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Zootherapy goes to town: The use of animal-based

remedies in urban areas of NE and N Brazil


R omulo R.N. Alves
a,
, Ierec e L. Rosa
b
a
Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraba, Av. das Bara unas, 351/Campus Universit ario,
Bodocong o 58109-753, Campina Grande, PB, Brazil
b
Departamento de Sistem atica e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraba, 58051-900 Jo ao Pessoa, PB, Brazil
Abstract
This paper examines the therapeutic possibilities offered by animal-based remedies in ve Brazilian cities. Information was obtained through
semi-structured questionnaires applied to 79 traders of medicinal animals at S ao Lus, Teresina, Jo ao Pessoa and Campina Grande (Northeastern)
and Bel em (Northern) Brazil. We recorded the use of 97 animal species as medicines, whose products were recommended for the treatment of 82
illnesses. The most frequently quoted treatments concerned the respiratory system (58 species; 407 use-citations), the osteomuscular system and
conjunctive tissue (46 species; 384 use-citations), and the circulatory system (34 species; 124 use-citations). Mammals (27 species), followed by
reptiles (24) and shes (16) represented the bulk of medicinal species. In relation to users, 53% of the interviewees informed that zootherapeuticals
resources were sought after by people from all social classes, while 47% stated that low income people were the main buyers. The notable
use and commercialization of medicinal animals to alleviate and cure health problems and ailments in cities highlights the resilience of that
resource in the folk medicine. Most remedies quoted by interviewees depend on wild-caught animals, including some species under ofcial
protection. Among other aspects, the harvesting of threatened species confers zootherapy a role in the discussions about biodiversity conservation
in Brazil.
Keywords: Zootherapy; Brazil; Traditional medicines
1. Introduction
The use of biological resources for various therapies has
been documented in different parts of the world, largely on the
basis of studies carried out in remote regions, where traditional
medicines (TM) may provide a de facto alternative for primary
health care systems (e.g., Robineau and Soejarto, 1996; Agra et
al., 2006; Uniyal et al., 2006).
Recent studies, however, have highlighted the relevant role
played by TM in cosmopolitan areas (e.g., Balick et al., 2000,
2003; Maca et al., 2005), where health care needs gener-
ally are met by mainstream services, such as hospitals and
allopathic pharmacies. Such co-existence of TM and conven-
tional medicine points to strong socioeconomic and cultural
ties which prevent the later from completely displacing the

Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 83 32167775; fax: +55 83 32167775.


E-mail address: romulo nobrega@yahoo.com.br (R.R.N. Alves).
former in urban areas, and to a perceived efcacy of TM by
consumers.
While the connections between traditional botanical reme-
dies and conventional medicine in urban settings have been
explored in scientic publications (e.g., Vivienne et al., 2000;
Balick et al., 2000, 2003; Maca et al., 2005; Albuquerque et al.,
2007), there is a dearth of information on the use of animals as
medicine by city dwellers.
Here we examine the therapeutic possibilities offered by
animal-based remedies in ve Brazilian cities situated in the
regions with the lowest socioeconomic development within the
country (IBGE, 2006). By investigating TM and use of animal-
based remedies in urban settings in a biologically and culturally
diverse developing country, we hope to further stimulate dis-
cussions about the cultural and socioeconomic ties which allow
TM to persevere in metropolitan areas, and to further explore
the connections between primary health care, zootherapy and
wildlife conservation.
Fig. 1. Map showing the surveyed cities and states in Brazil.
2. Methods
2.1. Study sites
Our research focused on the following cities: Bel em (North),
S ao Lus, Teresina, Jo ao Pessoa and Campina Grande (North-
east), the rst four being state capitals (Fig. 1).
Generally, human communities in the surveyed areas repre-
sent a mixture of native tribes, Europeans and Africans. In S ao
Luis and Bel em, however, the presence of black and native ethnic
groups is more pronounced (http://www.ibge.gov.br).
2.2. Procedures
To gain an initial understanding of the medicinal ani-
mal trade we visited (January 2002March 2003) outdoor
markets situated in the cities of Salvador, Teresina, S ao
Lus, Vit oria, Macei o, Recife, Goi ania, Bel em, and Porto
Alegre. Subsequently, we visited outdoor markets in the
cities of S ao Lus (JanuaryFebruary/2004), Jo ao Pessoa
and Campina Grande (MarchJune/2004), Teresina and
Bel em (NovemberDecember/2005), where we interviewed
79 merchants (45 men and 34 women) about the use and
commercialization of medicinal animals (23 interviewees in
Bel em, 21 in S ao Lus, 21 in Teresina, 10 in Jo ao Pessoa and
4 in Campina Grande). Demographics of the interviewees are
summarized in Table 1.
The sampling method was non-random, and the intervie-
wees were pre-dened (Albuquerque and Paiva, 2004). Attempts
were made to interview all animal merchants in the markets
visited, however some interviews were cancelled, or failed to
provide much information, because interviewees were reluctant
to answer questions.
The information obtained through semi-structured interviews
was complemented by free interviews (Huntington, 2000). In
the structured interviews, the interviewees were requested to
furnish for each animal: vernacular name, folk use, parts used,
preparation and administration of remedy, restrictions of use and
storage conditions. Additionally, they were asked to cite reasons
why the remedy was sought after by the consumer, how they
learned about the remedy, how far back in time they thought the
use of a given remedy started, and cultural aspects related to the
zootherapeutic practices.
