Omguide - Complete - TUGAS D4 TPE

FEDERAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
Release 3.0
Operations &
Maintenance
Best Practices
A Guide to Achieving Operational Efficiency
August 2010
Release 3.0
Operatons & Mantenance
Best Practces
A Guide to Achieving Operational Efficiency
G. P. Suvan(a)
R. Pugh
A. P. Meendez
W. D. Hunt
August 2010
Prepared by
Pacc Northwest Natona Laboratory
for the Federa Energy Management Program
U.S. Department of Energy
Emcency Soutons, LLC
Dscamer
Ths report was sponsored by the Unted States Department of Energy, Omce of Energy Emcency and
Renewabe Energy, Federa Energy Management Program. Nether the Unted States Government nor any
agency or contractor thereof, nor any of ther empoyees, makes any warranty, express or mped, or assumes
any ega abty or responsbty for the accuracy, competeness, or usefuness of any nformaton, apparatus,
product, or process dscosed, or represents that ts use woud not nfrnge prvatey owned rghts. Reference
heren to any specc commerca product, process, or servce by trade name, mark, manufacturer, or
otherwse, does not necessary consttute or mpy ts endorsement, recommendaton, or favorng by the Unted
States Government or any agency or contractor thereof. The vews and opnons of authors expressed heren
do not necessary state or reect those of the Unted States Government or any agency or contractor thereof.
Preface w
Ths Operatons and Mantenance (O&M) Best Practces Gude was deveoped under the
drecton of the U.S. Department of Energys Federa Energy Management Program (FEMP).
The msson of FEMP s to factate the Federa Governments mpementaton of sound, cost-
ehectve energy management and nvestment practces to enhance the natons energy
securty and
envronmenta stewardshp. Each of these actvtes s drecty reated to achevng
requrements set
forth n:
The Energy Policy Act of 2005, whch estabshed a number of energy and water
management
goas for Federa factes and eets and aso amended portons of the Natona Energy
Conservaton Pocy Act (NECPA).
Executve Order 13423, Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and Transportation
Management (sgned n |anuary 2007). Ths set more chaengng goas than EPAct 2005
and
superseded exstng executve orders 13123 and 13149.
The Energy Independence and Secrity Act of 200!, whch further estabshed energy,
water, and
budng commssonng management goas and requrements and aso amended portons
of
EPAct 2005 and NECPA. EISA was sgned nto aw n December 2007.
Executve Order 13514, Federal "eadership in Environmental, Energy and Economic
Performance
(sgned n October of 2009) drects Federa agences to further address energy, water, and
operatona emcency beyond E.O. 13423 wth targeted goas and actons.
Reease 3.0 of ths gude provdes updates to Reease 2.0 n the areas of O&M technooges,
equpment performance, and costs. Ths new reease aso addresses water use and the
mpacts that
recommended O&M practces can have on water emcency.
Overa, ths gude hghghts O&M programs targetng energy and water emcency that are
estmated to save 5% to 20% on energy bs wthout a sgncant capta nvestment.
Dependng
on the Federa ste, these savngs can represent thousands to hundreds-of-thousands doars
each
year, and many can be acheved wth mnma cash outays. In addton to energy/resource
savngs, a
we-run O&M program w:
Increase the safety of a stah, as propery mantaned equpment s safer equpment.
Ensure the comfort, heath, and safety of budng occupants through propery functonng
equpment provdng a heathy ndoor envronment.
Conrm the desgn fe expectancy of equpment s acheved.
Factate the compance wth the above-mentoned Acts and Orders as we as Federa
egsaton such as the #lean Air Act and the #lean $ater Act, as we as expected carbon
mtgaton egsaton. w
The focus of ths gude s to provde the Federa O&M/Energy manager and practtoner wth
nformaton and actons amed at achevng these savngs and benets.
O&M Best Practices Guide, Release 3.0
iii
Acknowedgments
Ths report s the resut of numerous peope workng to acheve a common goa of
mprovng
operatons and mantenance and energy/water emcency across the Federa sector. The
authors
wsh to acknowedge the contrbuton and vauabe assstance provded by the stah of the
Federa
Energy Management Program (FEMP). Speccay, we woud ke to thank Ab Ream and Shawn
Herrera, FEMP Program Managers, for ther eadershp and support of the FEMP Operatons and
Mantenance program.
In addton, the authors woud ke to recognze B Sandusky of the Pacc Northwest
Natona
Laboratory (PNNL) for hs contnued commtment and recognton of the resource savngs
potenta of O&M to the Federa sector. Aso from PNNL, Erc Rchman and Caro |ones, and
Hayden McKay of Hayden McKay Lghtng Desgn, Inc. for ther work on the Lghtng secton of
ths document.
Beth Shearer, of Beth Shearer and Assocates, provded a conscentous revew of matera
provded n ths verson of the document. She provded nvauabe comments and suggestons
to
mprove the quaty of the document.
Fnay, the authors woud ke to extend ther apprecaton to PNNLs document producton
team - Dave Payson and Eane Schneder - for the conscentous, team-orented, and hgh
quaty
assstance they brought to ths verson of the document.
O
&
M
Be
st
Pr
ac
tic
es
G
ui
de
,
R
el
ea
se
3.
0
v
Contents
Preface..........................................................................................................................................
........ w
Acknowedgments .................................................................................................................
..............
v w
Chapter 1 Introducton and
Overvew............................................................................................... 1.1 w
1.1 About Ths
Gude ....................................................................................................................... 1.1 w
1.2 Target
Audence.......................................................................................................................... 1.2 w
1.3 Organzaton and Mantenance of the
Document ...................................................................... 1.2 w
Chapter 2 Why
O&M?....................................................................................................................... 2.1 w
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Introducton ...........................................................................................................................
..... 2.1 w
Dentons .............................................................................................................................
..... 2.1 w
Motvaton ..............................................................................................................................
.... 2.1 w
O&M Potenta, Energy Savngs, and
Beyond ........................................................................... 2.3 w
References .............................................................................................................................
..... 2.6 w
Chapter 3 O&M
Management........................................................................................................... 3.1 w
3.1
Introducton ................................................................................................................................
3.1 w
3.2 Deveopng the
Structure ............................................................................................................ 3.1 w
3.3 Obtan Management
Support ..................................................................................................... 3.3 w
3.3.1 The O&M Msson
Statement........................................................................................... 3.3 w
3.4 Measurng the Ouaty of Your O&M
Program .......................................................................... 3.4 w
3.5 Seng O&M to
Management .................................................................................................... 3.5 w
3.6 Program
Impementaton ............................................................................................................ 3.6 w
3.7 Program
Persstence..................................................................................................................... 3.6 w
3.8 O&M
Contractng ...................................................................................................................... 3.6 w
3.8.1 O&M Contract
Types........................................................................................................ 3.8 w
3.8.2 Contract
Incentves ........................................................................................................... 3.9 w
3.9 O&M: The ESPC
Perspectve...................................................................................................... 3.12 w
3.9.1 O&M Needs for Vered and Persstent
Savngs .............................................................. 3.12 w
3.9.2 Determnaton and Vercaton of O&M Savngs n ESPCs ...........................................
3.14 w
3.10
References ..................................................................................................................................
3.15 w
Chapter 4 Computerzed Mantenance Management
System ........................................................... 4.1 w
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Introducton ...........................................................................................................................
..... 4.1 w
CMMS Needs
Assessment .......................................................................................................... 4.1 w
CMMS
Capabtes..................................................................................................................... 4.1
w
CMMS
Benets ........................................................................................................................... 4.3
w
CMMS
Resources ........................................................................................................................ 4.3
w
Reference ..............................................................................................................................
....... 4.3 w
vii
Contents
Chapter 5 Types of Mantenance
Programs ....................................................................................... 5.1 w
5.1 w
5.2 w
5.3 w
5.4 w
5.5 w
5.6 w
5.7 w
Introducton ...............................................................................................................................
. 5.1 w
Reactve
Mantenance ................................................................................................................ 5.2 w
Preventve
Mantenance ............................................................................................................. 5.3 w
Predctve
Mantenance .............................................................................................................. 5.4 w
Reabty Centered Mantenance..............................................................................................
5.5 w
How to Intate Reabty Centered Mantenance....................................................................
5.6 w
References..................................................................................................................................
.. 5.9 w
Chapter 6 Predctve Mantenance Technooges .............................................................................
6.1 w
6.1 w
Introducton ................................................................................................................................ 6.1
w
6.2 w
Thermography .............................................................................................................................
6.2 w
6.2.1Introducton .......................................................................................................................
. 6.2 w
6.2.2Types of Equpment ...........................................................................................................
6.2 w
6.2.3System
Appcatons ........................................................................................................... 6.4 w
6.2.3.1 Eectrca System Appcatons ..............................................................................
6.4 w
6.2.3.2 Mechanca System Appcatons ..........................................................................
6.5 w
6.2.3.3 Roof Thermography ...............................................................................................
6.8 w
6.2.4Equpment
Cost/Payback .................................................................................................... 6.8 w
6.2.5Tranng Avaabty ..........................................................................................................
6.9 w
6.2.6Case
Studes ........................................................................................................................ 6.9 w
6.2.7Resources...........................................................................................................................
.. 6.10 w
6.2.7.1 Infrared Servce Companes...................................................................................
6.11 w
6.2.7.2 Infrared Internet Resource Stes ............................................................................
6.11 w
6.3 w Lubrcant and Wear Partce
Anayss ........................................................................................ 6.12 w
6.3.1Introducton .......................................................................................................................
. 6.12 w
6.3.2Test
Types ........................................................................................................................... 6.13 w
6.3.3Types of
Equpment ............................................................................................................ 6.15 w
6.3.4System
Appcatons ........................................................................................................... 6.15 w
6.3.5Equpment
Cost/Payback .................................................................................................... 6.16 w
6.3.6Tranng Avaabty ..........................................................................................................
6.16 w
6.3.7Case
Studes ........................................................................................................................ 6.16 w
6.3.8References/Resources ........................................................................................................
.. 6.17 w
6.3.8.1 Anayss Equpment Resources ..............................................................................
6.17 w
6.3.8.2 O Anayss Laboratores.......................................................................................
6.17 w
6.3.8.3 Internet Resource Stes ..........................................................................................
6.18 w
6.4 Utrasonc
Anayss....................................................................................................................... 6.19 w
6.4.1Introducton .......................................................................................................................
. 6.19 w
6.4.2Types of
Equpment ............................................................................................................ 6.20 w
6.4.3System
Appcatons ........................................................................................................... 6.21 w
6.4.3.1 Pressure/Vacuum Leaks..........................................................................................
6.21 w
6.4.3.2 Mechanca Appcatons.......................................................................................
6.21 w
6.4.3.3 Eectrca Appcatons...........................................................................................
6.22 w
6.4.4Equpment
Cost/Payback .................................................................................................... 6.22 w
6.4.5Tranng Avaabty ..........................................................................................................
6.22 w
6.4.6Case
Studes ........................................................................................................................ 6.23 w
6.4.7References/Resources ........................................................................................................
.. 6.23 w
viii
Contents
6.5 w
6.6 w
6.7 w
6.8 w
6.4.7.1 Equpment
Resources ............................................................................................. 6.23 w
6.4.7.2 Servce
Companes................................................................................................. 6.24 w
6.4.7.3 Internet Resource
Stes .......................................................................................... 6.24 w
Vbraton
Anayss....................................................................................................................... 6.25
w
6.5.1Introducton ...................................................................................................................
..... 6.25 w
6.5.2Types of
Equpment ............................................................................................................ 6.26 w
6.5.3System
Appcatons ........................................................................................................... 6.27 w
6.5.4Equpment
Cost/Payback .................................................................................................... 6.28 w
6.5.5Tranng
Avaabty .......................................................................................................... 6.28 w
6.5.6Case
Studes ........................................................................................................................ 6.28
w
6.5.7References/Resources ....................................................................................................
...... 6.28 w
6.5.7.1 Tranng Equpment
Resources.............................................................................. 6.29 w
6.5.7.2 Servce
Companes................................................................................................. 6.29 w
6.5.7.3 Tranng/Internet Resource Stes...........................................................................
6.29 w
Motor
Anayss ............................................................................................................................
6.30 w
6.6.1Introducton ...................................................................................................................
..... 6.30 w
6.6.2Motor Anayss
Test............................................................................................................ 6.30 w
6.6.2.1 Eectrca Surge
Comparson.................................................................................. 6.30 w
6.6.2.2 Motor Current Sgnature Anayss ........................................................................
6.30 w
6.6.3System
Appcatons ........................................................................................................... 6.31 w
6.6.4Equpment
Cost/Payback .................................................................................................... 6.31 w
6.6.5Tranng
Avaabty .......................................................................................................... 6.31 w
6.6.6References/Resources ....................................................................................................
...... 6.32 w
6.6.6.1 Equpment
Resources ............................................................................................. 6.32 w
6.6.6.2 Servce
Companes................................................................................................. 6.32 w
6.6.6.3 Internet Ste
Resources .......
........................
........................
........................
........... 6.32 w
Performance
Trendng.................
..............................
..............................
..............................
...... 6.33 w
6.7.1Introducton ..
..............................
..............................
.......................................................... 6.33 w
6.7.2How to Estabsh a Performance Trendng
Program .......................................................... 6.33 w
6.7.3System
Appcatons ........................................................................................................... 6.34 w
6.7.4Equpment
Cost/Payback .................................................................................................... 6.34 w
6.7.5Tranng
Avaabty .......................................................................................................... 6.34 w
6.7.6Case
Studes ........................................................................................................................ 6.35
w
References..............................................................................................................................
...... 6.35 w
Chapter 7 Commssonng Exstng
Budngs.................................................................................... 7.1 w
7.1 w
7.2 w
7.3 w
7.5 w
7.6 w
7.7 w
7.8 w
7.9 w
Introducton ...........................................................................................................................
..... 7.1 w
Dentons .............................................................................................................................
...... 7.2 w
Typca Fndngs from Exstng Budng
Commssonng .......................................................... 7.4 w
Trackng Commssonng
Benets ............................................................................................. 7.6 w
The Commssonng
Process ....................................................................................................... 7.7 w
Commssonng Provder
Ouacatons ..................................................................................... 7.8 w
The Future of Budng
Commssonng...................................................................................... 7.8 w
Case
Studes.................................................................................................................................
7.9 w
7.9.1System Shutdown Durng Unoccuped
Perods.................................................................. 7.9 w
7.9.2In-House Recommssonng at a DOE Natona Laboratory..............................................
7.10 w
i
Contents
7.10 Addtona
Resources .................................................................................................................. 7.12 w
7.11
References....................................................................................................................................
7.12 w
Chapter 8 Meterng for Operatons and Mantenance ......................................................................
8.1 w
8.1 w
8.2 w
8.3 w
8.4 w
8.5 w
8.6 w
8.7 w
8.8 w
8.9 w
8.10
Introducton ...............................................................................................................................
. 8.1 w
Importance of Meterng and the Busness Case..........................................................................
8.2 w
Meterng Appcatons ................................................................................................................
8.3 w
Meterng
Approaches .................................................................................................................. 8.4 w
8.4.1One-Tme/Spot Measurements...........................................................................................
8.4 w
8.4.2Run-Tme Measurements....................................................................................................
8.5 w
8.4.3Short-Term Measurements/Montorng .............................................................................
8.5 w
8.4.4Long-Term Measurements/Montorng ..............................................................................
8.6 w
8.4.5The Meterng Herarchy ....................................................................................................
8.6 w
Meterng System Components....................................................................................................
8.7 w
8.5.1Meters.................................................................................................................................
. 8.7 w
8.5.2Data Coecton...................................................................................................................
8.8 w
8.5.3Data
Storage........................................................................................................................ 8.8 w
8.5.4Data
Anayss ...................................................................................................................... 8.9 w
Meterng Economcs....................................................................................................................
8.9 w
Meterng Fnancng Optons.......................................................................................................
8.11 w
8.7.1Meterng Fnancng Herarchy ...........................................................................................
8.11 w
Steps n Meter Pannng..............................................................................................................
8.13 w
8.8.1Estabsh Program Goas and Ob|ectves ............................................................................
8.13 w
8.8.2Identfy Needs to Support Seected Anayss Approaches .................................................
8.13 w
8.8.3Deveop and Appy Evauaton Crtera .............................................................................
8.14 w
8.8.4Impementaton, Desgn, and Instaaton..........................................................................
8.15 w
8.8.5Performance Vadaton and Persstence ............................................................................
