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DOI: 10.1177/1350650112469166
published online 2 January 2013
2013 227: 423 originally Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part J: Journal of Engineering Tribology
Takuya Nakase, Shinji Kato, Takashi Kobayashi and Shinya Sasaki
during sliding against different steels
wt% silicon alloy surface treated with dispersed hard particles 12 Tribological properties of aluminium

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Special Issue Article
Tribological properties of
aluminium12 wt% silicon alloy
surface treated with dispersed
hard particles during sliding
against different steels
Takuya Nakase
1,2
, Shinji Kato
1
, Takashi Kobayashi
1
and
Shinya Sasaki
2
Abstract
ADC12 is a eutectic AlSi die-cast alloy (Al12Si) widely used instead of cast iron for industrial parts in order to reduce
their weight. Here, to improve the wear resistance, SiC and diamond particles were dispersed into the surface of the
ADC12 alloy. The tribological properties of the hard-particle-dispersed ADC12 samples under lubrication were eval-
uated using a vane-on-plate tribometer and compared to those of hypereutectic AlSi alloy (Al15Si). Three different
kinds of vane materials, carbon steel, die steel and high-speed steel, were used as counter materials. The diamond-
dispersed ADC12 alloy showed the most significant wear reduction effect when sliding against die steel and high-speed
steel, and the lowest coefficient of friction was obtained when high-speed steel was used as the counter material. The
durability tests using a conventional pump and the modified materials confirmed the significant improvement in the wear
resistance of hard-particle-dispersed ADC12.
Keywords
Eutectic AlSi alloy, hard particle dispersion, wear, friction
Date received: 31 July 2012; accepted: 25 October 2012
Introduction
Al alloys are widely used to reduce the weight of vari-
ous industrial products, especially automotive compo-
nents. While Al itself has inferior wear resistance
because of its ductility, an increase in the Si content
in an Al alloy can mitigate this eect. Therefore, much
research has been conducted on increasing the wear
resistance of these alloys, mainly on engine cylinder
liners using hypereutectic AlSi alloys with more than
12.6 wt% Si; their typical Si contents range from 15 to
20 wt%.
15
On the other hand, the high production
costs of hypereutectic AlSi alloys restrict their use
to premium parts. These costs mainly arise from the
diculty of controlling the size of the primary Si par-
ticles and the poor machinability of the alloys result-
ing from the high Si content. In contrast, the eutectic
AlSi alloy ADC12, which contains 9.612 wt% Si,
has good mechanical properties, good castability
and relatively lower manufacturing costs. Hence,
ADC12 has been widely used as an excellent gen-
eral-purpose aluminium die-cast alloy.
In addition to the engine components, aluminium
alloys are used for several other automotive compo-
nents including, for instance, hydraulic pumps for
auxiliary equipments of engines or transmissions.
The hydraulic vane pumps used in such applications
are composed of a housing, a cover and a side-plate
made of aluminium alloy as well as several vanes, a
cam and a rotor which are made of steel or sintered
steel. In the vane pump, the vanes and rotor are sand-
wiched between the side-plate and the cover inside the
cam ring. In order to improve the eciency of the
1
Materials Engineering Section, Basic Technology R&D Center, KYB
Corporation, Sagamihara-shi, Japan
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tokyo University of Science,
Tokyo, Japan
Corresponding author:
Takuya Nakase, Materials Engineering Section, Basic Technology R&D
Center, KYB Corporation, 1-12-1 Asamizodai, Minami-ku, Sagamihara-
shi, Kanagawa-ken 252-0328, Japan.
Email: nakase-tak@kyb.co.jp
Proc IMechE Part J:
J Engineering Tribology
227(5) 423432
! IMechE 2013
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DOI: 10.1177/1350650112469166
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pump, it is essential to reduce the clearances between
these parts. Because of the recent downsizing philoso-
phy in car manufacturing, the clearance should be
accurate to within 1 mm in the compact, high-pressure
pumps that are installed in relatively small spaces.
However, a reduction in the clearance leads to an
increase in the risk of failure due to wear when the
cover or side-plate slides against the vanes or rotor.
Therefore, in such high-performance pumps, the use
of hypereutectic AlSi alloys is necessary to provide
sucient wear resistance.
Many strategies have been developed to improve
the wear resistance of low-silicon-content Al alloys
such as ADC12 during the past several decades. One
of the ideas is dispersing other hard particles in the
matrix in addition to the Si precipitates. For example,
particle reinforcement using hard particles such as SiC
or Al
2
O
3
68
and hard particle implantation into the
surface using surface treatments such as ne particle
peening
9,10
or shock waves
11
have been developed.
