Signicance of surface moisture removal on

triboelectrostatic beneciation of y ash

Federico Cangialosi
a
, Michele Notarnicola
a
, Lorenzo Liberti
a
, Pompilio Caramuscio
b
,
Giulio Belz
b
, Tapiwa Z. Gurupira
c
, John M. Stencel
c,
*
a
Department of Environmental Engineering and Sustainable Development, Technical University of Bari, Italy
b
ENEL Produzione Ricerca, Litoranea Brindisi Casalabate, 72020 Tuturano (Brindisi), Italy
c
Tribo Flow Separations, 1525 Bull Lea Road, Suite 10, Lexington, KY 40511, United States
Received 5 May 2005; received in revised form 31 January 2006; accepted 31 January 2006
Available online 2 June 2006
Abstract
The gas transport, triboelectrostatic beneciation of coal combustion y ash into carbon-rich and ash-rich products was studied rel-
ative to the eect of ash surface moisture. Increasing the humidity to which the ashes from American and Italian coal-red utilities were
exposed under process and ambient conditions aected carbon and ash separability. The eect of humidity and particle surface moisture
became more important as particle size decreased: particles greater than 75 lm in diameter were nearly unaected whereas particles smal-
ler than 45 lm experienced up to a four-fold change in their separability upon changing their surface moisture contents. Although par-
ticle size inuences the moisture adsorption, which in turn aects tribocharging, the decrease in adhesive forces between carbon and ash
from otherwise intractable clusters during drying also may be a factor inuencing triboelectrostatic beneciation performance.
2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Triboelectrostatic separation; Fly ash; Moisture
1. Introduction
Coal combustion y ash is an abundant mineral
resource with a production rate in Italy near one million
tons per year; in Europe near 40 million tons per year;
and in the US near 110 million tons per year [1,2].
Although its disposal in landlls is routinely practiced,
increased environmental restrictions, high disposal costs
and the economic benets of its usage are making y
ash utilization an increasingly attractive alternative to
disposal.
Due to its pozzolanic properties, y ash is a commer-
cially valuable additive for the production of blended
cements and concrete mixtures. However, in Europe the
standards for concrete manufacturers require y ash loss-
on-ignition (LOI) to be less than 5% [3]; in the US, ASTM
standards specify LOIs less than 6% [4] whereas industry
generally accepts only less than 3%. These values are di-
cult for utilities to attain because of the use of low-NOx
burners, thus prohibiting y ash usage in concrete. As a
consequence, intensive investigations have been carried
out worldwide to determine how to economically remove
unburned carbon from y ash produced at coal-red
utilities.
Triboelectrostatic separation has been studied as a
cost-eective solution for ash beneciation and is com-
mercially practiced. In the gas transport, triboelectro-
static process, particles acquire positive and negative
charge by contact electrication between each other or
against pipes through which they are transported. It is
generally agreed [5,6] that carbon particles attain a posi-
tive polarity whereas ash particles attain a negative
polarity during tribocharging. The bipolarity is taken
advantage of and enables carbonash separation within
an electric eld cell.
0016-2361/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2006.01.030
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +859 259 0011; fax: +859 259 0010.
E-mail address: john@triboow.com (J.M. Stencel).
www.fuelrst.com
Fuel 85 (2006) 22862293
By assessing the work function of idealized particles it
is possible to give a qualitative description of triboelectro-
static charging during y ash beneciation. For example,
unburned carbon particles can be assumed to possess a
work function equal to that of graphite (4.0 eV) and
ash a work function equal to that of silica or alumina
(SiO
2
: 5 eV; Al
2
O
3
:4.7 eV), respectively [79]. These
assumptions lead to positive carbon and negative ash par-
ticles, as is generally observed during laboratory and
industry processing. However, a particles work function
is highly surface dependent and can be modied by chem-
ical conditioning, even water adsorption. Water adsorp-
tion is known to enable surface ion mobility and, as a
consequence, to create reversed charge on carbon and
y ash particles during tribocharging [10,11]. If the eects
of surface conditioning were known and controllable, the
performance of triboelectrostatic beneciation technology
for the removal of unwanted carbon from y ash may be
enhanced [11,12].
However, it is not clear whether surface conditioning
plays a dominant role during carbonash beneciation
because many other variables also may inuence perfor-
mance, e.g. particle concentration in the carrier gas,
particle size, temperature, electric eld strength, degree of
turbulence. Furthermore, fundamental information on
equilibria and kinetics of ashmoisture interactions are
lacking, and their inuence on beneciation processing
has not been completely elucidated. Hence, in this study
the eect of surface moisture and thermal treatment were
investigated to better understand their inuence on gas
transport, triboelectrostatic beneciation.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Samples
The y ashes used in this study originated from two util-
ities, both tted with low-NOx burners. The y ash labelled
as CS came from an American coal-red utility and had an
average LOI of 7.0%. Three other ashes, labelled as FA1,
FA2 and FA3, came from an Italian utility burning the