8.15 w
Case Study -
Genera Servces
Admnstratons
Kastenmeer Federa Courthouse ................. 8.15 w
References..................................................................................................................................
.. 8.18 w
Chapter 9 O&M Ideas for Ma|or Equpment Types ..........................................................................
9.1 w
9.1 w
Introducton ................................................................................................................................ 9.1
w
9.1.1Lock and Tag.......................................................................................................................
9.1 w
9.2 w
Boers ........................................................................................................................................ 9.3
w
9.2.1 Introducton ......................................................................................................................
9.3 w
9.2.2.1 Fre-Tube Boers....................................................................................................
9.3 w
9.2.2.2 Water-Tube Boers................................................................................................
9.3 w
9.2.2.3 Eectrc Boers .......................................................................................................
9.4 w
9.2.3 Key Components ...............................................................................................................
9.5 w
9.2.3.1 Crtca Components .............................................................................................
9.5 w
9.2.3.2 Other Components ................................................................................................
9.7 w
9.2.4 Safety
Issues ....................................................................................................................... 9.8 w
9.2.5.1 Emcency, Safety, and Lfe of the Equpment........................................................
9.9 w
9.2.5.2 Boer Energy Best Practces...................................................................................
9.9 w
9.2.5Cost and Energy/Water Emcency ......................................................................................
9.9 w
9.2.5.1 Emcency, Safety, and Lfe of the Equpment........................................................
9.9 w
9.2.5.2 Boer Energy Best Practces...................................................................................
9.9 w

Contents
9.2.6Mantenance of
Boers ....................................................................................................... 9.12 w
9.2.7Dagnostc
Toos ................................................................................................................. 9.12 w
9.2.8Avaabe Software
Toos.................................................................................................... 9.13 w
9.2.9Reevant Operatona/Energy Emcency
Measures............................................................. 9.14 w
9.2.9.1 Boer Measure #1: Boer Loadng, Sequencng, Schedung, and Contro.........
9.14 w
9.2.9.2 Boer Measure #2: Boer Combuston Emcency................................................
9.17 w
9.2.9.3 Boer Measure #3: Trendng Boer Stack Temperature......................................
9.20 w
9.2.9.4 Opportunty
Identcaton..................................................................................... 9.20 w
9.2.10 Boer Rues of
Thumb .................................................................................................. 9.24 w
9.2.10.1 Boer Water-Use Best Practces ........................................................................
9.25 w
9.2.11 Case
Studes.................................................................................................................... 9.26 w
9.2.12 Boer Checkst, Sampe Boer Mantenance Log, and Water Ouaty Test ...............
9.26 w
9.2.13
References.......................................................................................................................
9.32 w
9.3 w Steam
Traps................................................................................................................................. 9.34 w
9.3.1Introducton ...................................................................................................................
..... 9.34 w
9.3.2Types of Steam
Traps.......................................................................................................... 9.34 w
9.3.2.1 Mechanca Steam
Trap......................................................................................... 9.34 w
9.3.2.2 Thermostatc Steam
Trap ...................................................................................... 9.35 w
9.3.2.3 Thermodynamc Steam
Traps................................................................................ 9.36 w
9.3.2.4 Other Steam
Traps................................................................................................. 9.37 w
9.3.3Safety
Issues......................................................................................................................... 9.37 w
9.3.4.1 Other
Costs ............................................................................................................ 9.37 w
9.3.4Cost and Energy
Emcency ................................................................................................. 9.37 w
9.3.5Mantenance of Steam
Traps.............................................................................................. 9.39 w
9.3.5.1 Characterstcs of Steam Trap
Faure ................................................................... 9.39 w
9.3.6Performance
Assessment..................................................................................................... 9.41 w
9.3.7Dagnostc
Equpment......................................................................................................... 9.43 w
Measures............................................................. 9.43 w
9.3.8.1 Steam Trap Water-Use Best
Practces.................................................................... 9.45 w
9.3.9Case
Studes ........................................................................................................................ 9.45
w
9.3.10 Steam Traps
Checkst .................................................................................................... 9.47 w
9.3.11
References........................................................................................................................
9.47 w
9.4 w
Chers ........................................................................................................................................
9.48 w
9.4.1Introducton ...................................................................................................................
..... 9.48 w
9.4.2Types of
Chers ................................................................................................................. 9.48 w
9.4.2.1 Mechanca Compresson
Cher .......................................................................... 9.48 w
9.4.2.2 Absorpton Cher.................................................................................................
9.49 w
9.4.3Key
Components................................................................................................................. 9.49
w
9.4.3.1 Mechanca Compresson Chers.........................................................................
9.49 w
9.4.3.2 Absorpton
Cher.................................................................................................. 9.49 w
9.4.4Safety
Issues.............................................................................................................................9.50
. 9.4.5Cost and Energy
Emcency.....................................................................................................9.50
. 9.4.6Mantenance of
Chers.........................................................................................................9.50
. 9.4.7Dagnostc
Toos ................................................................................................................. 9.52 w
Too ..................................................................................................... 9.52 w
Measures ............................................................ 9.53 w
9.4.9.1 Cher Water-Use Best
Practces ........................................................................... 9.57 w
9.4.10 Chers
Checkst............................................................................................................ 9.57 w
9.4.11 Sampe Cher Operaton
Log ....................................................................................... 9.59 w
i
Contents
9.4.12
References........................................................................................................................ 9.60
w
9.5 w Coong
Towers ........................................................................................................................... 9.61 w
9.5.1Introducton .......................................................................................................................
. 9.61 w
9.5.2 Types of Coong Towers...................................................................................................
9.61 w
9.5.3 Key Components ...............................................................................................................
9.62 w
9.5.4 Safety
Issues ....................................................................................................................... 9.62 w
9.5.5 Cost and Energy Emcency................................................................................................
9.63 w
9.5.6 Mantenance of Coong Towers.......................................................................................
9.63 w
9.5.7 Common Causes of Coong Towers Poor Performance...................................................
9.64 w
9.5.8 Dagnostc Toos................................................................................................................
9.64 w
9.5.8.1 Coong Tower Water-Use Best Practces .............................................................
9.64 w
9.5.8.2 Operatons and Mantenance Opportuntes .................................................................
9.66 w
9.5.8.3 Retrot
Opportuntes ..................................................................................................... 9.67 w
9.5.9 Coong Towers Checkst.................................................................................................
9.68 w
9.5.10
References........................................................................................................................ 9.69
w
9.6 w Energy Management/Budng Automaton
Systems .................................................................. 9.70 w
9.6.1 Introducton ......................................................................................................................
9.70 w
9.6.2 System
Types ..................................................................................................................... 9.70 w
9.6.3 Key Components ...............................................................................................................
9.71 w
9.6.4 Safety
Issues ....................................................................................................................... 9.71 w
9.6.5 Cost and Emcency............................................................................................................
9.71 w
9.6.6 Mantenance......................................................................................................................
9.71 w
9.6.7 Dagnostc Equpment .......................................................................................................
9.72 w
9.6.8 Reevant Operatona/Energy Emcency Measures ..........................................................
9.72 w
9.6.9 Case
Studes....................................................................................................................... 9.77 w
9.6.10 Budng Contros Checkst............................................................................................
9.80 w
9.6.11
References........................................................................................................................ 9.81
w
9.7 w Ar Handng
Systems ................................................................................................................ 9.82 w
9.7.1 Introducton ......................................................................................................................
9.82 w
9.7.2 Types of Ar Handng Systems.........................................................................................
9.82 w
9.7.3 Key Components ...............................................................................................................
9.82 w
9.82 w
9.7.5
Mantenance ...................................................................................................................... 9.83
w
9.7.5.1 Dagnostc Toos .....................................................................................................
9.83 w
9.7.5.2 Case Study ..............................................................................................................
9.83 w
9.7.6 Ar Handng System Checksts.......................................................................................
9.84 w
9.7.7
References.......................................................................................................................... 9.86
w
9.8 w
Fans ........................................................................................................................................ 9.87
w
9.8.1 Introducton ......................................................................................................................
9.87 w
9.8.2 Types of
Fans. .........................................................................................................................9.87
. . 9.8.2.1 Axa Fan................................................................................................................ 9.87
w
9.8.2.2 Centrfuga Fans .....................................................................................................
9.88 w
9.8.3 Key Components ...............................................................................................................
9.89 w
9.8.4 Safety
Issues........................................................................................................................ 9.89 w
9.89 w
9.8.6 Mantenance of Fans .........................................................................................................
9.89 w
9.8.7 Dagnostc Toos................................................................................................................
9.90 w
9.8.8 Avaabe Software Toos .................................................................................................
9.90 w
ii
Contents
9.8.9 Reevant Operatona/Energy Emcency
Measures .......................................................... 9.91 w
9.8.10 Case
Studes..................................................................................................................... 9.93 w
9.8.11 Fans
Checkst ................................................................................................................. 9.94 w
9.8.12
References........................................................................................................................
9.95 w
9.9
Pumps ........................................................................................................................................
9.96 w
9.9.1
Introducton ......................................................................................................................
9.96
9.9.2 Types of
Pumps.................................................................................................................. 9.97
9.9.2.1 Dynamc Pump (Centrfuga
Pump) .........................................................................9.97
. . 9.9.2.2 Postve Dspacement
Pump......................................................................................9.97
. 9.9.3 Key
Components ............................................................................................................... 9.98
9.9.3.1 Centrfuga
Pump........................................................................................................9.98
. . 9.9.3.2 Postve Dspacement Pumps ................................................................................
9.98
9.9.4Safety
Issues..............................................................................................................................9.99
. 9.9.5Cost and Energy
Emcency ................................................................................................. 9.100
9.9.6Mantenance of
Pumps............................................................................................................9.100
. 9.9.7Dagnostc
Toos ................................................................................................................. 9.101
Toos.................................................................................................... 9.102
Measures ............................................................ 9.102
9.9.9.1Pump System Water-Use Best
Practces ................................................................. 9.105
9.9.10 Case
Study. ...........................................................................................................................9.105
. 9.9.11 Pumps
Checkst.............................................................................................................. 9.107
9.9.12
References........................................................................................................................
9.108 w
9.10
Motors ........................................................................................................................................
9.109 w
9.10.1
Introducton ....................................................................................................................
9.109 w
9.10.2 Types of
Motors .............................................................................................................. 9.109 w
9.10.2.1 DC
Motors ........................................................................................................... 9.109 w
9.10.2.2 AC
Motors................................................................................................................9.110
. 9.10.3 Key
Components ............................................................................................................. 9.110 w
9.10.3.1 DC
Motor..................................................................................................................9.110
. . 9.10.3.2 AC Motor.............................................................................................................
9.111 w
9.10.4 Safety
Issues..........................................................................................................................9.112
. 9.10.5 Cost and Energy
Emcency..................................................................................................9.112
. 9.10.6 Mantenance of
Motors ................................................................................................... 9.113 w
9.10.7 Dagnostc
Equpment ..................................................................................................... 9.114 w
9.10.8 Avaabe Software
Toos ................................................................................................ 9.114 w
9.10.9 Reevant Operatona/Energy Emcent
Measures ........................................................... 9.115 w
9.10.10 Eectrc Motors
Checkst.............................................................................................. 9.118 w
9.10.11
References......................................................................................................................
9.119 w
9.11 Ar
Compressors ..........................................................................................................................
9.120 w
9.11.1
Introducton ....................................................................................................................
9.120 w
9.11.2 Types of Ar
Compressors....................................................................................................9.120
. . 9.11.2.1 Postve Dspacement..........................................................................................
9.120 w
9.11.2.2 Centrfuga
Compressor ....................................................................................... 9.121 w
9.11.3 Key
Components..................................................................................................................9.121
. 9.11.4 Safety
Issues..........................................................................................................................9.122
. . 9.11.4.1 Genera Safety Requrements for Compressed Ar..............................................
9.122 w
9.11.5 Cost and Energy
Emcency..................................................................................................9.123
. . 9.11.5.1 Identfy the Eectrca Cost of Compressed Ar...................................................
9.123 w
iii
Contents
9.11.5.2 Waste Heat Recovered from Compressors can be Used for
Heatng. ...................9.124
. . 9.11.5.3 Use of Fow Controers .......................................................................................
9.125
9.11.5.4 Importance of Mantenance to Energy Savngs...................................................
9.125
9.11.5.5 Leak Evauaton Procedure ..................................................................................
9.125
9.11.6 Mantenance of Ar
Compressors.................................................................................. 9.126
. . 9.11.6.1 Genera Requrements for a Safe and Emcent Ar Compressor.........................
9.126
9.11.7 Dagnostc Toos.............................................................................................................
9.128 w
9.11.8 Avaabe Software Toos ...............................................................................................
9.128 w
9.11.9 Reevant Operatona/Energy Emcency Measures .........................................................
9.129 w
9.11.9.1 Ar Compressor Water-Use Best Practces.........................................................
9.129 w
9.11.10 Case
Study .................................................................................................................... 9.131 w
9.11.11 Ar Compressors Checkst...........................................................................................
9.132 w
9.11.12 References.....................................................................................................................
9.133 w
9.12
Lghtng......................................................................................................................................
9.135 w
9.12.1 Introducton ...................................................................................................................
9.135 w
9.12.2 Systems and Components ..............................................................................................
9.135 w
9.12.2.1 Lght Sources ......................................................................................................
9.135 w
9.12.2.2 Baasts, Transformers, and Power Packs............................................................
9.138 w
9.12.2.3 Lumnare Housng .............................................................................................
9.139 w
9.12.2.4 Lghtng Contro Devces ...................................................................................
9.140 w
9.12.3 Safety
Issues .................................................................................................................... 9.146 w
9.12.3.1 Eectrca and Equpment Safety ........................................................................
9.146 w
9.12.3.2 Hazardous Materas Handng ...........................................................................
9.147 w
9.12.4 Energy Emcency, Savngs, and Cost .............................................................................
9.148 w
9.12.4.1 Panned versus Reactve Mantenance...............................................................
9.148 w
9.12.4.2 Response to Compants .....................................................................................
9.150 w
9.12.4.3 Retrot versus Redesgn......................................................................................
9.150 w
9.12.4.4 Energy Codes ......................................................................................................
9.153 w
9.12.5 Mantenance Procedures ................................................................................................
9.153 w
9.12.5.1 Commssonng ...................................................................................................
9.153 w
9.12.5.2 Common Causes of Poor Performance...............................................................
9.154 w
9.12.5.3 Ceanng..............................................................................................................
9.154 w
9.12.5.4 Lamp and Baast Troubeshootng.....................................................................
9.155 w
9.12.5.5 Lghtng Contros Cabraton and Troubeshootng.........................................
9.156 w
9.12.5.6 Dagnostc Toos .................................................................................................
9.157 w
9.12.5.7 Economcs...........................................................................................................
9.159 w
9.12.6 Lghtng Checkst..........................................................................................................
9.160 w
9.12.7 References.......................................................................................................................
9.161 w
Chapter 10 O&M
Fronters...................................................................................................................10.1 w
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
ACRx Handtoo/Honeywe HVAC Servce
Assstant ................................................................10.1 w
Decson Support for
O&M............................................................................................................10.2 w
ENFORMA Portabe Dagnostc
Soutons..................................................................................10.2 w
Performance and Contnuous Re-Commssonng Anayss
Too .................................................10.3 w
Energy
Expert .................................................................................................................................10.4
w
Reference ..................................................................................................................................
......10.4 w
Chapter 11 Ten Steps to Operatona
Emcency ..................................................................................11.1 w
iv
Contents
Appendx A - Gossary of Common
Terms ..................................................................................... A.1 w
Appendx B - FEMP Contact Lst....................................................................................................
B.1 w
Appendx C - Resources for Energy and Factes
Professonas..................................................... C.1 w
Appendx D - Suggestons for Addtons or
Revsons .................................................................... D.1 w
Fgures
2.4.1 w
5.1.1 w
6.2.1 w
6.2.3 w
6.2.2 w
6.2.4 w
6.2.5 w
6.2.6 w
6.2.7 w
6.2.8 w
6.2.9 w
6.2.11
6.2.10
6.2.12
6.5.1 w
6.5.2 w
6.5.3 w
6.7.1 w
7.4.1 w
7.9.1 w
7.9.2 w
8.1.1 w
8.4.1 w
8.5.1 w
8.7.1 w
8.8.1 w
Ehect of adequate and tmey mantenance and repars on the servce
fe ..........................
Component faure rate over tme for component
popuaton ..............................................
Typca IR spot
thermometer .................................................................................................
Temperature s used n denng bet
probems.......................................................................
Interna house
wa.................................................................................................................