Because of the higher production costs of the parti-
cle-reinforced materials, it is advantageous to disperse
the necessary hard particles in the surfaces of products
manufactured in near-net shape. In this study,
ADC12 samples were fabricated by dispersing a few
wt% of micron-sized hard particles in their surfaces
only, and the resulting tribological properties were
investigated. Furthermore, the inuence of the hard-
ness of the steel counter materials was evaluated. In
addition, the durability of the ADC12 alloys treated
with the hard particles was conrmed by an endur-
ance test using a conventional vane pump equipped
with a hard-particle-dispersed ADC12 cover. The
mechanisms of the wear and the improvement of the
wear resistance of the hard-particle-dispersed ADC12
alloys were derived from the measured tribological
properties and the corresponding surface analysis per-
formed by means of scanning electron microscopy/
energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEMEDX).
Experimental
Sliding materials
The AlSi alloys used in this study are the eutectic
AlSi alloy ADC12 and the hypereutectic AlSi
alloy Al15Si, which are both used in hydraulic
pumps. Table 1 and Figure 1 show their chemical
compositions and microstructures, respectively.
ADC12 contains ne eutectic Si particles, while Al
15Si has coarser primary Si particles and other inter-
metallic phases. An image-processing method was
used to determine the average particle size and the
area ratio of the Si particles in the aluminium matri-
ces. The average Si particle diameter in ADC12 was
found to be about 5 mm with an area ratio of 15%,
and in Al15Si alloy, the average particle diameter
was about 15 mm with an area ratio of the Si particles
of 26%. The threshold value of the Si particle diam-
eter for the image processing was 3 mm.
Surface treatment of Al alloy. To improve the wear resist-
ance of ADC12, two dierent particles were dispersed
into the at surfaces of the plate samples as a nishing
process. The hard particles dispersed into the surface
were SiC and diamond which are commercially used
for abrasive process. When the hard particles were
applied external impulse force onto the surface similar
to peening process, the particles and its crashed pieces
partly embedded into the softer surface. The surfaces
Table 1. Chemical compositions of Al alloys (wt%).
Si Fe Mn Mg Zn Cu Cr Ti Ni Sn Pb Al
ADC12 10.72 0.87 0.25 0.29 0.96 1.94 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.08 Balance
Al15Si 14.516 0.250.35 0.450.55 0.750.9 <0.05 2.53.5 0.170.25 0.050.15 Balance
Figure 1. Microstructures of AlSi alloys: (a) ADC12 and (b) Al15Si alloy.
424 Proc IMechE Part J: J Engineering Tribology 227(5)
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of the hard-particle-dispersed ADC12 samples were
investigated by SEMEDX, as shown in Figure 2.
The SEM images reveal hard particles of a few mm in
diameter dispersed over the surface. In addition, the
quantitative EDX showed approximately 3 wt% of C
on the surface of the diamond-dispersed ADC12 (a
representative measured area is shown in Figure 2(b)).
Untreated samples were also prepared for compari-
son. The untreated ADC12 and Al15Si alloy samples
were ground with abrasive paper and polished with
1 mm diamond paste, after which they were etched
with 5% aqueous sodium hydroxide solution at
room temperature for about 40 s. The surface was
examined using laser microscopy, which showed that
after etching the Si particles are exposed outside of the
Al matrix and have thus become load-carrying aspe-
rities. The height of the exposed Si was approximately
200 nm. Figure 2(e) and (f) shows SEM images of the
surfaces of untreated samples.
Counter materials. The counter materials used were
three dierent steels, carbon steel (CS), die steel
(DS), and high-speed steel (HSS), and their chemical
compositions are presented in Table 2. Figure 3 shows
the microstructure of the steels; the sizes of the car-
bide particles in the martensite matrices of DS and
HSS are dierent.
Hardness. The AlSi alloys and steels consist of several
crystallized phases with dierent hardnesses from that
of the matrix. It is important to know the hardness of
each component in order to understand the wear
mechanisms occurring when these materials are
mated. In this way, the microscopic behaviour in the
real contact area of the asperities related to the hard
phases may be understood. A nanoindentation tester
was used to measure the hardness of each material at
100 randomly distributed points. For the AlSi alloys,
the resulting values were then assigned to either the
matrix or the Si particles using the SEM image, as
presented in Table 3, which also includes the hardness
values of SiC and diamond. The hardness and
Youngs modulus of diamond were taken from the
literature Richter et al.