Vernacular names of species were recorded as quoted dur-
ing interviews; zoological material was identied with the aid
of specialists, through (a) examination of voucher specimens
Table 1
Information on educational attainment, age, income, and gender of intervie-
wees. Brazilian minimum wage approximately equivalent to US$ 105 at the
time surveys took place
Gender
Male 45(57%)
Female 34(43%)
Age
2029 11(14%)
3039 16(20%)
4049 12(15%)
5059 23(29%)
6069 14(18%)
70 or older 3(4%)
Educational attainment
Illiterate 3(4%)
Attended school for 8 years 17(22%)
Attended school for less than 8 years 47(59%)
Finished high school 12(15%)
Monthly income
Less than minimum wage 2(3%)
One to two times minimum wage 49(62%)
Three to four times minimum wage 16(20%)
Four to ve times minimum wage 8(10%)
Over ve times minimum wage 4(5%)
donated by the interviewees or purchased at the surveyed mar-
kets; (b) photographs of the animal species or their parts, taken
during interviews; whenever necessary, procedures (a) and (b)
were supplemented by checking vernacular names provided by
traders with scientic names, with the aid of taxonomists famil-
iar with the study areas. Voucher specimens and/or photographs
were deposited at the Department of Systematics and Ecology,
Universidade Federal da Paraba. Correspondence between the
vernacular and scientic names of plant species (n =2) followed
the work of Shanley and Luz (2003).
2.3. Data analysis
Initially, the reputed therapeutic effects and ailments treated
were grouped into 18 categories (Table 2) based on the classi-
cation used by the Centro Brasileiro de Classicac ao de Doencas
(1993) (Brazilian Center for the Classication of Diseases), fol-
lowing Alves and Rosa (2006, 2007).
To estimate use variability of the medicinal animals was
calculated the informant consensus factor (ICF), adapted from
Heinrich et al. (1998). This factor estimates the relationship
between the number of use-reports in each category (n
ur
) minus
the number of taxa used (n
t
) and the number of use-reports
in each category minus 1. ICF is thus calculated using the
following formula:
ICF =
n
ur
n
t
n
ur
1
The product of this factor ranges from 0 to 1. A high value
(close to 1) indicates that relatively few taxa (usually species)
are used by a large proportion of people, while a low value
indicates that the informants disagree on the taxa to be used in
the treatment within a category of illness.
2.3.1. Use-value
For each species was calculated the use-value (adapted from
the proposal of Phillips et al., 1994), a quantitative method
that demonstrates the relative importance of species known
locally. These value was calculated using the following formula:
UV=

U/n, where: UV is the use-value of a species; U the


number of citations per species; n is the number of informants.
Application of the use-value of each species is based objec-
tively on the importance attributed by the informants and does
not depend on the opinion of the researcher.
3. Results and discussion
Table 3 summarizes the names of animals used as remedies,
parts used, diseases for which they are prescribed and mode
of preparation and use. Interviewees quoted 97 animal species
distributed in 69 families, of which mammals (27 species), fol-
lowed by reptiles (24) and shes (16) represented the bulk of
medicinal species.
The predominance of mammals, reptiles and shes in the
medicinal trade has been found in other Brazilian studies (e.g.,
Silva et al., 2004; Alves and Pereira-Filho, 2007; Almeida and
Albuquerque, 2002), and has also been observed in some other
countries (e.g. V azquez et al., 2006; Apaza et al., 2003). Like-
wise, the materials used in the remedies were consistent with
those previously reported in Brazil (e.g. Branch and Silva, 1983;
Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Silva et al., 2004; Alves and
Pereira-Filho, 2007; Alves et al., in press), and elsewhere (e.g.,
El-Kamali, 2000; Apaza et al., 2003; V azquez et al., 2006). Pro-
cessing of the animal parts is done in a manner similar to that
recorded among shing communities in Brazil (Alves and Rosa,
2006, 2007; Alves, 2006).
The most frequently cited animals (>30 citations) were:
Hippocampus reidi Ginsburg, 1933 (Syngnathidae)seahorse
Table 2
Categories of diseases treated with zootherapic remedies in surveyed cities, according to the Brazilian Center for the Classication of Diseases (1993)
Categories Diseases and illnesses mentioned by respondents Total
A Asthma, bronchitis, cough, u, pneumony, sore throat, tonsillitis, pharyngitis and nasal congestion 9
B Arthritis, arthrosis, backache, osteoporosis, rheumatism, muscular pain and bursitis 7
C Ulcer, hernia, poor digestion, stomach ache, gastritis, toothache and liver diseases 7
D Haemorrhoids, thrombosis, heart diseases and varicoses 4
E Deafness and earache 2
F Alcoholism, stings (shes, crustaceans, snakes and insects), swelling and suck a splinter out of skin or esh 4
G Wounds, burns, luxation, muscle strain and fractures 5
H Disorders after partutirion (to accelerate recovery after parturition), pain in the parturition 2
I Menstrual disorders, prostate problems, menstrual cramps and renal failure 4