Ar breaker
probem ...............................................................................................................
Overoaded contacts show dherent temperature proes ndcatng one contact
seeng much greater oad, a potentay unsafe
stuaton. ......................................................
IR scans of mutpe eectrc motors can hghght those wth hot bearngs
ndctng
an mbaance or wear
probem. ..............................................................................................
Possbe gearbox probem ndcated by whte area dened by
arrow.....................................
Sezed conveyer bet roer as ndcated by eevated temperatures n
bet/roer...................
Inoperabe steam heaters seen by cooer bue areas when compared to the
operatng
heaters warmer red or orange
coors. .....................................................................................
When trended, IR scans of snge bearngs provde a usefu ndcator of wear and
eventua need for
repacement...............................................................................................
IR scans of boer can hghght those areas where the refractory has broken down
eadng to costy heat
oss.......................................................................................................
Steam or hot water dstrbuton system eaks and/or underground ne ocaton
can
be dened wth
IR. .........................
..............................
..............................
............................
Vbraton severty
chart .....................
..............................
..............................
........................
FFT - Exampe of
graph breakng
down vbraton
eve at dherent
frequences ...........
......
Typca vbraton
transducers ..........
..............................
..............................
...........................
Boer Cycng
Frequency
Data .....................
..............................
..............................
.............
Constructon
Phase CX
costs......................
..............................
..............................
...............
Whoe-budng
eectrcty use
before and after
nght shutdown
program..................
..........
PNNL EMSL budng
energy performance by
sca
year .............................
........................
Typca utty socket-
type
meter............................
.....................................
...........................
Eectrc meterng
herarchy.......................
.....................................
.....................................
...
Typca eectrca sub
pane used n ong-term
montorng ....................
...............................
The meterng nancng
herarchy .....................
.....................................
...............................
Deveopment process
for meter system
pannng .......................
......................................
.....
2.5 w
5.1 w
6.2 w
6.3 w
6.4 w
6.5 w
6.5
6.6
6.6 w
6.6 w
6.6
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.25 w
6.26 w
6.26 w
6.37 w
7.5 w
7.10 w
7.11 w
8.1 w
8.7 w
8.8 w
8.12 w
8.14 w
v
Contents
8.9.1 w Instaed wreess montorng system for WBE-based
system................................................. 8.17 w
8.9.2 w Sampe screen capture for a generc budng showng an aarm or hgh-energy
usng condton.......................................................................................................................
8.18
8.9.3 w Data from the montorng devce provdes a comparson of 2 days of
eectrcty.................. 8.18 w
9.1.1 w Typca fodng ock and tag scssor
camp ............................................................................. 9.2 w
9.2.1 w Horzonta return re-tube
boer........................................................................................... 9.3 w
9.2.3 w Eectrc
boer ......................................................................................................................... 9.4 w
9.2.2 w Longtudna-drum water-tube
boer..................................................................................... 9.4 w
9.2.4 w Adapted from 1999 Natona Board of Boer and Pressure Vesse Inspectors
ncdent report summary. .......................................................................................................
9.8
9.2.5 w Ehect of foung on water
sde................................................................................................ 9.9 w
9.2.6 w Combuston
anayzer.............................................................................................................. 9.18 w
9.2.7 w Exampe ocatons - combuston
anayss.............................................................................. 9.18 w
9.2.8 w Boer tube - scae
depost...................................................................................................... 9.21 w
9.2.9 w Boer tube - faure
(rupture)................................................................................................ 9.21 w
9.2.10 Feed-water ppe - oxygen pttng...........................................................................................
9.22 w
9.2.12 Condensate ppe - oxygen pttng .........................................................................................
9.22 w
9.2.14 Boer energy osses versus scae
thckness............................................................................. 9.22 w
9.2.11 Boer tube - faure (rupture)................................................................................................
9.22 w
9.2.13 Condensate ppe - acdc corroson .......................................................................................
9.22 w
9.3.1 w Inverted bucket steam
trap .................................................................................................... 9.34 w
9.3.2 w Bmetac steam
trap ............................................................................................................. 9.35 w
9.3.3 w Beows steam
trap.................................................................................................................. 9.35 w
9.3.5 w Dsc steam
trap ....................................................................................................................... 9.36 w
9.3.4 w Foat and thermostatc steam
trap ......................................................................................... 9.36 w
9.3.6 w Energy oss from eakng steam
traps...................................................................................... 9.38 w
9.3.7 w Lve steam (eft) versus ash steam
(rght)............................................................................ 9.41 w
9.3.8 w Faed gasket on bnd
ange.................................................................................................. 9.45 w
9.4.1 w Typca cher
pant ............................................................................................................... 9.48 w
9.5.2 w Drect or open coong
tower ................................................................................................. 9.61 w
9.5.1 w Coong
tower......................................................................................................................... 9.61 w
9.6.1 w Genera Servces Admnstratons Custom House, Phadepha, PA ..................................
9.77 w
9.7.1 w Coong co requrng
ceanng ............................................................................................. 9.84 w
9.7.2 w Damper quck x - not
recommended................................................................................... 9.84 w
9.8.1 w Propeer drect-drve fan (front and rear
vew). ................................................................... 9.84 w
9.8.2 w Propeer bet-drve fan (front and rear
vew). ...................................................................... 9.87 w
9.8.3 w Tube-axa
fan......................................................................................................................... 9.87 w
9.8.4 w Vane axa
fan......................................................................................................................... 9.88 w
9.8.5 w Centrfuga
fan ....................................................................................................................... 9.88 w
9.9.1 w Technoogy tree for pumps...................................................................................................
9.88 w
9.9.2 w Rotary obe
pump ................................................................................................................. 9.96 w
9.9.3 w Postve dspacement
pumps. .............................................................................................. 9.97 w
9.9.4 w Centrfuga
pump. ................................................................................................................ 9.98 w
9.9.5 w Schematc of pump and reef vave.....................................................................................
9.99 w
9.9.7 w Retrot cost savngs ($5,800 annuay). ..............................................................................
9.106 w
9.9.6 w Pump system energy use and
savngs.................................................................................... 9.106 w
vi
Contents
9.10.1 DC
motor.............................................................................................................................. 9.109 w
9.10.2 AC
motor................................................................................................................................9.110 w
9.10.3 Parts of a drect current
motor................................................................................................9.111 w
9.10.4 Parts of an aternatng current
motor .....................................................................................9.111 w
9.11.1 Rotary screw
compressor.........................................................................................................9.120 w
9.11.2. Typca snge actng two-stage
compressor ..........................................................................9.121 w
9.11.3 Heca-obe
rotors ..................................................................................................................9.122 w
9.12.1 Fuorescent amp/baast
emcacy ............................................................................................9.138 w
9.12.2 Wa-box occupancy sensor uses hdden nterna dp-swtches to set manua-on,
auto-
oh. ..................................................................................................................................9.
141 w
9.12.3 Photosensor and uorescent dmmng baast for contnuous dayght
dmmng ..................9.145 w
9.12.4 Repar and rewrng must be done by a censed
eectrcan. .................................................9.146 w
9.12.5 Fuorescent amp mortaty
curve ...........................................................................................9.149 w
9.12.6 Lghtng unformty and xture spacng
crtera.....................................................................9.151 w
9.12.8 Cabratons for
contros .........................................................................................................9.156 w
9.12.7 Ceng occupancy
sensor........................................................................................................9.157 w
Tabes
3.1.1 Industry O&M metrcs and
benchmarks ................................................................................ 3.5 w
3.2.2 Overvew of key O&M ssues, tmng, and supportng
documents ........................................ 3.13 w
5.5.1 Reabty centered mantenance eement
appcatons ........................................................ 5.6 w
6.1.1 Common predctve technoogy
appcatons......................................................................... 6.1 w
7.1.1 Commssonng type consderaton by facty
condton....................................................... 7.1 w
9.2.1 Boer cycng energy
oss........................................................................................................ 9.14 w
9.2.2 Optmum excess
ar................................................................................................................. 9.17 w
9.2.3 Recommended mts for boer-water
concentratons ........................................................... 9.21 w
9.3.1 Steam trap dscharge
rate........................................................................................................ 9.43 w
9.6.1 Custom House demand reducton and savngs 2005-
2006 .................................................... 9.79 w
9.8.1 Fan-ow contro
comparson .................................................................................................. 9.92 w
9.11.4 Steam trap dscharge
rate........................................................................................................9.129 w
9.11.5 Compressed ar eaks - cost per year assumng
$0.05/kWh....................................................9.131 w
vii
Chapter 1 Introducton and Overvew
The purpose of ths gude s to provde you, the Operatons and Mantenance (O&M)/Energy
manager and practtoner, wth usefu nformaton about O&M management, technooges,
energy
and water emcency, and cost-reducton approaches. To make ths gude usefu and to reect
your needs and concerns, the authors met wth O&M and Energy managers va Federa Energy
Management Program (FEMP) workshops. In addton, the authors conducted extensve
terature
searches and contacted numerous vendors and ndustry experts. The nformaton and case
studes
that appear n ths gude resuted from these actvtes.
It needs to be stated at the outset that ths gude s desgned to provde nformaton on
ehectve
O&M as t appes to systems and equpment typcay found at Federa factes. Ths gude s
not
desgned to provde the reader wth step-by-step procedures for performng O&M on any
specc
pece of equpment. Rather, ths gude rst drects the user to the manufacturers
speccatons
and recommendatons. In no way shoud the recommendatons n ths gude be used n pace
of
manufacturers recommendatons. The recommendatons n ths gude are desgned to
suppement
those of the manufacturer, or, as s a too often the case, provde gudance for systems and
equpment
for whch a technca documentaton has been ost.
As a rue, ths gude w rst defer to the manufacturers recommendatons on equpment
operaton and mantenance.
Actions and activities recoended in this guide shou!d
on!" #e attepted #" trained and certi$ied personne!% &$ such
personne! are not avai!a#!e' the actions recoended here
shou!d not #e initiated%
(%( A#out This Guide
Ths gude s desgned to serve as a resource for O&M management and technca stah.
It does not try to represent the unverse of O&M-reated matera. Rather, t attempts to:
Provde needed background nformaton on why O&M s mportant
and the potenta for savngs from good O&M.
Dene the ma|or O&M program types and provde gudance
on the structure of a good O&M program.
Provde nformaton on state-of-the-art mantenance
technooges and procedures for key equpment.
Identfy nformaton sources and contacts to assst you n gettng your |ob done.
1.1
!ntroduction and Overvie"
(%) Target Audience
O&M/Energy managers, practtoners, and technca stah represent the prme focus of ths
document. However, a competent O&M program requres the partcpaton of stah from ve we-
dened areas: Operatons, Mantenance, Engneerng, Tranng, and Admnstraton. Whe a gven
ste may not have a ve of these areas as separate enttes, these functons are provded for
wthn
the organzaton. It s these stah that are targeted.
A successful O&M program requires cooperation, dedication, and participation at
all levels
and cannot succeed without everyone involved understanding the basic principles and
supporting
the cause.
(%* Organi+ation and Maintenance o$ the Docuent
It s the ntenton of the authors to update ths gude perodcay as new O&M procedures and
technooges are deveoped and empoyed. Ths gude can be found on the FEMP Web ste at
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/operatons_mantenance/om_bpgude.htm .
The gude conssts of eeven chapters. Ths chapter provdes an ntroducton and an overvew.
Chapter 2 provdes the ratonae for "Why O&M?" Chapter 3 dscusses O&M management ssues
and ther mportance. Chapter 4 examnes Computerzed Mantenance Management Systems
(CMMS) and ther roe n an ehectve O&M program. Chapter 5 ooks at the dherent types of
mantenance programs and dentons. Chapter 6 focuses on mantenance technooges,
partcuary
the most accepted predctve technooges. Chapter 7 descrbes the budng commssonng
process
and how t contrbutes to ehectve O&M. Chapter 8 covers the topc of meterng and ts
appcatons
for mproved operatons and emcency. Chapter 9 expores O&M procedures for the predomnant
equpment found at most Federa factes and, where appcabe, provdes cacuaton
procedures for
estmatng energy savngs. Chapter 10 descrbes some of the promsng O&M technooges and
toos
on the horzon to ncrease O&M emcency. Chapter 11 provdes ten steps to ntatng an
operational
e%ciency program.
The O&M envronment s n a constant state of evouton and the technooges and
vocabuares
are ever expandng. Therefore, a gossary of terms s presented n Appendx A. Appendx B
provdes
a st of Federa contacts for tranng and assstance. Appendx C ncudes a st of organzatons
and
trade groups that have nterest or are reated to O&M. And nay, Appendx D s a form that can
be
used to submt suggestons or revsons to ths gude.
Agan, we desgned ths to be a usefu document, and we wecome your nput to hep us keep
t
current. Pease fee comfortabe to make suggestons for changes, addtons, or deetons usng
the
form found n Appendx D.
1.2
Chapter 2 Why O&M? w
)%( &ntroduction
Ehectve O&M s one of the most cost-ehectve methods for ensurng reabty, safety, and
energy emcency. Inadequate mantenance of energy-usng systems s a ma|or cause of energy
waste n
both the Federa Government and the prvate sector. Energy osses from steam, water and ar
eaks,
unnsuated nes, maad|usted or noperabe contros, and other osses from poor mantenance
are
often consderabe. Good mantenance practces can generate substanta energy savngs and
shoud
be consdered a resource. Moreover, mprovements to facty mantenance programs can
often be
accompshed mmedatey and at a reatvey ow cost.
)%) De$initions
&perations and Maintenance are the decsons and actons regardng the contro and
upkeep of
property and equpment. These are ncusve, but not mted to, the foowng: 1) actons
focused on
schedung, procedures, and work/systems contro and optmzaton; and 2) performance of
routne,
preventve, predctve, schedued and unschedued actons amed at preventng equpment
faure or
decne wth the goa of ncreasng emcency, reabty, and safety.
&perational E%ciency represents the fe-cyce, cost-ehectve mx of preventve, predctve,
and
reabty-centered mantenance technooges, couped wth equpment cabraton, trackng,
and
computerzed mantenance management capabtes a targetng reabty, safety, occupant
comfort,
and system emcency.
)%* Motivation
In October of 2009, EO 13514 was sgned nto aw. Ths order drects Federa agences to
further
address energy, water, and operatona emcency beyond E.O. 13423.
The key energy- and operatona-emcency-reated provsons n the Executve Order are
as foows:
Federa agences must enhance ehorts toward sustanabe budngs and communtes.
Specc
requrements ncude the mpementaton of hgh-performance sustanabe Federa budng
desgn, constructon, operaton and management, mantenance, and deconstructon.
Pursung cost-ehectve, nnovatve strateges (e.g., hghy reectve and vegetated
roofs) to mnmze consumpton of energy, water, and materas.
Managng exstng budng systems to reduce the consumpton of energy, water, and
materas,
and dentfyng aternatves to renovaton that reduce exstng asset-deferred mantenance
costs.
Reducng potabe water consumpton ntensty 2% annuay through FY
2020, or 26% by the end of FY 2020, reatve to a FY 2007 basene.
Reducng agency ndustra, andscapng, and agrcutura water consumpton 2%
annuay, or 20% by the end of FY 2020, reatve to a FY 2010 basene.
Identfyng, promotng, and mpementng water reuse strateges consstent
wth state aw that reduce potabe water consumpton. w
2.1
#h$ O&M%
Whe appcabe ony to Department of Energy factes, DOE Order 430.2B was ssued n
February 2008 ceary outnng the requrements and responsbtes for managng DOE factes.
The reevance of ths Order es n forward-thnkng and hghghts DOEs commtment to energy
and
resource emcency.
The key energy- and operatona-emcency-reated provsons n the DOE Order are as foows:
By FY 2015, reduce energy ntensty by no ess than 30% on average across the entre
Department, reatve to the Departments energy use n FY 2003. Energy ntensty means
energy
consumpton per gross square foot of budng space, ncudng ndustra and aboratory
factes.
By FY 2015, reduce potabe water use by no ess than 16%, reatve
to the Departments potabe water use n FY 2007.
Insta advanced eectrc meterng systems at a Department stes n accordance wth the DOE
meterng pan for ste montorng of eectrc energy. Standard meterng systems for steam,
natura
gas, and water must aso be nstaed and centray montored at a Department stes for
steam,
natura gas, and water consumpton. Advanced meters are dened as havng the capabty to
measure and record nterva data (at east houry for eectrcty) and communcate the data to
a remote ocaton n a format that can be easy ntegrated nto an advanced meterng
system.
