound or mixture which, upon the application of heat or
shock, decomposes or rearranges with extreme rapidity, yielding much gas and heat.
!any substances not ordinarily classed as explosives may do one, or even two, of these
things.
?or a chemical to be an explosive, it must exhibit all of the following.
-A/ ?ormation of gases
-6/ $volution of heat
-H/ #apidity of reaction
-K/ Initiation of reaction
) reaction must be capable of being initiated by the application of shock, heat, or a
catalyst -in the case of some explosive chemical reactions/ to a small portion of the mass
of the explosive material. ) material in which the first three factors exist cannot be
accepted as an explosive unless the reaction can be made to occur when desired.
Mcitation
neededN
(edit) Fra$mentation
?ragmentation is the accumulation and proGection of particles as the result of a high
explosives detonation. ?ragments could be part of a structure such as a magazine. They
could be part of an ordnance case such as a proGectile body or a bomb body. (igh
velocity, low angle fragments can travel hundreds or thousands of feet with enough
energy to initiate other surrounding high explosive items, inGure or kill personnel and
damage vehicles or structures.
Cemical ex"losions
+anaimo mine explosion AOOC
(alifax $xplosion AQAC
2attle of !essines AQAC
Oppau explosion, 1udwigshafen, *ermany AQ6A
2ombay $xplosion -AQKK/
,ort 'hicago disaster AQKK
#)? ?auld explosion AQKK
Texas 'ity isaster AQKC
+edelin catastrophe AQLE
"oviet +A rocket explosion AQLQ
?lixborough disaster AQCK
,$,'O+ disaster, (enderson, +evada AQOO
#yongchon disaster 6EEK
6EEB (ertfordshire Oil "torage Terminal fire 6EEB
)lbania explosion *erdec 6EEO
'ataRo oil refinery fire 6EEQ
(edit) 'uclear testin$
Trinity test
'astle 2ravo
Tsar 2omba
(edit) /se in 0ar
)tomic bombings of (iroshima and +agasaki
(edit) *x"lodin$ volcanoes
"antorini
>rakatoa
!ount "t. (elens
!ount Tambora
!ount ,inatubo
Sellowstone 'aldera