12
The steels were characterized
Figure 2. SEMEDX images of the surfaces of (a) SiC-dispersed ADC12; red arrows indicate SiC particles, (b, c) diamond-dispersed
ADC12; yellow arrows indicate diamond particles, (d) EDX image of (c), (e) ADC12 etched and (f) Al15Si etched.
SEMEDX: scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.
Nakase et al. 425
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in a similar way, but in the case of CS only ve points
were measured because of the absence of hard crystal-
lized phases. As the results, the hardness of diamond
is predominantly higher than the other materials. This
suggests that a few micron sized diamond particle has
a chance to have good running-in behaviour against
the steels even when the fraction of the particle in
aluminium surface is very low.
Tribo-test
Vane-on-plate sliding test. A vane-on-plate tribometer
was used to evaluate the tribological properties of
the aluminium alloys against steels lubricated with
automatic transmission uid (Figure 4). Three steel
vanes (1.4 8 15 mm
3
) were inserted radially into
a holder. The holder was then loaded at the centre
with a ball so that the assembly could rotate on the
AlSi alloy plate. This arrangement allowed the load
to be applied equally onto each vane. The contact
geometry is plane on plane using the 1.4 8 mm
2
at side of the vane. Furthermore, the holder has a
mechanism that applies the normal force on the centre
top of vane by an orthogonal small cylinder so that the
vane contacts longitudinal exactly to the plate. Even if
there is a small misalignment, the contact area becomes
completely at after a running-in stage. Before testing,
all the samples were cleaned ultrasonically in acetone
for 5 min. All tests were carried out mainly in a mixed
lubrication regime (at the initial stage) at a normal load
of 250 N (contact pressure is approximately 7 MPa)
with a sliding speed of 1.9 m/s at a radius of 12 mm, a
lubricant temperature of 50

C and a test duration of

3 h. The lubricant used was an automatic transmission
uid of which the viscosities are 41 mm
2
/s at 40

C and
7.5 mm
2
/s at 100

C. After the test, two proles of the

wear scar were recorded using a laser prolometer and
then averaged to determine the amount of wear on the
AlSi alloy plate. Figure 4 shows an example of a wear
scar prole. The wear volume of the plate was calcu-
lated using equation (1)
V
Z
r
2
r
1
2xh x dx 1
where x is the lateral distance from the rotation
centre, h(x) the wear depth, r
1
the inner radius of
Table 2. Chemical compositions of steels (wt%).
C Si Mn P S Cr Mo W V Fe
CS 0.420.48 0.150.35 0.60.9 <0.030 <0.035 Balance
DS 1.401.60 <0.40 <0.60 <0.030 <0.030 11.013.0 0.801.20 0.200.50 Balance
HSS 0.800.88 <0.45 <0.40 <0.030 <0.030 3.804.50 4.705.20 5.906.70 1.702.10 Balance
CS: carbon steel; DS: die steel; HSS: high-speed steel.
Figure 3. Microstructures of steels: (a) CS; (b) DS; and (c) HSS.
CS: carbon steel; DS: die steel; HSS: high-speed steel.
426 Proc IMechE Part J: J Engineering Tribology 227(5)
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the wear scar, r
2
the outer radius of the wear scar and
V the wear volume of the plate. The frictional torque
was measured using a torque meter during the test
and converted into the coecient of friction.
Vane pump test. An evaluation using actual conven-
tional pumps conrmed the durability of the
ADC12 alloys treated with the hard particles. The
endurance test was performed under the conditions
presented in Table 4. The pumps used were modied
to apply a higher discharge pressure than their ori-
ginal one, in order to evaluate the durability of the
pump under more severe conditions. The pressure was
pulsed between normal pressure and a maximum dis-
charge pressure of 9.8 MPa with a holding time of 2 s
at low and high pressures. The wear depths of the
covers were measured after 1 and 222 h. The cover
materials used were untreated ADC12, SiC-dispersed
ADC12 and diamond-dispersed ADC12. The surface
of the untreated ADC12 was prepared by grinding.
Surface analysis
In order to understand the wear mechanisms, the sur-
faces of the samples were inspected by optical and
electron microscopy as well as EDX before and
after the tests.
Results and discussion
Friction and wear properties
Table 5 lists the wear volume of the plate and the
vanes as well as the corresponding coecient of fric-
tion evaluated using the tribo-test. Figure 5 shows the
friction behaviour as a function of sliding time. The
Table 3. Results of nanoindentation test.