Use standardzed operatons and mantenance (O&M) and measurement and vercaton
(M&V)
protocos couped wth rea-tme nformaton coecton and centrazed reportng capabtes.
,hi!e e$$ective' soe $ee! that capita! upgrades are not
a!-a"s the ost cost.e$$ective so!ution% &ndeed' the authors
o$ this guide contend that !o-.cost/no.cost O&M easures
0inc!uding activities re$erred to as retrocoissioning
or retuning1 shou!d #e the $irst energ" savings easure
considered% O&M easures shou!d #e considered prior to
the insta!!ation o$ energ" conservation easures $or the
$o!!o-ing reasons2
Typcay, O&M measures are ow-cost or no-cost n nature.
Many O&M measures are easy nstaed by n-house personne.
O&M measures can have mmedate payback.
These measures rarey requre the desgn tme, bd preparaton, evauaton, and
response compared to capta pro|ects that can take up to a year to mpement. w
2.2
#h$ O&M%
Is an Energy Savngs Performance Contract Beng Consdered?
(Haas and Sharp 1999)
Some eve of retrocommssonng (.e., O&M best practces) s usuay approprate f you are consderng any
type of energy savngs agreement such as an energy savngs performance contract. There are two prmary
reasons for performng retrocommssonng before obtanng an energy-savngs agreement. Frst, the ow-cost
energy savngs ganed from retrocommssonng remans wth the budng (the owner gets a of the savngs) and
does not become part of the nanca agreement; second, retrocommssonng optmzes the exstng equpment
so
the most approprate capta measures are seected and nanced through the agreement.
A good reason for dong retrocommssonng as part of an energy-savngs agreement s to ensure that the
performance of new equpment s not hndered because t nterfaces wth oder equpment, components, or
systems
that are mafunctonng. Even when commssonng s speced for the new equpment, t often stops short of
ookng at the systems wth whch the new equpment nterfaces or examnng how t ntegrates wth other
systems
or equpment that may ahect ts performance. Ths s especay true for energy management contro systems.
Because contros are an area where many dmcutes and msunderstandngs occur between budng owners and
performance contractors, t s a good dea to specfy commssonng for both the new and exstng equpment that
may ahect the performance of the new equpment.
When retrocommssonng s performed before the energy-savngs agreement or energy savngs performance
contract s nazed, t s mportant to nform the contractor about the retrocommssonng actvtes and gve hm
or
her a copy of the na report. If the contractor s not nformed and energy bs from pror years are used to hep
determne the energy basene, the basene may be naccurate. Ths may cause the cost savngs upon whch the
nancng s based to be sgncanty ess than expected, eadng to dsagreements and even ega battes.
Retrocommssonng performed up front to capture the ow-cost savngs may not be a wse choce f the savngs
from the retrocommssonng do not reman wth the budng but, nstead, go nto a genera fund. In ths case, the
"ow-cost/no-cost" mprovements shoud be part of the performance contract. In ths way, a porton of the savngs
stays wth the budng as part of the nanca arrangement. Integratng the retrocommssonng measures nto
the energy-savngs agreement s a way to capture the savngs as part of the nvestment repayment. The amount
nvested can be ncreased when the savngs estmates are hgher. Moreover, the savngs ganed from bundng
these measures wth the capta upgrades-especay f some of the upgrades are margnay cost-ehectve (.e.,
good vaue but wth ong paybacks)-hep to ncrease the overa vabty and attractveness of the energy
savngs
performance contract fundng.
)%3 O&M Potentia!' Energ" 4avings' and Be"ond
It has been estmated that O&M programs targetng energy emcency can save 5% to 20%
on
energy bs wthout a sgncant capta nvestment (PECI 1999). From sma to arge stes,
these
savngs can represent thousands to hundreds-of-thousands of doars each year, and many can
be
acheved wth mnma cash outays.
The need for ehectve budng O&M s ustrated n Fgure 2.4.1, whch shows how, over
tme, the performance of a budng (and ts components) w eventuay degrade n two
scenaros -
one wth and one wthout "norma" mantenance. Of nterest n the gure s the proonged
servce
fe acheved through ehectve O&M. Not shown n ths gure s the addtona benet of
reduced
budng (energy) operatng costs resutng from ehectvey mantanng mechanca and
eectrca
equpment (e.g., ghtng; heatng, ventaton, and ar condtonng |HVAC|; contros; and on-
ste
generaton).
Beyond the potenta for sgncant cost and energy/resource savngs, an O&M program
operatng at ts peak operational e%ciency has other mportant mpcatons:
2.3
#h$ O&M%
Fgure 2.4.1. Ehect of adequate and tmey mantenance and repars
on the servce fe of a budng (Natona Research Counc 1998).
A we-functonng O&M program s a safe O&M program. Equpment s mantaned
propery mtgatng any potenta hazard arsng from deferred mantenance.
In most Federa budngs, the O&M stah
are
responsbe for not ony the comfort, but aso
the heath and safety of the occupants.
Of
ncreasng productvty (and ega)
concern
are ndoor ar quaty (IAO) ssues wthn
these budngs. Proper O&M reduces the
rsks assocated wth the deveopment of
dangerous and costy IAO stuatons.
When Maron County, Forda, omcas reazed
ther new county courthouse was makng hundreds
of empoyees sck, they dd more than send the
workers to the doctor, they sued the buder/
operator of the budng for bad ar and won a
$14.2 mon |udgment (Ewe 1996).
Propery performed O&M ensures that the desgn fe expectancy of equpment w be
acheved,
and n some cases exceeded. Conversey, the costs assocated wth eary equpment faure
are
usuay not budgeted for and often come at the expense of other panned O&M actvtes.
An ehectve O&M program more easy
compes wth Federa egsaton such as the
#lean Air Act and the #lean $ater Act as
we
as expected carbon management
egsaton.
O&M measures cost approxmatey 20 tmes ess
and acheve roughy the same energy savngs as
retrot measures.
A we functonng O&M program
s not aways answerng compants, rather, t s proactve n ts response and corrects
stuatons before they become probems. Ths mode mnmzes cabacks and keeps
occupants satsed whe aowng more tme for schedued mantenance. w
Two recent DOE/FEMP-sponsored programs have hghghted both the opportunty and the
cost
ehectveness of O&M/ow-cost energy emcency measures; these programs were the Energy
Savngs
Expert Teams (ESET) and Energy Emcency Expert Evauatons (E4). Both programs were
desgned
to respond to the need for mmedate, cost-ehectve energy savngs. From the post evauatons,
the
foowng ndngs were hghghted:
2.&
#h$ O&M%
A demonstraton focused on O&M-based energy emcency was conducted at the U.S. Department
of Energy Forresta Budng n Washngton, D.C. (Cardge and Haber 1994). A sgncant component
to ths demonstraton was meterng and the trackng of steam use n the budng. Wthn severa months,
$250,000 per year n steam eaks were found and corrected. These ncuded eaks n a steam converter
and steam traps. Because the budng was not metered for steam and there was not a proactve
O&M program, these eaks were not detected earer, nor woud they have been detected wthout the
demonstraton. The key essons earned from ths case study were:
O&M opportuntes n arge budngs do not have to nvove compex engneerng anayss.
Many O&M opportuntes exst because budng operators may not have proper documentaton
that hndered day-to-day actons.
Invovement and commtment by budng admnstrators s a key ngredent for a successfu
O&M program.
Energy Savings Epert !eams " ESE! #$unt %&&'()
To reaze the same benets (energy savngs), equpment retrots cost
approxmatey 20-tmes more than ow-cost O&M measures
Doars saved per doars nvested (cacuated vaues):
o &'M pro(ects) 3.83 (smpe payback 0.26 years)
o *etro+t pro(ects) 0.19 (smpe payback 5.26 years)
Overa program cost-ehectveness for measures mpemented (as of May 2007)
- ncudes retrot, O&M measures and program admnstraton/devery
o Annal energy savings) 202,512 MMBtu
o Annal cost savings) $1,731,780
o Total program cost) $1,795,000
o Simple pay,ac-) 1.0 years
Energy E*ciency Epert Evaluations " E+ #$ail %&&,()
Cacuated savngs range from 3% to over 40%, average savngs 15%.
Doars saved per doars nvested (cacuated vaues):
o &'M pro(ects .de+ned as /05,0001) 14.9 (smpe payback 0.07 years)
o *etro+t pro(ects .de+ned as 205,0001) 0.7 (smpe payback 1.5 years)
Overa program cost ehectveness for measures mpemented (as of December
2008), ncudes retrot, O&M measures and program admnstraton/devery
o Annal cost savings) $584,000
o Total program cost) $800,000
o Simple pay,ac-) 1.4 years
2.'
#h$ O&M%
)%5 Re$erences
Cardge, |. and D. Haber. 1994. #an 3o Achieve 4505 of Predicted *etro+t Savings6 Is it Time
for
*ecommissioning6 Amercan Counc for an Energy Emcency Economy (ACEEE), Summer Study
on
Energy Emcency n Budngs, Voume 5, Commssonng, Operaton and Mantenance. ACEEE,
Washngton, D.C.
#lean Air Act7 1986. Pubc Law 88-206, as amended, 42 USC 7401 et seq.
#lean $ater Act. 1997. Pubc Law 95-217, as amended, 91 Stat. 1566 and Pubc Law 96-148,
as amended.
DOE Order 430.2B. 8epartmental Energy, *ene9a,le Energy and Transportation Management.
Issued February 27, 2008.
E.O. 13423. Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management.
Sgned |anuary 24, 2007.
E.O 13514. Federal "eadership in Environmental, Energy, and Economic Performance.
Sgned October 5, 2009.
Ewe, C. 1996. :ictims of ;Sic- <ildings= Sing <ilders, Employers7 Knght-Rdder News Servce.
Haas, T. and T. Sharp. 1999. A Practical >ide for #ommissioning E?isting <ildings. ORNL/TM-
1999/34, Oak Rdge, Tennessee.
Ha, |. 2008. <ene+ts of the 200! Energy E%ciency E?pert Evalations .E@17 Presentaton to the
Federa Energy Management Program, December 2009. Pacc Northwest Natona Laboratory,
Rchand, Washngton.
Hunt, D. 2007. Energy Savings E?pert Team .ESET1 <ene+ts Assessment. Presentaton to the
Federa Energy Management Program, May 2007. Pacc Northwest Natona Laboratory,
Rchand,
Washngton.
Natona Research Counc (NRC). 1998. Ste9ardship of Federal FacilitiesA A Proactive Strategy for
Managing the Bation=s P,lic Assets. Natona Academy Press, Washngton, D.C.
PECI. 1999. &perations and Maintenance Assessments. Portand Energy Conservaton, Inc.
Pubshed
by U.S. Envronmenta Protecton Agency and U.S. Department of Energy, Washngton, D.C.
2.(
Chapter 3 O&M Management
*%( &ntroduction
O&M management s a crtca component of the
overa
program. The management functon shoud bnd the dstnct
parts of the program nto a cohesve entty. From our
experence,
the overa program shoud contan ve very dstnct
functons
makng up the organzaton: Operatons,
Mantenance,
Engneerng, !ranng, and Admnstraton-OMETA.
MA&NTENAN6E
OPERAT&ON4
O&M
&NTEGRAT&ON
ENG&NEER&NG
Beyond estabshng and factatng the OMETA nks,
O&M managers have the responsbty of nterfacng wth
other
department managers and makng ther case for ever-
shrnkng
budgets. Ther roes aso ncude pro|ect mpementaton
functons as we as the need to mantan persstence of
the
program and ts goas.
TRA&N&NG ADM&N&4TRAT&ON
*%) Deve!oping the 4tructure
Fve we-dened eements of an ehectve O&M program ncude those presented above n
the
OMETA concept (Meador 1995). Whe these eements, Operatons, Mantenance, Engneerng,
Tranng, and Admnstraton, form the bass for a sod O&M organzaton, the key es n the
we-dened functons each brngs and the nkages between organzatons. A subset of the
roes
and responsbtes for each of the eements s presented beow; further nformaton s found
n
Meador (1995).
Operations
Administration - To ensure ehectve mpementaton and contro of operaton actvtes.
-onduct of Operations - To ensure emcent, safe, and reabe process operatons.
Equipment Status -ontrol - To be cognzant of status of a equpment.
Operator .nowledge and /erformance - To ensure that operator knowedge and
performance
w support safe and reabe pant operaton.
Maintenance
Administration - To ensure ehectve mpementaton and contro of mantenance
actvtes.
0or1 -ontrol System - To contro the performance of mantenance n an emcent and
safe
manner such that economca, safe, and reabe pant operaton s optmzed.
-onduct of Maintenance - To conduct mantenance n a safe and emcent manner.
/reventive Maintenance - To contrbute to optmum performance and reabty of
pant
systems and equpment.
3.1
O&M Manage)ent
Maintenance /rocedures and 2ocumentation - To provde drectons, when
approprate, for
the performance of work and to ensure that mantenance s performed safey and
emcenty.
Engineering 4upport
Engineering Support Organi3ation and Administration - To ensure ehectve
mpementaton
and contro of technca support.
Equipment Modi4cations - To ensure proper desgn, revew, contro, mpementaton,
and
documentaton of equpment desgn changes n a tmey manner.
Equipment /erformance Monitoring - To perform montorng actvtes that optmze
equpment reabty and emcency.
Engineering Support /rocedures and 2ocumentation - To ensure that engneer
support
procedures and documents provde approprate drecton and that they support the
emcency
and safe operatons of the equpment.
Training
Administration - To ensure ehectve mpementaton and contro of tranng actvtes.
5eneral Employee !raining - To ensure that pant personne have a basc understandng
of
ther responsbtes and safe work practces and have the knowedge and practca abtes
necessary to operate the pant safey and reaby.
!raining 6acilities and Equipment - To ensure the tranng factes, equpment, and
materas ehectvey support tranng actvtes.
Operator !raining - To deveop and mprove the knowedge and sks necessary to
perform
assgned |ob functons.
Maintenance !raining - To deveop and mprove the knowedge and sks necessary to
perform assgned |ob functons.
Adinistration
Organi3ation and Administration - To estabsh and ensure ehectve mpementaton of
poces and the pannng and contro of equpment actvtes.
Management Ob7ectives - To formuate and utze forma management ob|ectves to
mprove
equpment performance.
Management Assessment - To montor and assess staton actvtes to mprove a
aspects of
equpment performance.
/ersonnel /lanning and 8uali4cation - To ensure that postons are ed wth hghy
quaed ndvduas.
9ndustrial Safety - To acheve a hgh degree of personne and pubc safety.
3.2
O&M Manage)ent
*%* O#tain Manageent 4upport
Federa O&M managers need to obtan fu support from
ther management structure n order to carry out an ehectve
mantenance program. A good way to start s by estabshng
a wrtten mantenance pan and obtanng upper
management
approva. Such a management-supported program s
very
mportant because t aows necessary actvtes to be sched-
ued wth the same prorty as other management
actons.
Approachng O&M by equatng t wth ncreased productvty,
energy emcency, safety, and customer satsfacton s one
way to
gan management attenton and support.
Management reports shoud not
assgn bame for poor mantenance
and nemcent systems, but rather
to motvate emcency mprovement
through mproved mantenance.
When desgnng management reports, the crtca metrcs used by each system shoud be
compared to a base perod. For exampe, compare monthy energy use aganst the same
month for
the pror year, or aganst the same month n a partcuar base year (for exampe, 1985). If
emcency
standards for a partcuar system are avaabe, compare your systems performance aganst
that
standard as we. Management reports shoud not assgn bame for poor mantenance and
nemcent
systems, but rather to motvate emcency mprovement through mproved mantenance.
*%*%( The O&M Mission 4tateent
Another usefu approach n soctng management buy-n and support s the deveopment
an
O&M msson statement. The msson statement does not have to be eaborate or detaed. The
man ob|ectve s to agn the program goas wth those of ste management and to seek
approva,
recognton, and contnued support. Typca msson statements set out to answer crtca
questons - a sampe s provded beow:
w $ho are 9e as an organiCation - speccay, the nterna reatonshp?
w $hom do 9e serve - speccay, who are the customers?
w $hat do 9e do - speccay, what actvtes make up day-to-day actons?
w Do9 do 9e do it - speccay, what are the beefs and vaues by whch we operate?
w Finally, ho9 do 9e measre sccess - what metrcs do we use, (e.g., energy/water
emcency,
safety, doar savngs, etc.?)
A crtca eement n msson statement deveopment s nvovement of upper management
and
facty stah ake. Once nvoved wth the deveopment, there w be "ownershp" whch can
ead
to compance (facty stah) and support (management).