J Tumour and fever 2
L Cancer (in general) and prostate cancer 2
M Amoebiasis, diarrhoea, erysipelas, tuberculosis, schistosomiasis and leprosy 6
N Anaemia 1
O Epilepsy, headache and Parkinsons disease 3
P Infection, irritation when milk teeth are erupting, inammation, cracks in the sole of the feet, to assist children who take longer than
usual to start walking, coarse throat, allergy, diabetes, itching, wrinkle, rib cage pain, diseases of the nerves, blackhead, convulsion,
dermatophytosis, congestion
16
Q Boil, skin spots, acne, pitiriase, vitiligo and cellulitis 6
R Male impotence 1
S Cataracts 1
Total 82
Table 3
Animals species commercialized in popular medicine at the surveyed cities
Family/species/local name Part used and way of administration Disease (or illness) treated Citations/use-value
BE SL TE JP CG
Cnidarians
Physaliidae
Physalia physalia (Linnaeus,
1758)Portuguese; man-of-war,
Caravela
Whole animal (1) Asthma 2/0.09
Molluscs
Ostreidae
Crassostrea rhizophorae
(Guilding, 1828)mangrove oyster, ostra do
mangue
Shell (3) Osteoporosis and cataracts 1/0.04 4/0.19
Mytilidae
Mytella guyanensis Lamarck
(1819)mussel, sururu
Flesh (6) and shell (3) Osteoporosis 1/0.05
Veronicellidae
SlugsLesma; unidentied species Whole animal (11) Sore throat 1/0.10
Chelicerata
Theraphosidae
Tarantulasaranha caranguejeira;
unidentied species
Whole animal (9) Pain relief caused by sting of
animals
1/0.05
Crustacea
Palaemonidae
Macrobrachium sp.river shrimp,
camar ao
Spine (apendices) (13) Irritation when milk teeth are
erupting
1/0.10
Chilopoda
Scolopendridae
Scolopendra sp.centipede, centop eia Whole animal (9) Pain relief caused by sting of
animals
1/0.05
Insecta
Formicidae
Dinoponera quadriceps Santschi,
1921trinca cunh ao
Whole animal (1) Asthma 1/0.25
Apidae
Melipona scutellaris Latreille, 1811a
species of stingless bee, uruc u
Honey (10, 8) Flu, amoebiasis, thrombosis,
cataracts, tuberculosis and coarse
throat
1/0.04 2/0.09 2/0.50
Melipona subnitida (Ducke,
1910)jandara
Honey (10, 8) Flu, asthma, thrombosis,
amoebiasis and tuberculosis
2/0.09 1/0.25
Apis mellifera Linnaeus,
1758Africanised honey bee, abelha
italiana
Honey (10, 8) Flu, asthma, thrombosis,
amoebiasis, tuberculosis, coarse
throat and prostate problems
3/0.13 4/0.19 17/0.81 2/0.50
Melipona compressipes (Fabricius,
1804)a species of stingless bee,
ti uba
Honey (10, 8) Flu, rheumatism, thrombosis,
swelling and prostate problems
1/0.04 4/0.19 13/0.62
Tetragonisca angustula (Latreille,
1811)abelha mosquito
Honey (10, 8) Flu and asthma 1/0.04
Scaptotrigona sp.abelha canudo Honey (10, 8) and wax (4) Flu, asthma and coarse throat 2/0.10
Melpona sp.abelha manduri Honey (10, 8) Flu and asthma 2/0.10
Chrysomelidae
Coraliomela brunnea Thumberg,
1821barata de coqueiro
Whole animal (1) Epilepsy 1/0.10 1/0.25
Vespidae
Waspmarimbondo, unidentied
species
Whole animal (11) Menstrual cramps 1/0.10
Echinoderms
Oreasteridae
Oreaster reticulatus (Linnaeus,
1758)starsh, estrela-do-mar
Whole animal (1) Asthma 2/0.09 4/0.19 2/0.10 5/0.05 3/0.75
Astropectinidae
Astropecten sp.starsh, estrela-do-mar Whole animal (1) Asthma, bronchitis, diabetes and
heart diseases
11/0.48 4/0.19 1/0.05 4/0.04 4/1.00
Echinasteridae
Echinaster sp.starsh, estrela do mar Whole animal (1) Asthma 11/0.48 1/0.05 1/0.05 4/0.04 4/1.00
Luidiidae
Luidia senegalensis (Lamarck,
1816)starsh, estrela-do-mar
Whole animal (1) Asthma 1/0.01 1/0.25
Mellitidae
Encope sp.notched sand dollar, bolacha
de praia
Whole animal (1) Asthma 1/0.10
Fishes
Syngnathidae
Hippocampus reidi Ginsburg,
1933longsnout seahorse,
cavalo-marinho
Whole animal (1) Trombosis, alcoholism, male
impotence, osteoporosis,
diabetes, heart diseases,
bronchitis, asthma, cancer and
rheumatism
18/0.78 13/0.68 10/0.48 8/0.80 03/0.75
Balistidae
Balistes vetula Linnaeus, 1758queen
triggersh, cangulo
Skin (1) Asthma and backache 13/0.57
Osteoglossidae
Arapaima gigas (Cuvier, 1829)arapaima,
pirarucu
Scale (1) Asthma 4/0.17
Pristidae
Pristis perotteti M uller and Henlle
1841Sawsh, espadarte
Rostral expansion (1) Asthma, rheumatism and arthritis 7/0.30
Pristis pectinata Latham, 1794Sawsh,
espadarte
Rostral expansion (1) Asthma, rheumatism and arthritis 7/0.03
Megalopidae
Megalops atlanticus Valenciennes,
1847tarpon, perapema,
camurupim
Scale (1) Asthma 2/0.09 2/0.10
Table 3 (Continued )
Family/species/local name Part used and way of administration Disease (or illness) treated Citations/use-value
BE SL TE JP CG
Sciaenidae
Cynoscion leiarchus Cuvier,
1830)Smooth weaksh, pescada
branca
Otolit (1) Renal failure 1/0.05
Cynoscion acoupa (Lacepede,
1802)Acoupa weaksh, pescada
amarela
Otolit (1) Renal failure 1/0.05
Erythrinidae
Hoplias malabaricus (Bloch,
1794)Trahira, trara
Fat (1, 4) Erysipelas, rheumatism and
wounds
1/0.05 1/0.25
Sphyrnidae
Sphyrna sp.Hammerhead shark,
Martelo
Cartilage (3) Osteoporosis 1/0.05
Gymnotidae
Electrophorus electricus (Linnaeus,
1766)electric eel, poraqu e
Fat (4) Rheumatism and thrombosis 3/0.13 8/0.33 4/0.19
Loricaridae
Acariunidentied species Skin (1) Asthma 1/0.05
Unidentied family
Atalaiaunidentied species Fat (4) Rheumatism 2/0.10
Carcharhinidae
Carcharhinus limbatus (Ranzani,
1840)Blackn shark, Sucuri preto
Cartilage (3) Osteoporosis 1/0.05