Materials Measure points Hardness (GPa)
Vickers hardness
(HV
100 g
)
Youngs
modulus (GPa)
ADC12 Al matrix 2.1 87.5
Si particle 11.2 90.7
Al15Si Al matrix 1.9 95.2
Si particle 11.4 102.8
CS Ferrite and perlite 4.6 276 271.5
DS Matrix 7.2 686 293.6
Carbide 17.9 293.4
HSS Matrix 8.4 831 242.2
Carbide 22.0 317.8
SiC 22.6 305.0
Diamond 95117
a
9211137
a
CS: carbon steel; DS: die steel; HSS: high-speed steel.
a
From Richter et al.
12
Figure 4. Scheme for vane-on-plate tribo-test and profile of a wear scar on an Al plate.
Nakase et al. 427
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friction and wear properties are dependent on the
presence of hard particles and on the hardness of
the counter material.
The untreated ADC12 experienced 0.51 mm
3
of
wear loss against CS. However, the wear to one of
the vanes was too small to measure. When DS was
used for the vane, the untreated ADC12 showed
severe wear. A sharp increase in friction is interpreted
as a typical sign of seizure behaviour, and the test was
stopped if such behaviour was detected, even in the
initial stage (Figure 5(a)). SiC-dispersed ADC12 and
diamond-dispersed ADC12 showed signicant
improvements in wear resistance against all of the
steels. It is interesting to note that the least hard
steel, CS, caused more wear on both the hard-parti-
cle-dispersed ADC12 plate and the Al15Si than did
the harder DS. This is because, rst, the CS vanes had
been roughened by the dispersed hard particles and,
second, the rough surface of the vanes abraded the Al
surface. When the hardest HSS was used, the wear
loss of the vane was negligible, and a good, smooth
run-in surface was observed. However, the wear loss
of the SiC-dispersed ADC plate was 0.11 mm
3
, while
the wear loss of the diamond-dispersed ADC12 plate
was almost zero. On the other hand, the Al15Si alloy
also showed almost zero wear, but small signs of wear
on top of the Si particles on the surface were observed
using optical microscopy. However, on the surface of
its counter material HSS, only a slight, less polished
run-in was observed. Thus, it might be concluded that
with regard to wear resistance, the diamond-dispersed
ADC12 is similar to Al15Si alloy.
The tribo-test also showed that the two hard-par-
ticle-dispersed ADC12 alloys and the Al15Si alloy
exhibited dierent frictional behaviour. For the SiC-
dispersed ADC12 alloy, the coecient of friction
against CS and DS was about 0.03, while the one
against HSS was somewhat higher, at 0.08 in the ini-
tial stage and 0.05 at the end of the test (Figure 5(c)).
Throughout the entire test, the lowest coecient of
friction of 0.002 was measured for the combination
of the diamond-dispersed ADC12 and HSS (Figure
5(d)). This might be due to the ultrahigh hardness of
the diamond, which could provide superior running-
in behaviour, as is discussed in more detail below. For
the Al15Si alloy, the coecient of friction at the end
of the tests against the three steels was within the
range from 0.02 to 0.05 (Figure 5(b)).
Durability
The pumps equipped with covers made of hard-parti-
cle-dispersed ADC12 alloy were tested using the endur-
ance tester. The wear depths measured after the test of
the ADC12 covers are shown in Figure 6. The ground
ADC12 cover showed severe wear after 1 h of running
time. However, a signicant improvement in the wear
resistance for the hard-particle-dispersed ADC12 alloy
has been conrmed by the test result. The depth of
wear on the SiC-dispersed ADC12 cover was about
Table 5. Results of vane-on-plate test.
Al plate Hard particle Vane
Wear loss of
Al plate (mm
3
)
Wear loss of
vane (mm
3
)
Coefficient of friction
(averaged after 1 h) Notes
ADC12 (Polished and etched) CS 0.62 0.061
DS >75.62 0.079 Seizure
SiC CS 0.07 0.11 0.031
DS 0.03 0.02 0.025
HSS 0.11 0.058
Diamond CS 0.08 0.21 0.017
DS 0.01 0.023
HSS <0.01 0.002
Al15Si (Polished and etched) CS 0.05 0.07 0.043
DS 0.02 0.056
HSS <0.01 0.024
CS: carbon steel; DS: die steel; HSS: high-speed steel.
Table 4. Test condition for the pump test.