same bituminous coal, and had average LOIs of 8.5%,
21.0% and 30.5%, respectively. The Italian ashes were col-
lected from the hoppers at dierent lines of an electrostatic
precipitator in a 660 MW thermoelectric power station.
Standard screens of 45, 75 and 150 lm were used to
sieve the Italian ashes into three fractions with size ranges:
<45 lm, labelled as FAS (S = small particle size); 45
75 lm, labelled as FAM (M = medium particle size); and
75150 lm, labelled as FAL (L = large particle size).
Because the fractions with smaller particle sizes typically
have lower LOIs, and because samples were to be studied
in each size fraction with LOI contents covering a broad
range, the S fractions from FA1, FA2 and FA3 were mixed
in dierent proportions, as where the M and L fractions to
create a series of ashes with specic size range and widely
variant LOI contents. During ash collection and handling
no precautions were employed to shield the samples from
atmospheric exposure.
The ashes were also examined using scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) to assess size and shape characteristics
of the particles; a Zeiss DSM 942 electron microscope
was used.
2.2. Sample treatments
After collection and handling, the ashes were contained
in sealed buckets to minimize changes in their moisture
contents. Three dierent protocols were used for ash
treatment.
First, 50 g samples were put in a glove box under 100%
relative humidity at 40 C for 12 h, and then were removed
and dried at 90 C for 18 h. These samples were labelled
TR1.
Second, to better understand the role of gas relative
humidity on tribocharging and charge reversal, 50 g sam-
ples were placed in a sealed container at 22 C which was
purged for 1 h with N
2
having the relative humidity con-
trolled between 40% and 85%; after this treatment the ashes
were removed from the container and dried at 90 C for
18 h. These samples were labelled TR2.
Third, because y ashes may be stored in areas with
uncontrolled humidity, it is important to investigate how
the kinetics of moisture sorption aects the degree of car-
bon and ash particle separation. Hence, ashes were placed
in the glove box and dried over night. Successively, aliquots
of these ashes were taken and then either processed imme-
diately or exposed to ambient conditions (55% relative
humidity, 22 C) for dierent periods up to 7 h. These sam-
ples were labelled TR3.
Also, ashes were heated during triboelectrostatic pro-
cessing during their conveyance to the electric eld separa-
tion zone. This protocol is described in detail in the
following.
2.3. Apparatus
A schematic of the laboratory-scale triboelectrostatic
separator is shown in Fig. 1. It is used, typically, to charac-
terize the separability of ne particles (diameter <100 lm)
and has a maximum feed rate capacity of 10 kg/h. Ashes
are placed in a vibratory feeder contained in a sealed tank.
As the particles fall from the feeder, they are transported
through a charging tube by gas conveyance at velocities
up to 20 m/s. The ow of the N
2
conveyance gas is con-
trolled by a rotameter.
For our experiments, the charging tube contained two
loops. Increasing the length of and turbulence within this
type of charger tube increases the chance of charging by
particleparticle collisions and particlewall collisions.
The particle-laden stream is then injected into the top of
a separation chamber or electric eld cell containing two
parallel plate, copper electrodes across which is applied a
DC voltage (020 kV).
F. Cangialosi et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 22862293 2287
Unlike in previous studies [5,6,9,13,14], the ashes were
injected close to the positive plate because such a congu-
ration was found to enhance carbon separation, especially
at high feed rates [15]. Hence, the separation between car-
bon and ash particles relied on the movement of the much
more conductive carbon particles. At the bottom of the
electric eld zone is a ow splitter that divided the particle
laden gas into two products; the transport of these prod-
ucts to the two cyclones is facilitated by an induced draft
fan.
A mass balance was performed for each test by measur-
ing the amount of ash collected from the cyclones and com-
paring it with the amount of ash fed into the system. Over
92% mass balance was achieved; the lost mass (8%) was
associated with particles either escaping the cyclones or
retained within crevices, corners and walls of the transport
tubes and cyclones.
The system was equipped with a gaswater bubbling
device to add water vapour to the carrier N
2
gas. It was
then possible to vary the relative humidity of the gas con-
tacting the ashes by mixing dry N
2
with the moistened N
2
gas.
Heating tape was wrapped around the ash charging tube
leading to the electric eld cell. The temperature of the ash-
laden gas could then be controlled by thermocouple mon-
itoring the temperature at the injection point at the top
of the cell. However, the transport velocity of the ash-laden
gas increases with increasing temperature owing to gas
thermal expansion, and this change would vary the amount
of charge imparted onto the particles [13,15,16]. To elimi-
nate any velocity factor on particle charging, the gas ow
rate into the charging tube was controlled by consideration
of gas thermal expansion.
The range of the electric eld strength tested was
between 1 and 5 kV/cm, and the feed rate was 6 kg/h to
reproduce commercial unit processing conditions [17]. To
quantify the selectivity of the process, ash product yields
and the decrease in LOI were calculated as follows:
Yield;%: Y
W
A
W
F