Potamotrygonidae
Arraia de agua doceray, unidentied
species
Tail (1) and fat (4) Asthma, rheumatism and arthritis 1/0.04 8/0.38
Dasyatidae
Dasyatis sp.ray Tail (1) and fat (4) Asthma, rheumatism and arthritis 2/0.09
Amphibians
Bufonidae
Bufo sp.toad, sapo Whole animal (2) Wounds 2/0.10
Leptodactylidae
Leptodactylus sp. gia Fat (4) Boils 1/0.05
Unidentied family
Frogr a, unidentied species Fresh (6) Vitiligo 1/0.05
Reptiles
Boidae
Boa constrictor Linnaeus, 1758Boa,
jib oia
Fat (1, 3) Asthma, ulcer, stomach ache,
infection, erysipelas,
inammation, rheumatism,
luxation, diabetes, renal failure
and hearth diseases
15/0.65 20/0.95 1/0.10 1/0.25
Eunectes murinus (Linnaeus,
1758)anaconda, sucuruj u, sucuri
Fat (1, 4) Rheumatism, infection,
erysipelas, inammation, asthma,
thrombosis and cancer prostate
12/0.52 8/0.38 8/0.38
Corallus caninus (Linnaeus,
1758)American emerald tree boa,
cobra papagaio
Whole animal (9) Pain relief caused by sting of
animals
1/0.05
Viperidae
Crotalus durissus (Linnaeus,
1758)Neotropical rattlesnake,
cascavel
Fat (1, 4), skin (1) and rattle (1) Gastritis, skin spots, rheumatism,
backache, renal failures,
swelling, asthma, cancer,
osteoporosis, thrombosis, boils,
toothache and varicoses
9/0.39 16/0.76 20/0.95 2/0.20 2/0.50
Bothrops sp.lancehead, jararaca Whole animal (9) Pain relief caused by sting of
animals
2/0.10 1/0.25
Lachesis muta (Linnaeus,
1766)bushmaster, surucucu pico de
jaca
Fat (4) Arthritis, rheumatism and
swelling
3/0.13
Epicrates cenchria (Linnaeus,
1758)Rainbow boa, salamanta
Fat (4, 10) Rheumatism and sore throat 1/0.25
Elapidae
Micrurus sp.Coral snake; coral
verdadeira
Fat (4), whole animal (9) Rheumatism and pain relief
caused by sting of animals
1/0.05
Colubridae
Spilotes pullatus (Linnaeus, 1758)(tiger
snake), caninana
Whole animal (9) Pain relief caused by sting of
animals
1/0.04
Leptophis ahetula (Linnaeus,
1758)parrot snake, cobra cip o
Whole animal (9) Pain relief caused by sting of
animals
1/0.05
Oxyrhopus trigeminus (Dum eril, Bibron
and Dum eril, 1845)false coral snake;
falsa coral
Whole animal (9) Pain relief caused by sting of
animals
1/0.25
Alligatoridae
Paleosuchus palpebrosus (Cuvier,
1807)Cayman, jacar e coroa
Skin (1, 3), fresh (6), fat (1,4), penis (1, 7) Menstrual disorders, thrombosis,
pitiriase, u, thrombosis,
diarrhea, leprosy, osteoporosis,
asthma, rheumatism and
erysipelas
5/0.22 10/0.47 8/0.38 8/0.80 3/0.75
Cayman crocodilus (Linnaeus,
1758)jacar e tinga
Skin (1, 3), fresh (6), fat (1, 4) Colics, thrombosis, pitiriase, u,
thrombosis, diarrhea, leprosy,
osteoporosis, asthma,
rheumatism and erysipelas
13/0.57 9/0.42 10/0.48 4/0.40 3/0.75
Caiman latirostris (Daudin,
1801)cayman, jacar e do
papo-amarelo
Skin (1, 3), fresh (6), fat (1, 4) Colics, thrombosis, pitiriase, u,
thrombosis, diarrhea, leprosy,
osteoporosis, asthma,
rheumatism and erysipelas
2/0.05 14/0.67 8/0.80 3/0.75
Melanoshucus niger (Spix, 1825)Black
caiman, jacare ac u
Fat (1, 4), skin (1) and penis (1, 7) Thrombosis, asthma, male
impotence, bronchitis, epilepsy,
rheumatism, arthrosis and
Parkinsons disease
17/0.74
Table 3 (Continued )
Family/species/local name Part used and way of administration Disease (or illness) treated Citations/use-value
BE SL TE JP CG
Iguanidae
Iguana iguana (Linnaeus, 1758)common
iguana, camale ao
Fat (1, 4), bone (1) and tail (1) Rheumatism, sore throat,
swelling, burns, tumour, suck a
splinter out of skin or esh,
inammation and u
3/0.13 3/0.14 1/0.75
Teiidae
Tupinambis merianae (Dum eril and
Bibron, 1839)tegu, tejuac u
Fat (4) Epilepsy, skin spots, earache,
deafness, asthma, sore throat and
boils
13/0.61 5/0.50 3/0.75
Tupinambis teguixin (Linnaeus
1758)tegu, tejuac u
Fat (4) and tail (1) Epilepsy, skin spots, earache,
deafness, asthma, sore throat and
boils
4/0.17 5/0.23
Chelidae
Phrynops geoffroanus (Schweigger,
1812)Geoffroys side-necked turtle,
c agado
Carapace (1) and fat (1, 4) Thrombosis, pitriase, boils,
earache, tonsillitis and asthma
2/0.10 4/0.40 1/0.25
Gekkonidae
Hemidactylus mabouia (Moreau de Jonnes,
1818)Afro-American house gecko,
lagartixa de lajedo
Whole animal (11) Sore throat 1/0.25
Tropiduridae
Tropidurus hispidus (Spix, 1825)lava
lizard, lagartixa
Whole animal (11) Sore throat, tonsillitis and
pharyngitis
2/0.20 1/0.25
Testudinidae
Geochelone carbonaria (Spix,
1824)Red-footed tortoise, jabuti do
p e vermelho
Carapace (1), fat (1, 4), liver (6) and blood
(10)
Thrombosis, ptiriase, epilepsy,
liver diseases, rheumatism,
asthma, arthrosis, arthritis and
osteoporosis
4/0.17 2/0.10
Geochelone denticulata (Linnaeus,
1766)yellow-footed tortoise, jabuti
do p e amarelo
Carapace (1), fat (1, 4) and liver (6) Rheumatism, asthma, arthrosis,
arthritis and osteoporosis
4/0.17 1/0.05
Podocnemididae
Podocnemis expansa (Schweiger,
1812)Amazon river turtle, tartaruga
da amaz onia
Fat (1, 4) Rheumatism, arthrosis,
blackhead, acne, skin spots,
swelling, inammation, arthritis,
wrinkle and cellulitis
17/0.74
Birds
Phasianidae
Gallus domesticus Linnaeus,
1758domestic chicken, Galinha
Fat (1, 4) and gizzard (6) Tumour, poor digestion, cough
and nasal congestion
2/0.09 1/0.05 7/0.33 4/0.40 2/0.50
Cathartidae
Coragyps atratus (Bechstein, 1793)black