3.3
O&M Manage)ent
*%3 Measuring the 7ua!it" o$ Your O&M Progra
Tradtona thnkng n the O&M ed focused on a snge metrc, reabty, for program
evauaton. Every O&M manager wants a reabe facty; however, ths metrc aone s not
enough
to evauate or bud a successfu O&M program.
Beyond reabty, O&M managers need to be responsbe for controng costs, evauatng and
mpementng new technooges, trackng and reportng on heath and safety ssues, and
expandng
ther program. To support these actvtes, the O&M manager must be aware of the varous
ndcators that can be used to measure the quaty or ehectveness of the O&M program. Not ony
are these metrcs usefu n assessng ehectveness, but aso usefu n cost |ustcaton of
equpment
purchases, program modcatons, and stah hrng.
Beow are a number of metrcs that can be used to evauate an O&M program. Not a of these
metrcs can be used n a stuatons; however, a program shoud use of as many metrcs as
possbe to
better dene decences and, most mportanty, pubcze successes.
w-apacity factor - Reates actua pant or equpment operaton to the fu-capacty operaton
of the pant or equpment. Ths s a measure of actua operaton compared to fu-utzaton
operaton.
w0or1 orders generated:closed out - Trackng of work orders generated and competed
(cosed
out) over tme aows the manager to better understand workoads and better schedue stah.
w;ac1log of corrective maintenance - An ndcator of workoad ssues and ehectveness of
preventve/predctve mantenance programs.
wSafety record - Commony tracked ether by number of oss-of-tme ncdents or tota
number
of reportabe ncdents. Usefu n gettng an overa safety pcture.
wEnergy use - A key ndcator of equpment performance, eve of emcency acheved, and
possbe degradaton.
w9nventory control - An accurate accountng of spare parts can be an mportant eement n
controng costs. A monthy reconcaton of nventory "on the books" and "on the sheves"
can provde a good measure of your cost contro practces.
wOvertime wor1ed - Weeky or monthy hours of overtme worked has workoad, schedung,
and economc mpcatons.
wEnvironmental record - Trackng of dscharge eves (ar and water) and non-compance
stuatons.
wAbsentee rate - A hgh or varyng absentee rate can be a sgna of ow worker morae and
shoud be tracked. In addton, a hgh absentee rate can have a sgncant economc mpact.
wSta< turnover - Hgh turnover rates are aso a sgn of ow worker morae. Sgncant costs
are
ncurred n the hrng and tranng of new stah. Other costs ncude those assocated wth
errors
made by newy hred personne that normay woud not have been made by experenced
stah.
3.&
O&M Manage)ent
Whe some metrcs are easer to quantfy than others, Tabe 3.1.1 beow can serve as a
gude for
trackng and trendng metrcs aganst ndustry benchmarks (NASA 2000).
Tabe 3.1.1. Industry O&M metrcs and benchmarks
*%5 4e!!ing O&M to Manageent
To successfuy nterest management n O&M actvtes, O&M managers need to be uent n
the anguage spoken by management. Pro|ects and proposas brought forth to management
need to
stand on ther own merts and be compettve wth other fundng requests. Whe evauaton
crtera
may dher, generay some eve of economc crtera w be used. O&M managers need to
have a
workng knowedge of economc metrcs such as:
wSimple paybac1 - The rato of tota
nstaed
cost to rst-year savngs.
w=eturn on investment - The rato of
the
ncome or savngs generated to the overa
nvestment.
w>et present value - Represents the
present
worth of future cash ows mnus the nta
cost of the pro|ect.
Lfe-Cyce Cost Tranng
Take advantage of LCC workshops ohered by
FEMP. Each year, FEMP conducts a 2-hour teevsed
workshop on fe-cyce cost methods and the use of
BLCC (Budng Lfe-Cyce Cost) software programs.
In some years, two-day cassroom workshops are
ohered at varous U.S. ocatons.
More nformaton can be found at: http://www1.
eere.energy.gov/femp/program/fecyce.htm
w?ife"cycle cost - The present worth of a
costs assocated wth a pro|ect. w
FEMP ohers fe-cyce cost tranng aong wth ts Budng Lfe-Cyce Cost (BLCC) computer
program at varous ocatons durng the year - see Appendx B for the FEMP tranng contacts.
3.'
Metric @ariables and Equation ;enchma
r1
Equipment
Availability
% = Hours each unt s avaabe to run at
capact y
Tota hours durng the reportng tme
>
95%
Schedule
-ompliance
% = Tota hours worked on schedued |obs
Tota hours schedued
>
90%
Emergency
Maintenance
% = Tota hours worked on emergency |ob
s
<
10%
Maintenance
Overtime
% = Tota mantenance overtme durng
perod
<
5%
/reventive
Maintenance
% = Preventve mantenance actons
compete d
>
90%
/reventive
Maintenance
% = Preventve mantenance cost
Tota mantenance cost
15% -
18%
/redictive
Maintenance
%= Preventve mantenance cost
Tota mantenance cost
10% -
12%
O&M Manage)ent
*%8 Progra &p!eentation
Deveopng or enhancng an O&M program requres patence and persstence. Gudenes for
ntatng a new O&M pro|ect w vary wth agency and management stuaton; however, some
steps
to consder are presented beow:
wStart small - Choose a pro|ect that s manageabe and can be competed n a short perod
of tme,
6 months to 1 year.
wSelect troubled equipment - Choose a pro|ect that has vsbty because of a probematc
hstory.
wMinimi3e ris1 - Choose a pro|ect that w provde mmedate and postve resuts. Ths
pro|ect
needs to be successfu, and therefore, the rsk of faure shoud be mnma.
w.eep accurate records - Ths pro|ect needs to stand on ts own merts. Accurate, f not
conservatve, records are crtca to compare before and after resuts.
w!out the success - When you are successfu, ths needs to be shared wth those nvoved
and wth
management. Consder deveopng a "wa of accompshment" and ocate t n a pace where
management w take notce.
w;uild o< this success - Generate the success, acknowedge those nvoved, pubcze t,
and then
request more money/tme/resources for the next pro|ect.
*%9 Progra Persistence
A heathy O&M program s growng, not aways n stah but n responsbty, capabty,
and accompshment. O&M management must be vgant n hghghtng the capabtes and
accompshments of ther O&M stah.
Fnay, to be sustanabe, an O&M program must be vsbe beyond the O&M management.
Persstence n factatng the OMETA nkages and reatonshps enabes heghtened vsbty of
the
O&M program wthn other organzatons.
*%: O&M 6ontracting
Approxmatey 40% of a non-resdenta budngs contract mantenance servce for heatng,
ventaton, and ar condtonng (HVAC) equpment (PECI 1997). Dscussons wth Federa
budng mangers and organzatons ndcate ths vaue s sgncanty hgher n the Federa
sector, and
the trend s toward ncreased reance on contracted servces.
In the O&M servce ndustry, there s a wde varety of servce contract types rangng from
fu-
coverage contracts to ndvdua equpment contracts to smpe nspecton contracts. In a
reatvey
new type of O&M contract, caed End-Use or End-Resut contractng, the O&M contractor not
ony
takes over a operaton of the equpment, but aso a operatona rsk. In ths case, the
contractor
agrees to provde a certan eve of comfort (space temperature, for nstance) and then s
compensated
based on how we ths s acheved.
3.(
O&M Manage)ent
From dscussons wth Federa sector O&M personne, the predomnant contract type s the
fu-
coverage contract (aso referred to as the whoe-budng contract). Typca fu-coverage
contract
terms vary between 1 and 5 years and usuay ncude optons for out-years.
Upon revew of severa sampe O&M contracts used n the Federa sector, t s cear that
some
degree of standardzaton has taken pace. For better or worse, some of these contracts contan
a hgh
degree of "boer pate." Whe ths can make the contract very easy to mpement, and
somewhat
unform across government agences, the ack of ste speccty can make the contract
ambguous and
open to contractor nterpretaton often to the governments dsadvantage.
When consderng the use of an O&M contract, t s mportant that a pan be deveoped to
seect, contract wth, and manage ths contract. In ts gude, tted &peration and Maintenance
Service
#ontracts .PECI 1997), Portand Energy Conservaton, Inc. dd a partcuary good |ob n
presentng
steps and actons to thnk about when consderng an O&M contract. A summary of these
steps are
provded beow.
Steps to Thnk About When Consderng an O&M Contract
Deveop ob|ectves for an O&M servce contract, such as:
- Provde maxmum comfort for budng occupants.
- Improve operatng emcency of mechanca pant (boers, chers, coong towers, etc.).
- Appy preventve mantenance procedures to reduce chances of premature equpment faures.
- Provde for perodc nspecton of budng systems to avod emergency breakdown stuatons.
Deveop and appy a screenng process. w The screenng process nvoves deveopng a seres of
questons specc to your ste and expectatons. The same set of questons shoud be asked to
perspectve contractors and ther responses shoud be rated.
Seect two to four potenta contractors and obtan nta proposas based on each contractors
budng assessments. Durng the contractors assessment process, communcate the ob|ectves
and expectatons for the O&M servce contract and aow each contractor to study the budng
documentaton.
Deveop the ma|or contract requrements usng the contractors nta proposas. w Make sure to
ncude the requrements for documentaton and reportng. Contract requrements may aso be
deveoped by competent n-house stah or a thrd party.
Obtan na bds from the potenta contractors based on the owner-deveoped requrements.
Seect the contractor and deveop the na contract anguage and servce pan.
Manage and oversee the contracts and documentaton.
- Perodcay revew the entre contract. Bud n a feedback process.
The abty of Federa agences to adopt the PECI-recommended steps w vary. St, these
steps
do provde a number of good deas that shoud be consdered for ncorporaton nto Federa
mante-
nance contracts procurements.
3.*
O&M Manage)ent
*%:%( O&M 6ontract T"pes
There are four predomnant types of O&M contracts. These are: full coverage contracts,
full"
labor contracts, preventive"maintenance contracts, and inspection contracts. Each type of
contract
s dscussed beow (PECI 1997).
Full-Coverage Service Contract. A fu-coverage servce contract provdes 100% coverage
of abor, parts, and materas as we as emergency servce. Owners may purchase ths type of
contract for a of ther budng equpment or for ony the most crtca equpment, dependng
on
ther needs. Ths type of contract shoud aways ncude comprehensve preventve
mantenance
for the covered equpment and systems. If t s not aready ncuded n the contract, for an
addtona fee the owner can purchase repar and repacement coverage (sometmes caed a
"breakdown" nsurance pocy) for the covered equpment. Ths makes the contractor
competey
responsbe for the equpment. When repar and repacement coverage s part of the
agreement,
t s to the contractors advantage to perform rgorous preventve mantenance on schedue,
snce
he or she must repace the equpment f t fas prematurey.
Fu-coverage contracts are usuay the most comprehensve and the most expensve type of
agreement n the short term. In the ong term, however, such a contract may prove to be the
most cost-ehectve, dependng on the owners overa O&M ob|ectves. Ma|or advantages of
fu-
coverage contracts are ease of budgetng and the fact that most f not a of the rsk s carred
by
the contractor. However, f the contractor s not reputabe or underestmates the
requrements of
the equpment to be nsured, the contractor may do ony enough preventve mantenance to
keep
the equpment barey runnng unt the end of the contract perod. Aso, f a company
underbds
the work n order to wn the contract, the company may attempt to break the contract eary f
t foresees a hgh probabty of one or more catastrophc faures occurrng before the end of
the
contract.
Full-Labor Service Contract. A fu-abor servce contract covers 100% of the abor to
repar,
repace, and mantan most mechanca equpment. The owner s requred to purchase a
equpment and parts. Athough preventve mantenance and operaton may be part of the
agreement, actua nstaaton of ma|or pant equpment such as a centrfuga chers, boers,
and
arge ar compressors s typcay excuded from the contract. Rsk and warranty ssues usuay
precude anyone but the manufacturer nstang these types of equpment. Methods of
deang
wth emergency cas may aso vary. The cost of emergency cas may be factored nto the
orgna
contract, or the contractor may agree to respond to an emergency wthn a set number of
hours
wth the owner payng for the emergency abor as a separate tem. Some preventve
mantenance
servces are often ncuded n the agreement aong wth mnor materas such as bets,
grease, and
ters.
Ths s the second most expensve contract regardng short-term mpact on the mantenance
budget. Ths type of contract s usuay advantageous ony for owners of very arge budngs
or
mutpe propertes who can buy n buk and therefore obtan equpment, parts, and materas
at
reduced cost. For owners of sma to medum-sze budngs, cost contro and budgetng
becomes
more compcated wth ths type of contract, n whch abor s the ony constant. Because they
are responsbe ony for provdng abor, the contractors rsk s ess wth ths type of contract
than
wth a fu-coverage contract.
3.+
O&M Manage)ent
Preventive-Maintenance Service Contract. The preventve-mantenance (PM) contract
s
generay purchased for a xed fee and ncudes a number of schedued and rgorous
actvtes such
as changng bets and ters, ceanng ndoor and outdoor cos, ubrcatng motors and
bearngs,
ceanng and mantanng coong towers, testng contro functons and cabraton, and
pantng
for corroson contro. Generay the contractor provdes the materas as part of the
contract.
Ths type contract s popuar wth owners and s wdey sod. The contract may or may not
ncude arrangements regardng repars or emergency cas.
The man advantage of ths type of contract s that t s ntay ess expensve than ether
the
fu-servce or fu-abor contract and provdes the owner wth an agreement that focuses on
quaty preventve mantenance. However, budgetng and cost contro regardng
emergences,
repars, and repacements s more dmcut because these actvtes are often done on a
tme-and-
materas bass. Wth ths type of contract the owner takes on most of the rsk. Wthout a
cear
understandng of PM requrements, an owner coud end up wth a contract that provdes
ether
too much or too tte. For exampe, f the budng s n a partcuary drty envronment, the
outdoor coong cos may need to be ceaned two or three tmes durng the coong season
nstead
of |ust once at the begnnng of the season. It s mportant to understand how much
preventve
mantenance s enough to reaze the fu benet of ths type of contract.
Inspection Service Contract. An nspecton contract, aso known n the ndustry as a "y-
by"
contract, s purchased by the owner for a xed annua fee and ncudes a xed number of
perodc
nspectons. Inspecton actvtes are much ess rgorous than preventve mantenance.
Smpe
tasks such as changng a drty ter or repacng a broken bet are performed routney, but
for the
most part nspecton means ookng to see f anythng s broken or s about to break and
reportng
t to the owner. The contract may or may not requre that a mted number of materas
(bets,
grease, ters, etc.) be provded by the contractor, and t may or may not ncude an
agreement
regardng other servce or emergency cas.
In the short-term perspectve, ths s the east expensve type of contract. It may aso be
the east
ehectve-ts not aways a moneymaker for the contractor but s vewed as a way to
mantan
a reatonshp wth the customer. A contractor who has ths "foot n the door" arrangement
s
more key to be caed when a breakdown or emergency occurs. The contractor can then
b
on a tme-and-materas bass. Low cost s the man advantage to ths contract, whch s
most
approprate for smaer budngs wth smpe mechanca systems.
*%:%) 6ontract &ncentives
An approach targetng energy savngs through mechanca/eectrca (energy consumng)
O&M
contracts s caed contract ncentves. Ths approach rewards contractors for energy savngs
reazed
for competng actons that are over and above the stated contract requrements.
Many contracts for O&M of Federa budng mechanca/eectrca (energy consumng)
systems
are wrtten n a prescrptve format where the contractor s requred to compete speccay
noted
actons n order to satsfy the contract terms. There are two sgncant shortcomngs to ths
approach:
The contractor s requred to compete ony those actons speccay caed out, but s not
responsbe for actons not ncuded n the contract even f these actons can save energy,
mprove
budng operatons, extend equpment fe, and be accompshed wth mnma addtona
ehort.
Aso, ths approach assumes that the budng equpment and mantenance sts are
compete.
3.,
O&M Manage)ent
The burden to verfyng successfu competon of work under the contract rests wth the
contract-
ng omcer. Whe contracts typcay contan contractor reportng requrements and methods
to
randomy verfy work competon, budng O&M contracts tend to be very arge, compex, and
dmcut to enforce.
One possbe method to address these shortcomngs s to appy a provson of the Federa
Acqu-
ston Reguatons (FAR), Subpart 16.404 - Fxed-Prce wth Award Fees, whch aows for contrac-
tors to receve a porton of the savngs reazed from actons ntated on ther part that are seen
as
addtona to the orgna contract:
Subpart 16.404 - Fxed-Prce Contracts Wth Award Fees.