1
LOI reduction;%: LOI
dec
1
LOI
A
LOI
F

2
where W
A
, W
F
and LOI
A
, LOI
F
are the weight and the
LOI contents of low LOI ash products and feed ash,
respectively.
3. Results and discussion
Table 1 presents results obtained for the CS ash. The
parent exhibited very low carbon separation, with the ash
product having less than a 6% decrease in LOI. Upon sat-
uration with moisture and then drying (protocol TR1),
obvious charge reversal occurred because the LOI of the
positive polarity product (LOI+) was higher than the par-
ent and the negative polarity (LOI) product. The LOI of
the negative polarity product was close to 4% (42%
decrease) but its yield at 24% was very poor. These results
suggest that carbon reporting to the positive product for
the parent consists, at least, of two constituents: one is neg-
atively charged, from charge reversal and the other is
uncharged or minimally-charged carbon that has low
mobility within the electric eld. To assess whether most
of the carbon was either negatively or poorly charged,
the electric eld cell polarity was reversed (RP); in this case,
the electrode immediately below the injector had negative
polarity. The data in Table 1 shows only one-third of the
carbon exposed to moisture deected toward the positive
electrode. Hence, the majority of the carbon consists of
uncharged rather than reversed charged particles. This con-
clusion is in agreement with previous work [11] which
Sealed tank
Induced draft
Ash Carbon
N
2
Bag
Filter
High voltage
power supply
Mass flow
controller
Flow splitter
Diffuser
Charger tube
Flow straightners
Vibratory feeder
Fig. 1. Scheme of the experimental setup.
Table 1
Triboelectrostatic separation results for y ash CS under dierent
experimental conditions
CS
as-received
CS-
TR1
CS-TR1;
RP
CS-
TR2
CS-
Heated
Ash yield (%) 89.6 23.8 81.9 85 75
LOI parent (%) 6.4 7.4 7.1 6.5 6.6
LOI+ (%) 6.1 8.4 5.9 6 5.75
LOI (%) 9.7 4.3 12.3 10.1 9.1
LOI
dec
5.8 42.3 16.4 8.8 12.6
TR1: samples treated according to procedure TR1; TR2: samples treated
according to procedure TR2; RP: reversed electrode polarity.
2288 F. Cangialosi et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 22862293
showed that severe thermal treatments or exposure to high
humidity causes ash particles to acquire positive charge
more so than carbon particles acquiring a negative charge.
Even though humidication over long exposure times
promotes charge reversal and poor tribocharging, it was
not clear how long or how much exposure was needed to
observe charge reversal. Hence, the relationship between
transport gas relative humidity and charge reversal was
investigated within the TR2 test protocol. No charge rever-
sal was observed (all samples were identical). This result
was also independent of the relative humidity (4085%)
used during the tests.
It is well known that the amount of water adsorbed on a
particle surface is related to the relative humidity by means
of sorption isotherms. It is suggested that the degree of
charge reversal is also related to sorption isotherms. That
is, a 12 h conditioning time may be sucient to attain equi-
librium between water in vapour phase and water adsorbed
on particles during the TR1 protocol whereas during pro-
tocol TR2 equilibrium was not attained, perhaps as a con-