vulture, urubu
Feather (1), liver (6) and beak (1) Anaemia, bronchitis, u and
alcoholism
3/0.13 1/0.05 1/0.05 1/0.10
Rheidae
Rhea americana (Linnaeus,
1758)Greater Rhea, ema
Fat (10) Cough 2/0.09 1/0.10 1/0.25
Ramphastidae
Ramphastos tucanus Linnaeus,
1758Red-billed Toucan, tucano
Beak (1) Thrombosis 1/0.04
Cuculidae
Crotophaga ani Linnaeus,
1758smooth-billed ani, anu-preto
Fresh (6) Asthma 1/0.05
Mammallia
Trichechidae
Trichecus manatus Linnaeus,
1758manatee, peixe-boi
Fat (1,4) and skin (4) Bursitis, muscular pain,
thrombosis, rheumatism, asthma,
itching, allergy, arthritis, hernia
and arthrosis
7/0.30 5/0.23 2/0.10 5/0.50
Trichecus inunguis (Natterer,
1883)Amazonian manatee,
peixe-boi
Fat (1, 4) and skin (4) Bursitis, muscular pain,
thrombosis, rheumatism, asthma,
itching, allergy, arthritis, hernia
and arthrosis
7/0.30 5/0.23 4/0.40
Balaenopteridae
Balaenoptera acutorostrata (Lac ep` eede,
1804)minke whale, baleia minke
Fat (1) Menstrual cramps 1/0.04 2/0.10 1/0.01
Physeteridae
Physeter catodon Linnaeus, 1758sperm
whale, cachelot, cachalote
Fat (1) Menstrual cramps 1/0.04 2/0.10 1/0.01
Hydrochoeridae
Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris (Linnaeus,
1766)capibara, capivara
Bone (1, 3), fat (1) and fresh (6) Thrombosis, rheumatism, ulcer,
backache, muscle strain,
convulsion and epilepsy
7/0.33 3/0.14
Bovidae
Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758cow, vaca Bone marrow (8), horn (1, 8) and penis (8) Rib cage pain, male impotence,
anaemia, u, pneumony,
thrombosis, cough, asthma,
cough and sinusitis
6/0.29 7/0.33
Ovis aries Linnaeus, 1758sheep,
carneiro
Horn (1, 8) and fat (4) Rheumatism, osteoporosis,
thrombosis, disease of the
nerves and arthritis
9/0.39 3/0.14 4/0.40
Bubalus bubalis (Linnaeus,
1758)buffalo, b ufalo
Horn (1, 8) and fat (4) Rheumatism, osteoporosis and
thrombosis
1/0.05
Capra hircus Linnaeus, 1758goat,
bode
Horn (1) Rib cage pain 3/0.14
Canidae
Cerdocyon thous (Linnaeus,
1766)crab-eating fox, raposa
Fat (1, 4) Earache, haemorrhoids, asthma,
bronchitis and cracks in the sole
of the feet
16/0.76
Procyonidae
Procyon cancrivorus (G. [Baron] Cuvier,
1798)crab-eating raccoon, guaxinim
Fat (1, 10) and skin (1, 13) Epilepsy, tonsillitis, pitiriase,
thrombosis and fever
1/0.05 3/0.14
Nasua nasua (Linnaeus, 1766)Coati,
quati
Penis (8, 3) and fat (4) Male impotence, arthrosis,
rheumatism and thrombosis
10/0.43
Table 3 (Continued )
Family/species/local name Part used and way of administration Disease (or illness) treated Citations/use-value
BE SL TE JP CG
Dasypodidae
Euphractus sexcintus (Linnaeus,
1758)armadillo, tatu p eba
Fat (1, 4) and tail (5) Erysipelas, earache and swelling 3/0.14 2/0.20
Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus,
1758nine-banded armadillo, tatu
galinha
Fat (1, 4) and tail (5) Asthma, diarrhea, headache,
inammation and earache
2/0.10
Tolypeutis sp.armadillo, tatu bola Fat (1, 4) and tail (5) Asthma, diarrhea, headache,
inammation and earache
1/0.10
Cervidae
Mazama sp.deer, veado Tibia (repeatedly touches the childs leg with
the bone) (13) and fat (4)
Asthma, arthritis, osteoporosis
and to assist children who take
longer than usual to start walking
5/0.22 1/0.05 1/0.25
Erethizontidae
Coendou prehensilis (Linnaeus,
1758)Brazilian porcupine, porco
espinho
Spines or quills (1) Congestion, thrombosis and
asthma
4/0.17 1/0.05 4/0.19 3/0.30 1/0.25
Agoutidae
Agouti paca (Linnaeus, 1758)Spotted
Paca, paca
Fat (4) and fel (bile) (4) Swelling, inammation,
rheumatism, osteoporosis and
arthrosis
1/0.04 2/0.10
Tayassuidae
Tayassu tajacu Linnaes, 1795Collared
peccary, caititu
Fat (4) Swelling and inammation 1/0.05
Didelphidae
Didelphis marsupialis Linnaeus,
1758Southern opossum, mucura
Fat (4) Swelling, muscle strain, pain in
the parturition and disorders after
partutirion (to accelerate recovery
after parturition)
5/0.22 3/0.14
Delphinidae
Sotalia uviatilis Gervais and Deville,
1853)Amazonian dolphin, boto
Fat (4) Asthma, haemorrhoids,
schistosomiasis, thrombosis,
headache, dermatophytosis,
pitiriase, rheumatism, arthrosis
and arthritis
15/0.65 6/0.28
Sotalia guianensis (P.J. Van B en eden,
1864)Guianan river dolphin, boto
Fat (4) Asthma, haemorrhoids,
schistosomiasis, thrombosis,
headache, dermatophytosis,
pitiriase, rheumatism, arthrosis
and arthritis
7/0.30 6/0.28
Iniidae
Inia geoffrensis (Blainville,
1817)Amazon river dolphin, boto
rosa
Fat (4) Asthma, haemorrhoids,
schistosomiasis, thrombosis,
headache, dermatophytosis and
pitiriase
8/0.34
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(n =49), Crotalus durissus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Viperidae)ratt-
lesnake (49), Cayman crocodilus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Alliga-
toridae)cayman (39), Boa constrictor Linnaeus, 1758
(Boidae)boa (37) and Paleosuchus palpebrosus (Cuvier,
1807) (Alligatoridae)cayman (31). These species are also
used as remedies in more remote areas in Brazil (e.g., Branch and
Silva, 1983; Alves and Rosa, 2006, 2007; Begossi and Braga,
1992), reinforcing the view that medical traditions accompany
people as leave their native surroundings and migrate to urban
centers (see Baca, 1978; Gordon, 1994; OConnor, 1998).