(a) w Award-fee provsons may be used n xed-prce contracts when the government wshes to
motvate a contractor and other ncentves cannot be used because contractor performance
cannot be measured ob|ectvey. Such contracts sha -
(1) w Estabsh a xed prce (ncudng norma prot) for the ehort. Ths prce w be pad for
satsfactory contract performance. Award fee earned (f any) w be pad n addton to
that xed prce; and
(2) w Provde for perodc evauaton of the contractors performance aganst an award-fee
pan.
(b) w A soctaton contempatng award of a xed-prce contract wth award fee sha not be
ssued
uness the foowng condtons exst:
(1) w The admnstratve costs of conductng award-fee evauatons are not expected to
exceed
the expected benets;
(2) w Procedures have been estabshed for conductng the award-fee evauaton;
(3) w The award-fee board has been estabshed; and
(4) w An ndvdua above the eve of the contractng omcer approved the xed-prce-award-
fee
ncentve.
Appyng ths approach to budng mechanca systems O&M contracts, contractor ntated
measures woud be mted to those that
requre tte or no capta nvestment,
can recoup mpementaton costs over the remanng current term, and
aow resuts to be vered or agreed upon by the government and the contractor.
Under ths approach, the contractor bears the rsk assocated wth recoverng any nvestment
and
a porton of the savngs.
In the past, The Genera Servces Admnstraton (GSA) has nserted nto some of ts mechan-
ca servces contracts a vountary provson tted Energy Conservaton Award Fee (ECAF), whch
aows contractors and stes to pursue such an approach for O&M savngs ncentves. The ECAF
mode anguage provdes for the foowng:
3.10
O&M Manage)ent
An energy use basene w be furnshed upon request and be provded by the government
to the
contractor. The basene w show the 3-year rong monthy average eectrc and natura gas
use
pror to contract award.
The government w cacuate the monthy eectrc savngs as the dherence between the
monthy energy b and the correspondng basene perod.
The ECAF w be cacuated by mutpyng the energy savngs by the monthy average cost
per
kowatt-hour of eectrcty.
A other contract provsons must be satsed to quafy for award.
The government can ad|ust the ECAF for operatona factors ahectng energy use such as
uctuatons n occupant densty, budng use changes, and when ma|or equpment s not
operatona. w
Indvdua stes are abe to adapt the mode GSA anguage to best sut ther needs (e.g.,
ncudng
natura gas savngs ncentves). Other agences are free to adopt ths approach as we snce
the pro-
vsons of the FAR appy across the Federa Government.
Energy savngs opportuntes w vary by budng and by the structure of the contract
ncentves
arrangement. Some questons to address when deveopng a ste specc ncentves pan are:
W metered data be requred or can energy savngs be stpuated?
Are budngs metered ndvduay for energy use or do mutpe budngs share a master
meter?
W the basene be xed for the duraton of the contract or w the basene reset durng the
contract perod?
What energy savngs are egbe for performance ncentves? Are water savngs aso egbe
for
performance ncentves?
What admnstratve process w be used to montor work and determne savngs? Note that
overy rgorous submtta, approva, |ustcaton, and cacuaton processes w dscourage
contractor partcpaton. w
Snce the contract ncentves approach s best suted for ow cost, quck-payback measures,
O&M contractors shoud consder recommssonng/vaue recommssonng actons as
dscussed n
Chapter 7.
An added benet from the contract ncentves process s that resutng operatons and
energy
emcency mprovements can be ncorporated nto the O&M servces contract durng the next
con-
tract renewa or re-competton snce (a) the needed actons are now dented, and (b) the
vaue of
the actons s known to the government.
3.11
O&M Manage)ent
*%; O&M2 The E4P6 Perspective
Wth the prevaence of Energy Savngs Performance Contracts (ESPCs) n the Federa sector,
some gudance shoud be ohered from the O&M perspectve. Ths gudance takes two forms.
Frst,
the need for hgh-quaty and persstent O&M for ESPC pro|ects to assure savngs are met.
Second,
the opportuntes O&M provdes for enhanced emcency of new and exstng equpment and
systems.
*%;%( O&M Needs $or <eri$ied and Persistent 4avings (LBNL 2005)
In Federa ESPCs, proper O&M s crtca to the mantanng the performance of the nstaed
equpment and to the achevement (and persstence) of the guaranteed energy savngs for the
term of
the ESPC.
Inadequate O&M of energy-usng systems s a ma|or cause of energy waste, often ahects
system reabty and can shorten equpment fe. Proper O&M practces are a key component n
mantanng the desred energy savngs from an ESPC and mnmzng the chance of unexpected
repar and repacement ssues arsng durng the ESPC contract term. Further, to ensure ong-
term energy and cost savngs, unambguous aocaton of responsbty for O&M and repar and
repacement (R&R) ssues, ncudng recproca reportng requrements for responsbe partes,
are
vta to the success of an ESPC.
Ether the ESCO or the government (or the governments representatve) may perform O&M
actvtes on equpment nstaed as part of an ESPC. However, the ESCO s utmatey responsbe
for ensurng the performance of new equpment nstaed as part of the ESPC throughout the
duraton
of the ESPC contract term. The government s typcay responsbe for exstng equpment.
One Iustratve Scenaro: Why O&M reportng s mportant for ESPC Pro|ects
At one ESPC ste, a dsagreement durng the performance perod was serousy exacerbated due to the
aocaton of O&M responsbtes and the ack of reportng requred on O&M conducted.
The prmary cost savng measure mpemented by the ESCO was an upgrade to the centra cher pant.
The ESCO nstaed one new cher (out of two), and two new dstrbuton pumps (out of four). The ECM dd
not upgrade the exstng coong tower and dstrbuton system. Due to pro|ect economcs, the ste eected to
operate and mantan the entre ched water system, ncudng the new equpment. The ESPC contract dd not
requre the ste to document or report O&M actvtes to the ESCO.
After pro|ect acceptance, severa probems wth the cher pant arose. In one nstance, both chers went
out of servce due to hgh head pressure. The ESCO asserted that the event was due to mproper operatons
and ack of adequate mantenance by ste personne, and had voded the warranty for the new cher. The ste
contended that the system was not propery commssoned and had desgn probems.
Snce the ste had not mantaned any O&M records, they had no foundaton to wn the dspute. The
stes contractng omcer was obgated to contnue fu payments to the ESCO even though systems were not
operatng propery. After much contenton, the ESCO eventuay got the system workng propery.
Lessons Learned:
O&M documentaton on ECMs s essenta to mnmzng dsputes.
If feasbe, have ESCO accept O&M responsbtes.
Proper commssonng s essenta pror to pro|ect acceptance.
3.12
O&M Manage)ent
In an dea scenaro, the ESCO w both operate and perform a mantenance actvtes on
equpment nstaed n an ESPC pro|ect. In many cases, however, t s not practca for the
ESCO
to carry out these actvtes. Often, the ste s accustomed to performng O&M and the cost
of reaocatng these responsbtes may not be feasbe wthn the ESPC contract term, snce
servces must be pad from savngs. In other nstances, mted ste access or other ssues may
make
government O&M preferabe.
A crtca factor n the success of an ESPC s to ensure that the O&M pan for new
equpment
reates we to the O&M approach for exstng equpment. Ths s especay true when new and
exstng equpment are ocated n the same facty or when exstng equpment has a potenta
ehect
on the operaton or savngs acheved by new equpment. Cear denton of roes and
responsbtes
for O&M contrbute toward proper coordnaton of O&M actvtes for new and exstng
equpment.
In dong so, the chance of customer dssatsfacton, accusatons and potenta tgaton durng
the
ESPC contract term are mnmzed.
From the ESPC perspectve, Tabe 3.2.2 beow presents an overvew of the key O&M ssues,
the
tmng or stage n the process whch t needs to be addressed and the reevant supportng
documents
for more nformaton. A sted documents can be found on the FEMP ESPC web ste at:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/nancng/espcs.htm .
Tabe 3.2.2. Overvew of key O&M ssues, tmng, and supportng documents
O
&
M

B
e
s
t
P
r
a
c
ti
c
e
s
G
u
ide, Release 3.0
3.13
.ey O&M !opics ES/- Stage =eference 2ocuments
1. Descrbe overa responsbty for the operaton,
mantenance,
repar, and repacement at the pro|ect eve
Inta and Fna
Proposas
Secton 3.b, 3.c, 3.d of the
Rsk/
Responsbty Matrx;
2. Descrbe responsbty for the operaton,
mantenance, repar,
Fna Proposa Sectons C.6, C.7, C.8 of
IDIO
3. Dene dherent condtons under whch Repar and
Repacement (R&R) work w be performed, who
w be
abe, and the source of funds for performng R&R
Fna Proposa Secton C.8 of IDIO
4. Dene reportng requrement for O&M actvtes
and ts
Fna Proposa IDIO; M&V Pan Outne
(Sectons 2.4.1, 3.8.8)
5. Submsson of the ECM-specc O&M checksts by
the ESCO.
Fna Proposa Recommended, but not
requred by IDIO contract
6. ESCO provdes O&M tranng & submts the
Operatons and
Mantenance Manua for ECMs, ncudng:
New wrtten operatons procedures;
Preventve mantenance work procedures and
Pro|ect
Acceptance
IDIO Attachment 2:
Sampe
Checkst/Schedue of Post-
Award Reportng
Requrements
7. Government (or ESCO) perodcay reports on
mantenance
Performance
Perod
Secton C.7.3 of IDIO
8. Identcaton of O&M ssues that can adversey
ahect savngs
persstence; Steps to be taken to address the ssue
Performance
Perod
Annua Report (Sectons
1.5,
2.5.1, 2.5.2, 2.5.3); Pro|ect
specc O&M checksts
O&M Manage)ent
*%;%) Deterination and <eri$ication o$ O&M 4avings in E4P6s
O&M and other energy-reated cost
savngs are aowabe n Federa ESPCs, and
are
dened as reducton n expenses (other than
energy cost savngs) reated to energy and
water
consumng equpment. In fact, an anayss of
annua
measurement and vercaton (M&V) reports from
100 ongong Super ESPC pro|ects showed that 21%
of the reported savngs were due to reductons n
O&M costs (LBNL 2007). These energy-
reated
cost savngs, whch can aso ncude savngs
on
R&R costs, can consttute a substanta porton of
a pro|ects savngs, yet O&M and R&R cost savngs
are often not as dgenty vered or revewed
as
energy savngs.
10 CFR 436.31. Energy cost savngs means
a reducton n the cost of energy and reated
operaton and mantenance expenses, from a
base cost estabshed through a methodoogy
set forth n an energy savngs performance
contract, utzed n an exstng Federay owned
budng or budngs or other Federay owned
factes as a resut of-(1) The ease or purchase
of operatng equpment, mprovements, atered
operaton and mantenance, or technca
servces.
Source: Tte 10, Code of Federa reguaton part 436 Subpart B - Methods
and Procedures for Energy Savngs Performance Contractng.
Energy-reated cost savngs can resut from avoded expendtures for operatons,
mantenance,
equpment repar, or equpment repacement due to the ESPC pro|ect. Ths ncudes capta funds
for pro|ects (e.g., equpment repacement) that, because of the ESPC pro|ect, w not be
necessary.
Sources of energy-reated savngs ncude:
Avoded current or panned capta expense,
Transfer of responsbty for O&M and/or R&R to the ESCO, and
Avoded renovaton, renewa, or repar costs as a resut of repacng od and unreabe
equpment.
Methods for estmatng O&M savngs resutng from changes to equpment have not been
deveoped for the FEMP or IPMVP M&V Gudenes. However, the genera rue to foow s that
any savngs camed from O&M actvtes must resut n a rea decrease n expendtures. O&M
budget basenes cannot be based on what the agency shold be spendng for proper O&M;
basene
expendtures must be based on what the agency s spendng. The agencys O&M expendtures
after
mpementaton need to decrease for savngs to be consdered rea.
Determnng the approprate eve of ehort to nvest n the M&V of energy-reated cost savng
s the same as for energy cost savngs: The eve of M&V rgor w vary accordng to (a) the vaue
of the pro|ect and ts expected benets, and (b) the rsk n not achevng the benets. A graded
approach towards measurng and verfyng O&M and R&R savngs s advsed. There s one
prmary
method for cacuatng O&M savngs, whch s detaed beow.
The most common approach for cacuatng energy-reated cost savngs nvoves the same
concepts as those used for determnng energy savngs: Performance-perod abor and
equpment costs
are subtracted from ad|usted basene vaues, as shown n the equaton beow.
O&M Cost Savings = [Adjusted aseline O&M Costs! " [Actual O&M Costs!
3.1&
O&M Manage)ent
Ths method s approprate for most pro|ects, and s especay smpe to appy to those that
ncude emnaton of a mantenance contract or reducton n government stah. For other
pro|ects,
costs for repacement parts can often be determned from purchase records and averaged to
arrve at
an annua basene vaue. Labor costs for partcuar servces may be more dmcut to quantfy
snce
servce records may not be representatve or may ack sumcent deta. For exampe, parts
costs for
repacement ght bubs, baasts, or steam traps are reatvey easy to quantfy from purchase
records.
Labor costs to repace amps, baasts, or steam traps are more dmcut to quantfy because
tme spent
on these specc tasks may not be we documented. In addton, abor reductons on these
specc
tasks may not quafy as "rea savngs" f abor expendtures do not decrease. Athough the
agency
receves vaue n the sense that abor s freed up to perform other usefu tasks, ths vaue may
not
resut n cost savngs that can be pad to the ESCO.
Basene O&M costs shoud be based on actua budgets and expendtures to the greatest
extent
practca. Ths essentay "measures" the basene consumpton of these parts or servces.
Estmated
expendtures shoud be avoded f at a possbe. In cases where such nformaton s not
avaabe and
must be estmated, parts and abor costs can be derved from resources such as R.S. Means or
other
methods. Estmated expendtures shoud be ad|usted to reect any ste-specc factors that
woud
ahect costs.
A more compete dscusson of ths topc can be found at the man ESPC web ste ocated
at:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/nancng/espcs.htm.
*%(= Re$erences
LBNL 2005. Planning and *eporting for &perations ' Maintenance in Federal Energy Saving
Performance #ontracts. Lawrence Berkeey Natona Laboratory, Berkeey, Caforna. Avaabe
at:
http://ateam.b.gov/mv/ .
LBNL 2007. Do9 to 8etermine and :erify &perating and Maintenance .&'M1 Savings in
Federal
Energy Savings Performance #ontracts7 Lawrence Berkeey Natona Laboratory, Berkeey,
Caforna.
Avaabe at: http://ateam.b.gov/mv/.
Meador, R.|. 1995. Maintaining the Soltion to &perations and Maintenance E%ciency
Improvement.
Word Energy Engneerng Congress, Atanta, Georga.
NASA. 2000. Reabty Centered Maintenance >ide for Facilities and #ollateral EEipment.
Natona Aeronautcs and Space Admnstraton, Washngton, D.C. February 2000.
PECI. 1997. &perations and Maintenance Service #ontract. Portand Energy Conservaton, Inc.,
Portand, Oregon.
3.1'
Chapter 4 Computerzed Mantenance w
Management System w
3%( &ntroduction
A computerzed mantenance management system (CMMS) s a type of management
software
that performs functons n support of management and trackng of O&M actvtes.
3%) 6MM4 Needs Assessent
In determnng the need for a CMMS, facty managers shoud assess ther current mode of
operaton. Key questons to ask ncude:
Do you have an ehectve way to generate and track work orders? How do you verfy the
work
was done emcenty and correcty? What s the notcaton functon upon competon?
Are you abe to access hstorca nformaton on the ast tme a
system was servced, by whom, and for what condton?
How are your spare-parts nventores managed and controed? Do you have
ether excess nventores or are you consstenty watng for parts to arrve?
Do you have an organzed system to store documents (eectroncay) reated
to O&M procedures, equpment manuas, and warranty nformaton?
When servce stah are n the ed what assurances do you have that they are compant
wth
a fe, heath and safety ssues (e.g., ock and tag) and are usng the rght toos/equpment
for
the task?
How are your assets, .e., equpment and systems, tracked for reportng and pannng?
If the answers to these questons are not we dened or ackng - you may consder
nvestgatng
the benets a we mpemented CMMS may oher.
3%* 6MM4 6apa#i!ities
CMMS systems automate most of the ogstca functons performed by mantenance stah
and
management. CMMS systems come wth many optons and have many advantages over
manua
mantenance trackng systems. Dependng on the compexty of the system chosen, typca
CMMS
functons may ncude the foowng:
Work order generaton, prortzaton, and trackng by equpment/component.