sequence of relatively slow sorption kinetics. Hence,
protocol TR3 was performed to examine kinetics associ-
ated with moisture adsorption and the eects on benecia-
tion performance.
Fig. 2 shows the relationship between conditioning time,
LOI
dec
and yield for the CS ash. Simply exposing it to
ambient room conditions caused important physicalchem-
ical properties to change, negatively aecting carbonash
separability. Compared to the parent (Table 1), the drying
of the CS ash and then immediately processing it created a
three-fold increase in the decrease of LOI even though the
ash yield was approximately constant. This enhancement in
carbonash separability was eliminated within the rst 2 h
of exposure to ambient conditions, and no further change
was observed for additional exposure. Hence, sorption
equilibrium was attained within 2 h, the result of which is
consistent with literature reports on moisture sorption
kinetics of hygroscopic and moderately hygroscopic sub-
stances [18].
Charge reversal was not observed as a consequence of
the TR3 treatment, thus agreeing with results showing it
is dependent on either wetting of the y ash surface or
exposing the surface to a water saturated environment
[11]. It also can be concluded that, since charge reversal
plays a marginal role in increasing separation eciency,
there may be little room for improving triboelectrostatic
system performance by chemical modications which aect
the mobility of surface ions. In fact, the separator geometry
used in this study relies on the mobility of carbon particles;
they were barely charged for the parent ash and did not sig-
nicantly undergo charge reversal.
Additional experiments were performed in which the
parent CS was stored in the glove box overnight under
low relative humidity (<20%) at 60 C and then processed
immediately when removed from the glove box. Results
presented in Table 1 (CS heated sample) conrm that the
degree of carbonash separation was increased as com-
pared to the parent ash, the eect of which is probably
related to the removal of surface moisture.
The tube in which ash was conveyed to the electric eld
cell was also heated between 50 and 80 C and its eect
on carbonash separation examined. In this case, the total
time the ash is exposed to elevated temperatures is less
than or equal to one second. Results of this treatment,
displayed in Fig. 3, show a two-to-three fold increase in
LOI
dec
. At electric eld strengths below 3 kV/cm, the
degree of carbon removal is proportional to the electric
eld. Above 3 kV/cm, carbonash separation performance
decreased, an eect associated with particle bouncing
from the electrodes [13,16]: when particles impact either
electrode with high momentum, gained by interaction of
their tribocharge with the electric, they exchange charge
with the electrode and then accelerate toward the opposite
electrode.
Although the LOI
dec
versus electric eld using 65 and
80 C are nearly identical, it is interesting to point out that
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 2 4 6 8
Exposure time [h]
L
O
I
d
e
c

[
%
]
50
60
70
80
90
100
Y
i
e
l
d

[
%
]
LOI dec
Yield
Fig. 2. Yield and LOI
dec
for y ash sample CS treated according to
scheme TR3.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 1 2 3 4
E (kV/cm)
Y
i
e
l
d
,