The use of similar resources as medicines in more remote
and urban areas suggest that zootherapeutic practices may func-
tion as a social conduit which, in conjunction with other factors,
helps to maintain the connections between rural and peasant
people living in cities and their own traditional culture and val-
ues. More specically, it indicates the potential for exchange of
materials and information on illnesses and treatments between
more remote and urban communities.
Brazil congregates rapidly growing urban populations, where
people originated mainly fromruralpeasant communities. Over
the last fewdecades, the countryhas undergone a process of rapid
urbanization: in 1970, 44% of the population lived in rural areas
and 56% in urban areas. By year 2000, the population living
in urban areas represented 81% of the total (Barros and Porto,
2002).
However, despite the exposure to an urbanized setting,
where increasedwesternizationandthe presence of conventional
medicine are apparent, zootherapeutic practices perseveres in
all the surveyed localities, as well as in cities such as Salvador,
Porto Alegre, Recife, Macei o, Aracaju, Goi ania, Vit oria, Natal,
Fortaleza and Florian opolis (Ierec e Rosa, personal observation).
The notable use and commercialization of medicinal animals
to alleviate and cure health problems and ailments in the cities
surveyed points out the resilience of that resource in the folk
medicine in Brazil. Animals with magic and superstitious con-
notations were also sold in the markets, being used for protection
against evil spirits or evil eye, for good luck, and to attract money
or partners. Some non-natural diseases are treated through
chants or rituals involving animals, by pais and m aes-de-
santo (fathers and mothers of saints), Afro-Brazilian priests
and priestesses of the yorub a religion know as candombl e, a
testimony of the signicance and value animals have for urban
communities either for utilitarian or cultural functions.
In a sense, Afro-Brazilian cults and zootherapeutic practices
have developed a mutualistic relationship, in which the use of
ritualistic of animals to treat ailments and to aid in recovery has
helped to the perpetuate zootherapy in urban areas in Brazil,
and the zootherapeutic component of umbanda, as remarked
by Moura (1988), has helped to spread the religion throughout
the country.
Migration from more remote/rural areas to cities has also
played a signicant role in knowledge transmission. The
importance of the more remote-urban connections has been
highlighted by Belluck (1996) and OConnor (1998) who found
that within urban centers, members of immigrant and ethnic
minority groups typically use a variety of traditional healing
resources in conjunction with conventional medicine care. Fur-
thermore, as remarked by Cocks (2006), even people who have
migrated to (peri) urban areas and have become involved in mod-
ern economic sectors still perform certain cultural practices for
maintaining a sense of well-being and expressing their iden-
tity. In our study, such connection was revealed by the fact that
70% of the medicinal animal traders interviewed informed that
the knowledge about medicinal animals was mainly acquired
through people of the rural areas, previous herbalists, or relatives
(parents and grandparents).
Zootherapeutic resources were used to treat 82 different dis-
eases, and most of them (62%, n =60) had multiple therapeutic
uses. For instance, the products of the rattlesnake (Crotalus
durissus), and boa (Boa constrictor) were indicated to treat
13 and 11 conditions, respectively. Conversely, a single illness
could be treated by various animal species (e.g., 47 animal
species were used in the treatment of asthma and 30 in the
treatment of rheumatism). In popular Brazilian medicine, the
presumed multiple therapeutic actions of plants and the simul-
taneous use of various plants for the same condition are locally
justied by the different medical properties either of parts used
or of modes of preparation (Ngokwey, 1995). Additionally, the
possibility of using various animal remedies for the same ail-
ment renders an adaptation to the availability/accessibility of
materials possible (Alves and Rosa, 2006).
In our study we recorded 1320 use-citations of medicinal
animals (Table 4). The most frequently quoted treatments con-
cern the respiratory system (58 species; 407 use-citations), the
osteomuscular system and conjunctive tissue (46 species; 384
use-citations), and circulatory system (34 species; 124 use-
citations). Less frequently, the following categories of illnesses
were mentioned: oftalmological diseases (2 species, 2 use-
citations), blood and hematopoeitic organs, and some disorders
of the immune system (3 species; 3 use-citations) and preg-
nancy, parturition and puerperium (1 species; 5 use-citations).
Similarly to the results obtained in previous studies (e.g., Branch
and Silva, 1983; Alves and Rosa, 2006, 2007), the data we ana-
lyzed revealed the use of a high proportion of species (59.8%) to
treat respiratory system diseases, mainly asthma, u, cough and
sore throat, and to treat osteomuscular system and conjunctive
tissue diseases, such as rheumatism, osteoporosis, arthritis and
arthrosis (46 species, 47.4%).