Revolution
speed 3000 r/min
Pressure Pulsed between unloaded and controlled
pressure of 9.8 MPa at 240 cpm
Duration 222 h
Temperature 135

C
428 Proc IMechE Part J: J Engineering Tribology 227(5)
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2 mm, while that of the diamond-dispersed ADC12
cover was about 1 mm. These results suggest that
these materials treated with hard particles may be
used in pumps to increase the lifetime while providing
equally good eciency and increased wear resistance.
Figure 7 shows SEM images of the wear scar on each
cover. Figure 7(a) indicates that only the Al matrix was
worn out, and Si particles had accumulated on the sur-
face. It seems that the much harder counter asperities
such as the carbides abraded the surface containing the
softer Si particles. However, for the hard-particle-dis-
persed ADC12 covers, only mild wear was observed
(Figure 7(b) and (c)).
Effect of hard particle dispersion
In order to understand the tribological mechanisms,
the worn surfaces were investigated using SEMEDX
analysis. Figure 8 shows an SEMEDX image of the
wear scar of the diamond-dispersed ADC12 alloy that
was sliding against HSS, which was the combination
that showed the lowest coecient of friction. The SEM
image clearly shows two diamond particles in the alloy
matrix. Around the diamond particles, an accumula-
tion of iron was detected by EDX. This is evidence that
iron is transferred, and thus the surface of the counter
body may be smoothed by the diamond particles.
Figure 9 shows higher magnication SEM images of
dierent area on the same sample of Figure 8. The
diamond asperities were also smoothed by the counter
body. And it may have low abrasive property because
of the at contact asperities as well as the low amount
of iron transfer around the diamond particles.
Normally, diamond coatings like the shock wave dia-
mond coating
11
showmuch high friction because of the
relatively sharp and high fraction of diamond on the
surface, because it is much more dicult to abrade
such many ultra hard asperities. In contrast, the dia-
mond-dispersed ADC12 sliding against HSS showed
Figure 5. Friction behaviours of (a) untreated ADC12, (b) Al15Si, (c) SiC-dispersed ADC12 and (d) diamond-dispersed ADC12.
Figure 6. Wear depth of AlSi alloys after the pump test.
Nakase et al. 429
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Figure 7. Wear scars of ADC12 covers after the pump test: (a) untreated ADC12; (b) SiC-dispersed ADC12; and (c) diamond-
dispersed ADC12.
Figure 8. Wear scar of diamond-dispersed ADC12 after sliding against HSS.
HSS: high-speed steel.
430 Proc IMechE Part J: J Engineering Tribology 227(5)
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ultra low friction and negligibly small wear volume.
This low wear and the good run-in surface indicate
that the material combination maintained excellent
and stable lubricating ability. Similar eects were
seen for the SiC-dispersed ADC12 alloy. However,
the diamond particles are more ecient in causing
this running-in eect because of their higher hardness.
Furthermore, since the Si particles are not hard enough
to abrade the carbides, Al15Si may exhibit higher fric-
tion than the diamond-dispersed ADC12 when DS or
HSS is used as the counter material. In addition, the
dierence between the tribological behaviour of DS
and HSS might be explained by the dierent sizes of
their carbides. The carbides in DS were around 30 mm
in diameter while the size of the diamonds was under
10 mm, which made it dicult to uniformly polish the
carbide so that the surface became roughened. For
HSS, because the sizes of the carbides and diamonds
are similar, the abrasiveness was much lower, leading
to a smoother surface and, consequently, improved
running-in behaviour.
Conclusions
1. Severe wear was observed on the ADC12 alloy
when the hardness of the dispersed particles was
lower than the hardness of the carbides in the
steel.
2. Dispersing hard particles into the surface of
ADC12 signicantly improved its wear resistance.
In particular, the wear resistance of the diamond-
dispersed ADC12 with 3 wt% C on the surface
was found to be almost the same as that of the
hypereutectic AlSi alloy. At this concentration of
dispersed particles, the wear loss of the vane was
negligible.
3. The lowest coecient of friction of 0.002 was
observed for the combination of the diamond-dis-
persed ADC12 sliding against HSS. This can be
explained by the smoothing of the vane surface
and the formation of an iron transfer layer
around the diamond during the running-in period.
4. The durability tests using the conventional pump
and the modied materials conrmed a signicant
improvement in the wear resistance of both of the
hard-particle-dispersed ADC12 samples.
Funding
This research received no specic grant from any
funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-prot
sectors.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr Wa sche (Federal Institute for
Materials Research and Testing, BAM) for useful sugges-
tions and discussions during the writing of this article.
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