L
O
I
d
e
c

[
%
]
Yield, 22 C
LOI dec, 22 C
Yield, 50 C
LOI dec, 80 C
Yield, 65 C
LOI dec, 65 C
Yield, 80 C
LOI dec, 50 C
Fig. 3. Eect of electric eld strength and nitrogen temperature on yield
and LOI
dec
of ash sample CS.
F. Cangialosi et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 22862293 2289
the yield continued to improve as the temperature was
increased. Nevertheless, the LOI
dec
in Fig. 3 never attained
values as high as the LOI
dec
in Fig. 2, i.e. heating for short
time periods (61 s) did not result in as great LOI
dec
c as
heating for long periods of time. This result suggests there
may two types of moisture sorption sites on the CS ash,
one of which involves rapid and the other or which involves
slow moisture adsorption kinetics.
Improvements in the performance of triboelectrostatic
beneciation related to surface moisture removal is evi-
dently related to physicalchemical changes in the charging
step and/or the separation step. Although water aected
both the charging step and subsequent charge dissipation
in other work [1921], it has also been shown that sur-
face moisture and the use of moderate temperatures did
not aect work function dierences between contacting
materials [22]. Additionally, the time constant of charge
dissipation is not believed to be small enough to cause sig-
nicant decrease in particle charge during the experimental
conditions used herein [5]. Even though work function
changes and charge dissipation seem not to be directly
inuenced by surface moisture, the inuence of moisture
on charge transfer, especially when particles disengage
after colliding and the inuence of moisture on particle
agglomeration need to be examined further.
For the latter issue, it is surmised that adsorbed water
aects charging and separation because higher surface
moisture lowers the degree of particle liberation. It is
known that y ash particles are moisture-sensitive materi-
als that aggregate [23] due to moisture in the environment:
when particles are moisturized, there forms a thin liquid
lm on the surface of the grains which acts as a binder
and increases adhesion forces. In order to observe such
agglomerates with SEM, samples were prepared by adding
water to the ash powder. The mixture was stirred and then
sonicated in an ultrasonic bath to prevent agglomeration in
the solution. A droplet was placed on a 47 mm diameter
0.45 lm pore size polycarbonate lter and most of the
water was removed by decreasing the pressure of the sys-
tem using a water pump; powders were then dried in an
oven at 80 C for 12 h. The surface of the specimens were
sputtered with a thin layer of gold before SEM examina-
tion. Ashash clusters are observed in Fig. 4, as well as
irregularly-shaped char particles which enclose some small
ash particles in the larger sized pores (ashcarbon clusters).
The agglomeration of ash particles is suggested to be the
result of drying of the solution [24].
By removing the moisture in the pneumatic line,
agglomerates loose cohesion [25] and can be more easily
disaggregated by multiple collisions before entering the
electric eld. There would be two consequences if moisture
removal weakened cohesive forces between the particles.
First, the charging process would be enhanced because
the surface area per unit mass of ash that is available for
tribocharging increases when cluster size is reduced. Sec-
ond, carbonash separation would be enhanced because
particle liberation is increased. Although the ashash clus-
ters are more likely to be disaggregated when the tempera-
ture is increased, forces other that those caused by moisture
maintain ash particles interlocked in carbon. For example,
it has been previously reported that pneumatic transport,
tribo-electrostatic separation allows the separation of some
ashcarbon clusters [26]. Nevertheless, some particles may
require greater forces to disrupt the particle agglomeration.
A series of experiments were carried out on samples
FA1-3 to investigate this aspect. Fig. 5(a)(c) shows that
higher treatment temperatures of the low and intermedi-
ate LOI ash samples FA1-2 caused the ash products to
have increasingly diminished LOI contents and increased
yields.
For the high LOI ash FA-3, higher treatment tempera-
tures led to ash products with increasingly diminished
LOI contents but decreased yields. Perhaps, although some
ashash clusters were disaggregated at the higher tempera-
tures, many ash particles were still embedded in the char
particles (Fig. 6) so that when they report to the negative
electrode, they also carry the small ash particles with them,
thereby reducing ash yields.
According to the aforementioned hypothesis, the larger
the carbon particles are compared to ash particles and the
higher their LOI content, the smaller the eect of treatment
temperature will be on separation eciency. It is then rea-
sonable to examine whether increasing treatment tempera-
ture would aect the LOI
dec
when the ash and carbon
particles were of the same size. This issue was studied by
using several synthetic fractions (FAL, FAM, FAS), pro-
cessed either at room temperature or 80 C and with an
applied electric eld of 2 kV/cm.
Fig. 7 shows results for samples FAL (size 75150 lm).
The decrease in LOIs and yields were barely aected by
treatment temperature. Although, the LOI
dec
was near
23% when the LOI content was between 35% and 45%, it
abruptly decreased to 13% when the LOI was above 50%.
Hence, the tests provided good carbon removal when the
LOI was below 50% but not good carbon removal when
the LOI was above 50%.
Fig. 4. Ash clusters in and surrounding char particles (SEM photograph).
2290 F. Cangialosi et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 22862293
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
20
40
60
80
100
120
E (kV/cm)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
E (kV/cm)
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
E (kV/cm)
Y
i
e
l
d
,