Some similarities were found between more remote (Alves
and Rosa, 2007) and urban areas in Brazil, such as the high
ICF valuesa reection of the dissemination of knowledge,
mostly via migration from rural to urban areas, and acceptance
of such practices in those regions of the country. Nonetheless,
in the surveyed metropolitan areas, animal-based remedies have
become part of a regular business that may involve advertising,
the use of books describing, for example, the posology of the
remedy, and pre-packaged medicines. Such practices generally
are looked down upon by traditional traders of folk medicine,
who feel proud of their knowledge of the raw materials and
remedies.
Medicines were prescribed as a single drug or in mixed
ingredient form; in the latter case, different medicinal animals
were mixed together, with or without the addition of medicinal
plants. For instance, the penis of the Coati, Nasua nasua (Lin-
naeus, 1766Procyonidae) and plants such as marapuama
(Ptychopetalum olacoides BenthOlacaceae) and guaran a
(Paullinia cupana KunthSapindaceae), make up the remedy
locally known natural viagra, a mix used for treatment of
male impotence which represents a good example of informa-
tion exchange between conventional medicine and TM. The
inuence of westernization was also reected in the presen-
tation of some zootherapeutic products, which were either
manufactured or pre-packaged. Examples are the fat extracted
from the manatee (Trichecus sp.), sold as tablets, and the
fat of Amazon River turtle (Podocnemis expansa (Schweiger,
1812)Podocnemididae) sold as manufactured soap.
In relation to users, 53% of the traders interviewed informed
that zootherapeuticals resources were sought after by people
from all social classes, while 47% stated that low income peo-
ple were the main buyers. Despite the existence of allophatic
pharmacies in all surveyed sites (their number ranging from
115 in Campina Grande to 331 in Bel em), there was consensus
among interviewees that one of the reasons why users resorted
to zootherapeuticals resources was the perception that animal-
based remedies were cheaper than allopathic remedies, and
therefore more affordable by the poor. In other words, socioeco-
nomic status was viewed by traders as one of the most pervasive
determinants of the use of animal-based remedies among the
study population.
The use of medicinal animals in the surveyed areas, however,
was not related to socio-demographic factors alone, but also to
the availability, quality and accessibility of other health care
resources.
According to IBGE (2006), the North and the Northeast
regions have the lowest socioeconomic development of the
Brazil, and the economic and social inequalities are reected
in the health area. In fact, Schramm and Szwarcwald (2000)
considered the limited offer and access to public health care as
relevant impediments to the population resident in those regions.
For low income families in the surveyed areas (to whom
health insurance is out of reach), medical-hospital care gen-
erally means getting access to facilities available within the
public sector, or to private hospitals authorized by the Ministry
of Health. In all surveyed cities but S ao Lus, private hospitals
were numerically dominant.
The existence of socioeconomic inequalities in health, how-
ever, has been evidenced as much in industrialized countries
(Macintyre, 1997; Mackenbach et al., 1997) as in developing
countries (Victora et al., 2000; Braveman and Tarimo, 2002;
Schneider et al., 2002), and the results of worldwide investiga-
tions generally show that health indicators vary according to a
social gradient unfavorable to groups of lower socioeconomic
levels, whether this be measured by income, education, occupa-
tion, or social class (Marmot et al., 1997; Chandola, 2000).
In addition to socioeconomic aspects, traders highlighted
that traditional remedies generally are perceived as being more
effective than allopathic remedies, and informed that it is not
uncommon that users resort to traditional medicines after being
treated with allopathic remedies, which in their view did not
cure them. This result is in line with the information provided
by Brown (1992) that while in the rural areas herbalists are
Table 4
Informant consensus factor (ICF) by corporal systems or diseases
Category
A B C D E F G H I J L M N O P Q R S
All cities combined
Species 58 46 11 34 10 34 8 1 9 5 3 15 3 18 26 11 5 2
All species (%) 59.79 47.42 11.34 35.05 10.31 35.05 8.25 1.03 9.28 5.15 3.09 15.46 3.09 18.56 26.80 11.34 5.15 2.06
Use-citations 407 384 20 124 24 84 15 5 9 8 12 19 3 33 96 60 15 2
All use (%) 30.83 29.09 1.52 9.39 1.82 6.36 1.14 0.38 0.68 0.61 0.91 1.44 0.23 2.50 7.27 4.55 1.14 0.15
ICF 0.86 0.88 0.47 0.73 0.61 0.60 0.50 1.00 0.00 0.43 0.82 0.22 0.00 0.47 0.74 0.83 0.71 0.00
Bel em, PA
Species 31 29 3 11 2 6 2 1 3 3 4 1 2 1
All species (%) 63.27 59.18 6.12 22.45 4.08 12.24 4.08 2.04 6.12 6.12 8.16 2.04 4.08 2.04
Use-citations 135 206 7 43 2 23 6 4 5 11 15 36 12 1
All use (%) 26.68 40.71 1.38 8.50 0.40 4.55 1.19 0.79 0.99 2.17 2.96 7.11 2.37 0.20
ICF 0.78 0.86 0.67 0.76 0.00 0.77 0.80 1.00 0.50 0.80 0.79 1.00 0.91 0.00
S ao Lus, MA
Species 32 25 6 28 4 21 1 6 1 2 11 1 10 22 9 1 1
All species (%) 50.79 39.68 9.52 44.44 6.35 33.33 1.59 9.52 1.59 3.17 17.46 1.59 15.87 34.92 14.29 1.59 1.59
Use-citations 87 79 10 56 7 39 1 6 1 3 14 1 10 52 14 1 1
All use (%) 22.77 20.68 2.62 14.66 1.83 10.21 0.26 1.57 0.26 0.79 3.66 0.26 2.62 13.61 3.66 0.26 0.26
ICF 0.64 0.69 0.44 0.51 0.50 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.23 0.00 0.00 0.59 0.38 0.00 0.00
Teresina, PI
Species 19 12 2 8 4 6 6 2 1 3 1 2 6 8
All species (%) 67.86 42.86 7.14 28.57 14.29 21.43 21.43 7.14 3.57 10.71 3.57 7.14 21.43 28.57
Use-citations 100 78 2 23 13 13 9 2 1 9 1 2 11 16
All use (%) 35.71 27.86 0.71 8.21 4.64 4.64 3.21 0.71 0.36 3.21 0.36 0.71 3.93 5.71
ICF 0.82 0.86 0.00 0.68 0.75 0.58 0.38 0.00 0.00 0.75 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.53
Jo ao Pessoa, PB
Species 17 4 5 1 1 6 3
All species (%) 62.96 14.81 18.52 3.70 3.70 22.22 11.11
Use-citations 52 9 8 1 1 9 7
All use (%) 59.77 10.34 9.20 1.15 1.15 10.34 8.05
ICF 0.69 0.63 0.43 0.00 0.00 0.38 0.67
Campina Grande, PB
Species 16 10 1 2 2 1 4 1 4 2 2
All species (%) 61.54 38.46 3.85 7.69 7.69 3.85 15.38 3.85 15.38 7.69 7.69
Use-citations 33 12 1 2 2 1 4 1 4 3 2
All use (%) 50.77 18.46 1.54 3.08 3.08 1.54 6.15 1.54 6.15 4.62 3.08
ICF 0.53 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00
generally consulted at the early stages of disease and for acute
complaints, oftenbefore a biomedical practitioner, inurbanareas
neo-herbalists are consulted for persistent problems for which
patients cannot nd a cure from modern medicine.