Hstorca trackng of a work orders generated whch become
sortabe by equpment, date, person respondng, etc.
Trackng of schedued and unschedued mantenance actvtes.
Storng of mantenance procedures as we as a warranty nformaton by component.
Storng of a technca documentaton or procedures by component.
&.1
Co)-uteri.ed Maintenance Manage)ent /$ste)s
Rea-tme reports of ongong work actvty.
Caendar- or run-tme-based preventve mantenance work order generaton.
Capta and abor cost trackng by component as we as shortest, medan,
and ongest tmes to cose a work order by component.
Compete parts and materas nventory contro wth automated reorder capabty.
PDA nterface to streamne nput and work order generaton.
Outsde servce ca/dspatch capabtes.
Many CMMS programs can now nterface wth exstng energy management and contro
systems
(EMCS) as we as property management systems. Coupng these capabtes aows for
condton-
based montorng and component energy use proes.
Whe CMMS can go a ong way toward automatng and mprovng the emcency of most O&M
programs, there are some common ptfas. These ncude the foowng:
w9mproper selection of a -MMS
vendor. Ths
s a ste-specc decson. Tme shoud be
taken to evauate nta needs and ook for the
proper match of system and servce
provder.
w9nadequate training of the O&M
administrative
sta< on proper use of the -MMS.
These stah
need dedcated tranng on nput,
functon,
and mantenance of the CMMS. Typcay,
ths tranng takes pace at the
customers
ste after the system has been nstaed.
As reported n A.T. Kearneys and Indstry
$ee-=s survey of 558 companes that are
currenty usng a computerzed mantenance
management system (DPSI 1994), companes
reported an average of:
28.3% ncrease n mantenance productvty
20.1% reducton n equpment downtme
19.4% savngs n ower matera costs
17.8% reducton n mantenance, repars,
operaton (MRO) nventory
14.5 months average payback tme.
w?ac1 of commitment to properly implement the -MMS. A commtment
needs to be n pace for the start up/mpementaton of the CMMS. Most
vendors provde ths as a servce and t s usuay worth the expense.
w?ac1 of commitment to persist in -MMS use and integration. Whe CMMS provdes
sgncant advantages, they need to be mantaned. Most successfu CMMS nstaatons
have a "champon" of ts use who ushers and encourages ts contnued use.
Consderatons for CMMS Evauaton and Seecton
Have a reevant n-house stah (partcuary ed stah) been nvoved wth the assessment of need, desred
capabtes, and usabty of proposed system?
Does the product meet a of the needs as assessed?
w"Feature overoad" s a common compant of actve CMMS users. Are you purchasng more than you need or
have the capabty to manage?
Does the product oher modue expanson as your system or needs grow?
If needed, how we does the system ntegrate wth other facty/energy management or accountng systems?
How ong has the vendor been n busness? Do they have references for smar nstaatons they coud provde?
How does the vendor provde technca assstance?
How are product upgrades accompshed, and at what cost?
&.2
Co)-uteri.ed Maintenance Manage)ent /$ste)s
3%3 6MM4 Bene$its
One of the greatest benets of the CMMS s the emnaton of paperwork and manua
trackng
actvtes, thus enabng the budng stah to become more productve. It shoud be noted that
the
functonaty of a CMMS es n ts abty to coect and store nformaton n an easy
retrevabe
format. A CMMS does not make decsons, rather t provdes the O&M manager wth the best
nformaton to ahect the operational e%ciency of a facty.
Benets to mpement a CMMS ncude the foowng:
Detecton of mpendng probems before a faure occurs resutng
n fewer faures and customer compants.
Achevng a hgher eve of panned mantenance actvtes
that enabes a more emcent use of stah resources.
Ahectng nventory contro enabng better spare parts forecastng
to emnate shortages and mnmze exstng nventory.
Mantanng optma equpment performance that reduces
downtme and resuts n onger equpment fe. w
3%5 6MM4 Resources
The Internet provdes a great resource for dentfyng CMMS vendors. A smpe search under
"CMMS" provdes nks to the many vendors and the resources they oher.
CMMS and EMCS (Energy Management and Contro System) Integraton
As technoogy mproves and both of these systems deveop capabtes, opportuntes for ntegraton exst.
A good exampe s wth ar traton systems. Tradtonay, ar ters are changed as part of a tme-based
PM actvty - ters may get changed every 3 months, needed or not. Newer traton systems made use of
pressure sensors to cacuate a need based ter change out. Many of these systems communcate back though
an exstng EMCS and notfy the system montor of dherenta pressure mt/aarm and the need for a ter
change.
The opportunty and capabty now exsts to "port" ths same dherenta pressure mt from the EMCS
drecty to the CMMS. Ths deveopment ahords a eve of rea-tme mantenance management, whereby
the ter change notcaton becomes an automatcay generated work order schedued based on need. In
addton, ths partcuar ter tem s removed from nventory and a re-order paced f necessary. Whe ths
exampe hghght a smpe ar ter ntegraton capabty, the same ogc appes to many other systems and
equpment for whch tme-based mantenance can be repaced wth need-based mantenance.
3%8 Re$erence
DPSI. 1994. Fptime for $indo9s Prodct >ide, :ersion 2747 DPSI, Greensboro, North Carona.
O
&
M

B
e
s
t
Practices Guide, Release 3.0
&.3
Chapter 5 Types of Mantenance Programs w
5%( &ntroduction
What s mantenance and why s t performed? Past and current mantenance practces n
both the prvate and government sectors woud mpy that mantenance s the actons
assocated
wth equpment repar after t s broken. The dctonary denes mantenance as foows: "the
work
of keepng somethng n proper condton; upkeep." Ths woud mpy that mantenance shoud
be actons taken to prevent a devce or component from fang or to repar norma equpment
degradaton experenced wth the operaton of the devce to keep t n proper workng order.
Unfortunatey, data obtaned n many studes over the past decade ndcates that most prvate
and
government factes do not expend the necessary resources to mantan equpment n proper
workng
order. Rather, they wat for equpment faure to occur and then take whatever actons are
necessary
to repar or repace the equpment. Nothng asts forever and a equpment has assocated
wth t
some predened fe expectancy or operatona fe. For exampe, equpment may be desgned
to
operate at fu desgn oad for 5,000 hours and may be desgned to go through 15,000 start
and stop
cyces.
The need for mantenance s predcated on actua or mpendng faure - deay,
mantenance
s performed to keep equpment and systems runnng emcenty for at east desgn fe of the
component(s). As such, the practca operaton of a component s tme-based functon. If one
were
to graph the faure rate a component popuaton versus tme, t s key the graph woud take
the
"bathtub" shape shown n Fgure 5.1.1. In the gure the Y axs represents the faure rate and
the X
axs s tme. From ts shape, the curve can be dvded nto three dstnct: nfant mortaty,
usefu fe,
and wear-out perods.
The nta nfant mortaty perod of bathtub curve s characterzed by hgh faure rate
foowed
by a perod of decreasng faure. Many of the faures assocated wth ths regon are nked to
poor
desgn, poor nstaaton, or msappcaton. The nfant mortaty perod s foowed by a neary
constant faure rate perod known as usefu fe. There are many theores on why components
fa n
ths regon, most acknowedge that poor O&M often pays sgncant roe. It s aso generay
agreed
Fgure 5.1.1. Component faure rate over tme for component popuaton
'.1
0$-es o1 Maintenance Progra)s
that exceptona mantenance practces encompassng preventve and predctve eements can
extend
ths perod. The wear-out perod s characterzed by a rapd ncreasng faure rate wth tme. In
most
cases ths perod encompasses the norma dstrbuton of desgn fe faures.
The desgn fe of most equpment requres perodc mantenance. Bets need ad|ustment,
agnment needs to be mantaned, proper ubrcaton on rotatng equpment s requred, and so
on.
In some cases, certan components need repacement, (e.g., a whee bearng on a motor vehce)
to ensure the man pece of equpment (n ths case a car) ast for ts desgn fe. Anytme we fa
to perform mantenance actvtes ntended by the equpments desgner, we shorten the
operatng
fe of the equpment. But what optons do we have? Over the ast 30 years, dherent approaches
to how mantenance can be performed to ensure equpment reaches or exceeds ts desgn fe
have
been deveoped n the Unted States. In addton to watng for a pece of equpment to fa
(reactve
mantenance), we can utze preventve mantenance, predctve mantenance, or reabty
centered
mantenance.
5%) Reactive Maintenance
Reactve mantenance s bascay
the
"run t t t breaks" mantenance
mode.
No actons or ehorts are taken to mantan
the equpment as the desgner
orgnay
ntended to ensure desgn fe s reached.
Studes as recent as the wnter of
2000
ndcate ths s st the predomnant mode
of mantenance n the Unted States.
The
referenced study breaks down the average
mantenance program as foows:
>55% Reactve
Advantages
Low cost.
Less stah.
Dsadvantages
Increased cost due to unpanned downtme of equpment.
Increased abor cost, especay f overtme s needed.
Cost nvoved wth repar or repacement of equpment.
Possbe secondary equpment or process damage from
equpment faure.
Inemcent use of stah resources.
31% Preventve
12% Predctve
2% Other.
Note that more than 55% of mantenance resources and actvtes of an average facty are
st
reactve.
Advantages to reactve mantenance can be vewed as a doube-edged sword. If we are
deang
wth new equpment, we can expect mnma ncdents of faure. If our mantenance program s
purey reactve, we w not expend manpower doars or ncur capta cost unt somethng
breaks.
Snce we do not see any assocated mantenance cost, we coud vew ths perod as savng
money.
The downsde s reaty. In reaty, durng the tme we beeve we are savng mantenance and
capta cost, we are reay spendng more doars than we woud have under a dherent
mantenance
approach. We are spendng more doars assocated wth capta cost because, whe watng for
the equpment to break, we are shortenng the fe of the equpment resutng n more frequent
repacement. We may ncur cost upon faure of the prmary devce assocated wth ts faure
causng
the faure of a secondary devce. Ths s an ncreased cost we woud not have experenced f our
mantenance program was more proactve. Our abor cost assocated wth repar w probaby be
'.2
hgher than norma because the faure w most key requre more extensve repars than
woud
have been requred f the pece of equpment had not been run to faure. Chances are the
pece of
equpment w fa durng oh hours or cose to the end of the norma workday. If t s a crtca
pece
of equpment that needs to be back on-ne qucky, we w have to pay mantenance overtme
cost.
Snce we expect to run equpment to faure, we w requre a arge matera nventory of
repar parts.
Ths s a cost we coud mnmze under a dherent mantenance strategy.
5%* Preventive Maintenance
Preventve mantenance can be
dened as foows: Actons performed on
a
tme- or machne-run-based schedue
that
detect, precude, or mtgate degradaton
of a component or system wth the am
of
sustanng or extendng ts usefu fe through
controng degradaton to an acceptabe eve.
Advantages
Cost ehectve n many capta-ntensve processes.
Fexbty aows for the ad|ustment of mantenance
perodcty.
Increased component fe cyce.
Energy savngs.
Reduced equpment or process faure.
Estmated 12% to 18% cost savngs over reactve
mantenance as a means to ncrease the mantenance program.
reabty of ther vesses. By smpy
expendng the necessary resources to
Catastrophc faures st key to occur.
Labor ntensve.
extended and ts reabty s ncreased. In Incudes performance of unneeded mantenance.
addton to an ncrease n reabty, doars Potenta for ncdenta damage to components n
are saved over that of a program |ust usng conductng unneeded mantenance.
reactve mantenance. Studes ndcate that
ths savngs can amount to as much as 12% to
18% on the average. Dependng on the factes current mantenance practces, present
equpment
reabty, and facty downtme, there s tte doubt that many factes purey reant on
reactve
mantenance coud save much more than 18% by nsttutng a proper preventve mantenance
program.
Whe preventve mantenance s not the optmum mantenance program, t does have
severa
advantages over that of a purey reactve program. By performng the preventve mantenance
as
the equpment desgner envsoned, we w extend the fe of the equpment coser to desgn.
Ths
transates nto doar savngs. Preventve mantenance (ubrcaton, ter change, etc.) w
generay
run the equpment more emcenty resutng n doar savngs. Whe we w not prevent
equpment
catastrophc faures, we w decrease the number of faures. Mnmzng faures transate nto
mantenance and capta cost savngs.
'.3
The U.S. Navy poneered preventve
Dsadvantages
conduct mantenance actvtes ntended by
the equpment desgner, equpment fe s
5%3 Predictive Maintenance
Predctve mantenance can be dened
as foows: Measurements that detect the Advantages
onset of system degradaton (ower functona Increased component operatona fe/avaabty.
Aows for preemptve correctve actons.
Decrease n equpment or process downtme.
Decrease n costs for parts and abor.
Better product quaty.
Improved worker and envronmenta safety.
Improved worker morae.
Energy savngs.
Estmated 8% to 12% cost savngs over preventve
mantenance program.
You w reca that preventve mantenance
s tme-based. Actvtes such as changng Dsadvantages
ubrcant are based on tme, ke caendar tme Increased nvestment n dagnostc equpment.
or equpment run tme. For exampe, most Increased nvestment n stah tranng.
peope change the o n ther vehces every Savngs potenta not ready seen by management.
3,000 to 5,000 mes traveed. Ths s ehectvey
basng the o change needs on equpment
run tme. No concern s gven to the actua condton and performance capabty of the o. It s
changed because t s tme. Ths methodoogy woud be anaogous to a preventve mantenance
task.
If, on the other hand, the operator of the car dscounted the vehce run tme and had the o
anayzed
at some perodcty to determne ts actua condton and ubrcaton propertes, he/she may be
abe to
extend the o change unt the vehce had traveed 10,000 mes. Ths s the fundamenta
dherence
between predctve mantenance and preventve mantenance, whereby predctve mantenance
s
used to dene needed mantenance task based on quanted matera/equpment condton.
The advantages of predctve mantenance are many. A we-orchestrated predctve
mantenance program w a but emnate catastrophc equpment faures. We w be abe to
schedue mantenance actvtes to mnmze or deete overtme cost. We w be abe to mnmze
nventory and order parts, as requred, we ahead of tme to support the downstream
mantenance
needs. We can optmze the operaton of the equpment, savng energy cost and ncreasng pant
reabty. Past studes have estmated that a propery functonng predctve mantenance
program
can provde a savngs of 8% to 12% over a program utzng preventve mantenance aone.
Dependng on a factys reance on reactve mantenance and matera condton, t coud easy
recognze savngs opportuntes exceedng 30% to 40%. In fact, ndependent surveys ndcate the
foowng ndustra average savngs resutant from ntaton of a functona predctve
mantenance
program:
'.&
Return on
nvestment: 10
tmes
Reducton n
mantenance
costs: 25% to
30%
Emnaton of
breakdowns: 70% to 75%
Reducton n downtme: 35% to 45%
Increase n producton: 20% to 25%.
state), thereby aowng causa stressors to be
emnated or controed pror to any sgncant
deteroraton n the component physca state.
Resuts ndcate current and future functona
capabty.
Bascay, predctve mantenance dhers
from preventve mantenance by basng
mantenance need on the actua condton of the
machne rather than on some preset schedue.
On the down sde, to ntay start nto the predctve mantenance word s not nexpensve.
Much of the equpment requres cost n excess of $50,000. Tranng of n-pant personne to
ehectvey utze predctve mantenance technooges w requre consderabe fundng.
Program
deveopment w requre an understandng of predctve mantenance and a rm commtment
to
make the program work by a facty organzatons and management.
5%5 Re!ia#i!it" 6entered Maintenance
Reabty centered mantenance (RCM) magazne provdes the foowng denton of RCM:
"a process used to determne the mantenance requrements of any physca asset n ts
operatng
context."
Bascay, RCM methodoogy deas wth
some key ssues not deat wth by other Advantages
mantenance programs. It recognzes that Can be the most emcent mantenance program.
a equpment n a facty s not of equa Lower costs by emnatng unnecessary
mportance to ether the process or facty mantenance or overhaus.
safety. It recognzes that equpment desgn and Mnmze frequency of overhaus.
Reduced probabty of sudden equpment faures.
Abe to focus mantenance actvtes on crtca
components.
Increased component reabty.