L
O
I
d
e
c

[
%
]
Y
i
e
l
d
,

L
O
I
d
e
c

[
%
]
Y
i
e
l
d
,

L
O
I
d
e
c

[
%
]
Yield, 22 C LOI dec, 22 C
Yield, 65 C LOI dec, 65 C
Yield, 80 C LOI dec, 80 C
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Yield, 65 C LOI dec, 65 C
Yield, 80 C LOI dec, 80 C
Yield, 22 C LOI dec, 22 C
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Yield, 22 C LOI dec, 22 C
LOI dec, 65 C Yield, 80 C
LOI dec, 80 C Yield, 65 C
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 5. (a)(c): Eect of electric eld strength and nitrogen temperature on yield and LOI
dec
of ash samples FA1-3.
Fig. 6. Ash particles entrapped in the porous structure of a big unburned
carbon particle (SEM photograph).
0
20
40
60
80
100
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
LOI
0
[%]
Yield, HL Yield, NO HL
LOI dec, HL LOI dec, NO HL
Y
i
e
l
d
,

L
O
I
d
e
c

[
%
]
Fig. 7. Eect of heating line on separation performances (yield and
LOI
dec
) for synthetic mixture FAL. HL: separation with the heated line;
NO HL: separation without the heated line.
F. Cangialosi et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 22862293 2291
Results for samples FAM (4575 lm) are shown in
Fig. 8. With no heating, the LOI
dec
and yields were not
aected by the LOI content of the ash. A remarkable
increase in separability was achieved after heating for sam-
ples having LOI contents below 15%. These eects may be
inuenced by the liberation within ashcarbon and ashash
clusters [11]; at high LOIs, the inuence of ashcarbon
clusters may overwhelm any eects of the liberation of
ashash clusters. Fig. 9 displays results for samples FAS
(<45 lm). Without heating, the LOI
dec
was below 10%
and decreased to 0% when the sample LOI was 15%.
While for sample FAL the eect of space charge could be
signicant, i.e. a high concentration of charged carbon par-
ticles negating the eect of the electric eld, in this case an
elevated specic charge of small particles [13] could also
cause separation eciency to decrease at high LOI.
Upon heating of the sample, a four fold increase in
the LOI
dec
occurred and the ash product yield was also
slightly increased. These two eects agree with the inuence
of disaggregating ashash clusters. Carbonash clusters
would not be as dominant nor inuential for this particle
size fraction.
4. Conclusions
Gas transport, triboelectrostatic beneciation was used
to experimentally investigate how relative humidity and
water adsorption aects carbonash separability of four
coal combustion y ashes. Signicant benecial eects of
heating ashes before or during triboelectrostatic benecia-
tion were observed. These results were related to changes
in particle surface characteristics and particleparticle
adhesive forces caused by adsorbed moisture. The increase
in carbonash separabilities upon heating was most evident
for ashes having the smallest particle size. Coupling
enhanced separabilities with changes in ash product yields,
it was hypothesized that disaggregation of ashash and
ashcarbon clusters was also inuential in improving ben-
eciation performance. Overall, the triboelectrostatic bene-
ciation of ne sized powders before and after heating
easily delineates their propensity to adsorb ambient
moisture.
Acknowledgment
The nancial support for the present study by MIUR
under grant 12941/01 Sviluppo di un sistema innovativo
per la produzione di ceneri di qualita` Ceneri DOC is
gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Belz G, Caramuscio P. Production of high value coal y ash.
Available from: <www.enel.it>.
[2] USGS Mineral Industry Survey, US Department of the Interior,
April 2004.
[3] BS EN 450 Fly ash for concrete denitions, requirements and
quality control, British Standards Institution, London, 1995.
[4] ASTM C-6181990 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 04.02,
p. 298300.
[5] Ban H. An experimental study of particulate charge relating to
electrostatic dry coal cleaning. PhD Dissertation, University of
Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 1994.
[6] Soong Y, Schostall MR, Link TA. Fuel 2001;80:879.
[7] Fomenko VS. Handbook of thermionic properties. New York: Ple-
num Press Data Division; 1966.
[8] Gupta R, Gidaspow D, Wasan DT. Powder Technol 1993;75:79.
[9] Soong Y, Schostall MR, Gray ML, Knoer JP, Champagne KJ,
Jones RJ, et al. Sep Purif Technol 2002;26:177.
[10] Li TX, Schaefer JL, Neathery JK, Ban H, Finseth D, Stencel JM.
ACS Div Fuel Chem Prepr 1998;43:1010.
[11] Baltrus JP, Rodney Diehl J, Soong Y, Sands W. Fuel 2002;81:757.
[12] Manouchehri HR, Hanumantha Rao K, Forssberg KSE. Min Metall
Process 2000;17:139.
[13] Li T. An experimental study of particle charge and charge exchange
related to triboelectrostatic beneciation. PhD dissertation, Depart-
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
LOI dec, HL Yield, HL
Yield, NO HL LOI dec, NO HL
LOI
0
[%]
Y
i
e
l
d
,