Simultaneous and serial utilization of multiple healing
resources has been documented among populations world-
wide for some time (Janzen, 1978; Crandon-Malamud, 1991;
Waldram, 2000), an aspect that was also observed in this study
and also among some shing communities in Brazil (Alves and
Rosa, 2006, 2007).
Sanitary conditions of the products generally were poor, a
result consistent with the data obtained by Amaral et al. (2003)
for medicinal plants sold in S ao Lus city, where 81.5% of the
material analyzed were contaminated by bacteria.
Schnurrenberger and Hubbert (1981) drew attention to the
possibility of transmission of other serious and widespread
zoonoses such as tuberculosis or rabies, an aspect that should
be considered whenever animal tissues from unknown sources
are handled and used as remedies. Although the need for imple-
mentation of sanitary measures to the trade of animal or their
parts for medicinal purposes is evident, adoption of regulatory
measures faces considerable challenges, among them ensuring
adequate participation of all stakeholders involved, monitoring
of the activity, and combating illegal, unreported and unregu-
lated trade (Alves and Rosa, 2005).
Other relevant aspects that need to be addressed are the poten-
tial interactions among various ingredients (plants and animals)
used to prepare a concoction locally known as garrafada, the
potential interactions of folk medicines with allopathic reme-
dies, the effects of overdose, and the possibility of toxic or
allergic reactions. Concerns about herbdrug interactions are
frequently expressed by conventional physicians as well (Fugh-
Berman, 2000).
In 1983, Branch and Silva noted the absence of records of
folk cures concocted from animal parts, and pointed out that
the reason for the inexistence of records was not clear. In our
study it became apparent that the semi-clandestine or clandestine
nature of the trade, and the links between some zootherapeutic
resources and Afro-Brazilian religious rituals, generally result
in informants being more resistant to provide information. Most
animals traded as medicine are wild caught, and protected by
law. Equally important (see Prandi, 2004), until recently Afro-
Brazilian religious manifestations were severely repressed, and
still face strong prejudice.
Traditional drugs and traditional medicine in general rep-
resent a still poorly explored eld of research in terms of
therapeutic potential or clinical evaluation. There is a current
preoccupation about this, since it is well-established that all sorts
of vegetable, animal and mineral remedies used in a traditional
setting are capable of producing serious adverse reactions. As
remarked by De Smet (1991), traditional drug therapies should
be submitted to an appropriate benet/risk analysis.
Urban zootherapy is often supported by herbalists and by
the community, because it maintains and gives value to cultural
ties. These ndings add support to the notion put forward by
Cocks (2006) that the concept of culture must be understood as
a dynamic process of trans-cultural exchange with constant re-
articulations of tradition resulting in the persistence of certain
cultural practices amongst groups of people. In that sense, the
dynamic environment and complex interactions in an urban set-
ting offer a challenging opportunity for expanding the frontiers
of research on the relationship between animals and people.
One nal point: this study pointed out that 33 species of the
medicinal animals quoted by informants are endangered. In view
of this, there is an urgent need to (1) increase our understand-
ing of the harvesting and trade of those species; (2) assess the
impacts caused by the commercial exploitation; (3) adopt con-
servation measures as necessary, so that over-collection of such
species will not lead to the loss of source medicinal material.
Acknowledgments
To PROBIO/MMA/IBRD/GEF/CNPq and PADI Foundation
for nancial support. ToConselhoNacional de Desenvolvimento
Cientco e Tecnol ogico (CNPq) for providing a Ph.D. fellow-
ship to the rst author, and a research scholarship to the second
author. Thanks are also due to the Universidade Estadual da
Paraba, for all the support.
We are indebted to researchers who assisted in species iden-
tication: Gentil Alves P. Filho (reptiles), Ana Carolina Martins
Queiroz (echinoderms), Cl audio Lus Sampaio (shes), Isabel
Feitoza (aquatic mammals), Alberto Kioharu Nishida and Jef-
ferson de B. Batista (mollusks and crustaceans), and Maxwell S.
Silveira (bees). Field assistance was provided by Dario Manoel
B. Soares in S ao Lus (State of Maranh ao), Patrcia Charvet-
Almeida and Maurcio Almeida in Bel em(State of Par a). Special
thanks are due to the interviewees, whose generosity made our
research possible, and to the Regional Pharmaceutical Council
in the states of Paraba, Par a and Maranh ao, for providing infor-
mation on the number of allopathic pharmacies in the surveyed
cities.
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