L
O
I
d
e
c

[
%
]
Fig. 8. Eect of heating line on separation performances (yield and
LOI
dec
) for synthetic mixture FAM. HL: separation with the heated line;
NO HL: separation without the heated line.
LOI dec, HL Yield, HL
Yield, No HL LOI dec, NO HL
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5 10 15 20
LOI
0
[%]
Y
i
e
l
d
,

L
O
I
d
e
c

[
%
]
Fig. 9. Eect of heating line on separation performances (yield and
LOI
dec
) for synthetic mixture FAS. HL: separation with the heated line;
NO HL: separation without the heated line.
2292 F. Cangialosi et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 22862293
ment of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
KY, 1999.
[14] Jiang X, Tao D, Stencel JM. Coal Prep 2003;23:67.
[15] Cangialosi F. Dry triboelectrostatic beneciation of coal combustion
y ash. PhD dissertation, Department of Environmental Engineering
and Sustainable Development, Technical University of Bari, Taranto,
Italy, 2005.
[16] Kim JK, Cho HC, Kim SC, Chun HS. J Environ Sci Health Part A
2000;3:357.
[17] Lockert C, Dunn K, Stencel JM. In: Proc Int Ash Utiliz Symp,
Lexington, 2003.
[18] Stubberud L, Arwidsson HG, Graner C. Int J Pharmaceut
1995;114:55.
[19] Lee LH, Weser JE. J Electrost 1979;6:281.
[20] Hangsubcharoen M, Yan ES, Yoon R-H, Luttrell GH. Preprint
for Annual Society for Mining Metallurgy and Exploration Meeting,
Salt Lake City, UT, 2000.
[21] Rowley G, Mackin LA. Powder Technol 2003;135136:50.
[22] Nomura T, Satoh T, Masuda H. Powder Technol 2003;135136:43.
[23] Prabhakaran K, Warrier KGK, Rothagi Pradeep K. Ceram Int
2001;27:749.
[24] Maskara A, Smith DM. J Am Ceram Soc 1997;80:1715.
[25] Goldszal A, Bousquet J. Powder Technol 2001;117:221.
[26] Baltrus JP, Wells AW, Fauth DJ, Diehl JR, White CM. Energy Fuels
2001;15:455.
F. Cangialosi et al. / Fuel 85 (2006) 22862293 2293