Incorporates root cause anayss.
resources and that the use of both need to be Dsadvantages
prortzed and optmzed. In a nutshe, RCM Can have sgncant startup cost, tranng,
s a systematc approach to evauate a factys equpment, etc.
equpment and resources to best mate the two Savngs potenta not ready seen by management.
and resut n a hgh degree of facty reabty
and cost-ehectveness. RCM s hghy reant
on predctve mantenance but aso recognzes that mantenance actvtes on equpment that
s nexpensve and unmportant to facty reabty may best be eft to a reactve mantenance
approach. The foowng mantenance program breakdowns of contnuay top-performng
factes
woud echo the RCM approach to utze a avaabe mantenance approaches wth the
predomnant
methodoogy beng predctve.
<10% Reactve
25% to 35% Preventve
45% to 55% Predctve.
Because RCM s so heavy weghted n utzaton of predctve mantenance technooges,
ts
program advantages and dsadvantages mrror those of predctve mantenance. In addton to
these
advantages, RCM w aow a facty to more cosey match resources to needs whe mprovng
reabty and decreasng cost.
'.'
operaton dhers and that dherent equpment
w have a hgher probabty to undergo faures
from dherent degradaton mechansms than
others. It aso approaches the structurng of a
mantenance program recognzng that a facty
does not have unmted nanca and personne
Tabe 5.5.1 beow hghghts gudance on RCM deveopment by equpment appcaton
(adapted
from NASA 2000). It s mportant to both dene the equpment crtcaty and cost of down-tme
when determnng the optma mx of mantenance eements. Once dened, the equpment can
be
prortzed n the deveopng a functona RCM program.
Tabe 5.5.1. Reabty centered mantenance eement appcatons
5%8 >o- to &nitiate Re!ia#i!it" 6entered Maintenance
The road from a purey reactve
program to a RCM program s not
an easy one. The foowng s a st
of some basc steps that w hep
to
get movng down ths path (NASA
2000).
Mantenance Prorty Matrx for RCM
Deveopment
Prorty
Weghtng Descrpton Appcaton
1. w Deveop a Master equpment
st dentfyng the equpment n
your facty.
1
2
3
Emergency
Urgent
Prorty
Lfe, heath, safety rsk-msson crtcaty
Contnuous operaton of facty at rsk
Msson support/pro|ect deadnes
2. w Prortze the sted components
based on mportance or
crtcaty to operaton, process,
or msson - see text box
hghghtng prorty scheme.
4
5
6
Routne Prortzed: rst come/rst served
Dscretonary Desred but not essenta
Deferred Accompshed ony when resources aow
Comparson of Four Mantenance Programs (Potrowsk 2001)
Reactve Mantenance (Breakdown or Run-to-Faure Mantenance)
Basc phosophy
Aow machnery to run to faure.
Repar or repace damaged equpment when obvous probems occur.
Cost: $18/hp/yr
Ths mantenance phosophy aows machnery to run to faure, provdng for the repar or repacement of
damaged equpment ony when obvous probems occur. Studes have shown that the costs to operate n ths
fashon are about $18 per horsepower (hp) per year. The advantages of ths approach are that t works we f
equpment shutdowns do not ahect producton and f abor and matera costs do not matter.
'.(
=eliability -entered Maintenance $ierarchy
#eactive Element
Applications
Preventive Element
Applications
Predictive Element Applications
Sma parts and equpment Equpment sub|ect to wear Equpment wth random faure
patterns
Non-crtca equpment Consumabe equpment Crtca equpment
Equpment unkey to fa Equpment wth known faure
patterns
Equpment not sub|ect to wear
Redundant systems Manufacturer recommendatons Systems whch faure may be
nduced by
3. Assgn components nto ogca groupngs.
4. Determne the type and number of mantenance actvtes requred and perodcty usng:
a. Manufacturer technca manuas
b. Machnery hstory
c. Root cause anayss ndngs - Why dd t fa?
d. Good engneerng |udgment
5. Assess the sze of mantenance stah.
6. Identfy tasks that may be performed by operatons mantenance personne.
7. Anayze equpment faure modes and mpacts on components and systems.
8. Identfy ehectve mantenance tasks or mtgaton strateges.
The references and resources provded beow are by no means a-ncusve. The sted
organza-
tons are not endorsed by the authors of ths gude and are provded for your nformaton ony.
To
ocate addtona resources, the authors of ths gude recommend contactng reevant trade
groups,
databases, and the word-wde web.
An 9ntroduction to =eliability and
Maintainability Engineering
By: Chares E. Ebeng
Pubshed by: McGraw H Coege
Dvson
Pubcaton date: September 1996
Maintenance Engineering $andboo1
By: Lndey R. Hggns, Dae P. Brautgam,
w
and R. Keth Mobey (Edtor) w
Pubshed by: McGraw H Text, 5th Edton w
Pubcaton date: September 1994 w
-ondition";ased Maintenance and
Machine 2iagnostics
By: |ohn H. Wams, Aan Daves, and
Pau R. Drake
Pubshed by: Chapman & Ha
Pubcaton date: October 1994
Maintenance /lanning and
Scheduling
$andboo1
By: Rchard D. (Doc) Pamer
Pubshed by: McGraw H
Pubcaton date: March 29, 1999
Maintainability and Maintenance Management
By: |oseph D. Patton, |r. w
Pubshed by: Instrument Socety of Amerca,
3rd Revson w
Pubcaton date: February 1994 w
=eliability"-entered Maintenance
By: |ohn Moubray
Pubshed by: Industra Press, 2nd Edton
Pubcaton date: Apr 1997
=eliability"-entered Maintenance
By: Anthony M. Smth
Pubshed by: McGraw H
Pubcaton date: September 1992.
'.*
Preventve Mantenance (Tme-Based Mantenance)
Basc phosophy
Schedue mantenance actvtes at predetermned tme ntervas.
Repar or repace damaged equpment before obvous probems occur.
Cost: $13/hp/yr
Ths phosophy entas the schedung of mantenance actvtes at predetermned tme ntervas, where
damaged equpment s repared or repaced before obvous probems occur. When t s done correcty, studes
have shown the costs of operatng n ths fashon to be about $13 per hp per year. The advantages of ths
approach are that t works we for equpment that does not run contnuousy, and wth personne who have
enough knowedge, sks, and tme to perform the preventve mantenance work.
Predctve Mantenance (Condton-Based Mantenance)
Basc phosophy
Schedue mantenance actvtes when mechanca or operatona condtons warrant.
Repar or repace damaged equpment before obvous probems occur.
Cost: $9/hp/yr
Ths phosophy conssts of schedung mantenance actvtes ony f and when mechanca or operatona
condtons warrant-by perodcay montorng the machnery for excessve vbraton, temperature and/or
ubrcaton degradaton, or by observng any other unheathy trends that occur over tme. When the condton
gets to a predetermned unacceptabe eve, the equpment s shut down to repar or repace damaged
components so as to prevent a more costy faure from occurrng. In other words, "Dont x what s not broke."
Studes have shown that when t s done correcty, the costs to operate n ths fashon are about $9 per hp per
year. Advantages of ths approach are that t works very we f personne have adequate knowedge, sks,
and tme to perform the predctve mantenance work, and that t aows equpment repars to be schedued n
an ordery fashon. It aso provdes some ead-tme to purchase materas for the necessary repars, reducng
the need for a hgh parts nventory. Snce mantenance work s ony performed when t s needed, there s
key to be an ncrease n producton capacty.
'.+
Reabty Centered Mantenance (Pro-Actve or Preventon Mantenance)
Basc phosophy
Utzes predctve/preventve mantenance technques wth root cause faure anayss to detect and pnpont the
precse probems, combned wth advanced nstaaton and repar technques, ncudng potenta equpment
redesgn or modcaton to avod or emnate probems from
occurrng.
Cost: $6/hp/yr
Ths phosophy utzes a of the prevousy dscussed predctve/preventve mantenance technques, n
concert wth root cause faure anayss. Ths not ony detects and pnponts precse probems that occur,
but ensures that advanced nstaaton and repar technques are performed, ncudng potenta equpment
redesgn or modcaton, thus hepng to avod probems or keep them from occurrng. Accordng to studes,
when t s done correcty, operatng n ths fashon costs about $6 per hp per year. One advantage to ths
approach s that t works extremey we f personne have the knowedge, sks, and tme to perform a of the
requred actvtes. As wth the predctve-based program, equpment repars can be schedued n an ordery
fashon, but addtona mprovement ehorts aso can be undertaken to reduce or emnate potenta probems
from repeatedy occurrng. Furthermore, t aows ead-tme to purchase materas for necessary repars, thus
reducng the need for a hgh parts nventory. Snce mantenance work s performed ony when t s needed,
and extra ehorts are put forth to thoroughy nvestgate the cause of the faure and determne ways to mprove
machnery reabty, there can be a substanta ncrease n producton capacty.
5%9 Re$erences
NASA. 2000. *elia,ility #entered Maintenance >ide for Facilities and #ollateral EEipment.
Natona Aeronautcs and Space Admnstraton, Washngton, D.C.
Potrowsk, |. Apr 2, 2001. ProGActive Maintenance for Pmps, Archives, Fe,rary 2004,
Pump-Zone.com |Report onne|. Avaabe URL: http://www.pump-zone.com. Reprnted wth
permsson of Pump-Zone.com.
'.,
Chapter 6 Predctve Mantenance Technooges
8%( &ntroduction
Predctve mantenance attempts to detect the onset of a degradaton mechansm wth the
goa
of correctng that degradaton pror to sgncant deteroraton n the component or
equpment. The
dagnostc capabtes of predctve mantenance technooges have ncreased n recent years
wth
advances made n sensor technooges. These advances, breakthroughs n component
senstvtes,
sze reductons, and most mportanty, cost, have opened up an entrey new area of dagnostcs
to the
O&M practtoner.
As wth the ntroducton of any new technoogy, proper appcaton and !=A9>9>5 s of
crtca mportance. Ths need s partcuary true n the ed of predctve mantenance
technoogy
that has become ncreasngy sophstcated and technoogy-drven. Most ndustry experts
woud
agree (as we as most reputabe equpment vendors) that ths equpment shoud not be
purchased
for n-house use f there s not a serous commtment to proper mpementaton, operator
tranng,
and equpment montorng and repar. If such a commtment cannot be made, a ste s we
advsed
to seek other methods of program mpementaton-a preferabe opton may be to contract for
these
servces wth an outsde vendor and rey on ther equpment and expertse.
Tabe 6.1.1 beow hghghts typca appcatons for some of the more common predctve
mantenance technooges. Of course, proper appcaton begns wth system knowedge and
predctve technoogy capabty - before any of these technooges are apped to ve systems.
Tabe 6.1.1. Common predctve technoogy appcatons (NASA 2000)
O
&
M

B
e
s
t
P
ractices Guide, Release 3.0
(.1
!echnologies
Vbraton Montorng/Anayss X X X X
Lubrcant, Fue Anayss X X X X X
Wear Partce Anayss X X X X
Bearng, Temperature/Anayss X X X X
Performance Montorng X X X X X X
Utrasonc Nose Detecton X X X X X X X
Utrasonc Fow X X X X
Infrared Thermography X X X X X X X X X X
Non-destructve Testng
(Thckness)
X X X
Vsua Inspecton X X X X X X X X X X X
Insuaton Resstance X X X X X
Motor Current Sgnature Anayss X
Motor Crcut Anayss X X X
Poarzaton Index X X X
Eectrca Montorng X X
$eavy Equipment:
-ranes
Electrical Systems 2iesel 5enerators
$eat Echangers
-ircuit ;rea1ers
Electric Motors
!an1s, /iping
!ransformers
Applications
-ondensers
/umps@alves
Predictive Maintenance 0echnologies
8%) Therograph"
8%)%( &ntroduction
Infrared (IR) thermography can be dened as the process of generatng vsua mages that
repre-
sent varatons n IR radance of surfaces of ob|ects. Smar to the way ob|ects of dherent
materas
and coors absorb and reect eectromagnetc radaton n the vsbe ght spectrum (0.4 to 0.7
mcrons),
any ob|ect at temperatures greater than absoute zero emts IR energy (radaton) proportona to
ts exstng temperature. The IR radaton spectrum s generay agreed to exst between 2.0 and
15 mcrons. By usng an nstrument that contans detectors senstve to IR eectromagnetc
radaton,
a two-dmensona vsua mage reectve of the IR radance from the surface of an ob|ect can be
generated. Even though the detectors and eectroncs are dherent, the process tsef s smar to
that
a vdeo camera uses to detect a scene reectng eectromagnetc energy n the vsbe ght
spectrum,
nterpretng that nformaton, and dspayng what t detects on a qud crysta dspay (LCD)
screen
that can then be vewed by the devce operator.
Because IR radaton fas outsde that of vsbe ght (the radaton spectrum to whch our
eyes
are senstve), t s nvsbe to the naked eye. An IR camera or smar devce aows us to escape
the
vsbe ght spectrum and vew an ob|ect based on ts temperature and ts proportona
emttance
of IR radaton. How and why s ths abty to detect and vsuaze an ob|ects temperature proe
mportant n mantanng systems or components? Lke a predctve mantenance technooges,
IR tres to detect the presence of condtons or stressors that act to decrease a components
usefu or
desgn fe. Many of these condtons resut n changes to a components temperature. For
exampe,
a oose or corroded eectrca connecton resuts n abnormay eevated connecton temperatures
due to ncreased eectrca resstance. Before the connecton s hot enough to resut n equpment
faure or possbe re, the patterns are easy seen through an IR magng camera, the condton
dented and corrected. Rotatng equpment probems w normay resut n some form of
frctona
change that w be seen as an ncrease n the components temperature. Fauty or compete oss
of
refractory matera w be ready seen as a change n the components therma proe. Loss of a
roof s
membrane ntegrty w resut n mosture that can be ready detected as dherences n the roof
therma proe. These are |ust a few genera exampes of the hundreds of possbe appcatons of
ths
technoogy and how t mght be used to detect probems that woud otherwse go unnotced unt
a
component faed and resuted n excessve repar or downtme cost.
8%)%) T"pes o$ E?uipent
Many types of IR detecton devces exst, varyng n
capabty, desgn, and cost. In addton, smpe temperature
measurement devces that detect IR emssons but do not
produce a vsua mage or IR proe are aso manufactured.
The foowng text and pctures provde an overvew of each
genera nstrument type.
Spot =adiometer #9nfrared !hermometer( -
Athough
not generay thought of n the word of
thermography,
IR thermometers use the same basc prncpes as
hgher
end equpment to dene an ob|ects temperature based on
IR emssons. These devces do not provde any
mage
representatve of an ob|ects therma proe, but rather a
vaue
representatve of the temperature of the ob|ect or area of
nterest.
(.2
Fgure 6.2.1. Typca IR spot thermometer
9nfrared 9mager - As ndcated earer, equpment capabtes,
desgn, cost, and functonaty vary greaty. Dherences exst n IR
detector matera, operaton, and desgn. At the fundamenta eve,
IR detecton devces can be broken down nto two man groups -
magers and cameras wth radometrc capabty. A smpe IR
mager has the abty to detect an ob|ects IR emssons and
transate ths nformaton nto a vsua mage. It does not have the
capabty to anayze and quantfy specc temperature vaues. Ths
Fgure 6.2.2. Interna house wa.
are unmportant and the ob|ects temperature proe (represented Note dark area ndcatng
cooer
by the mage) s a that s needed to dene a probem. An exampe temperatures because of heat
oss.
of such an appcaton woud be n detectng mssng or nadequate
nsuaton n a structures enveope. Such an appcaton merey requres an mage
representatve of
the dherences n the therma proe due to absence of adequate nsuaton. Exact
temperature vaues
are unmportant.
IR cameras wth fu radometrc capabty detect the IR emssons from an ob|ect and
transate
ths nformaton nto a vsbe format as n the case of an mager. In addton, these devces
have the
capabty to anayze the mage and provde a temperature vaue correspondng to the area of
nterest.
Ths capabty s usefu n appcatons where a temperature vaue s mportant n denng a
probem
or condton. For exampe, f an mage ndcated a dherence between a puey bet
temperature
and an ambent temperature, the bet may have worn, be the wrong sze, or ndcate a
msagnment
condton. Knowng the approxmate temperature dherences woud be mportant n
determnng f
a probem exsted.
Fgure 6.2.3. Temperature s used n denng bet probems. Fgure shows a bet temperature of
149F, and ambent temperature of 67F for a dherence of 82F. The dherence shoud be trended
over tme to determne sppage that woud be ndcated by a hgher temperature dherence.
(.3
type of IR detecton devce can be of use when temperature vaues
8%)%* 4"ste App!ications
8%)%*%( E!ectrica! 4"ste App!ications
The prmary vaue of thermographc nspectons of eectrca systems s ocatng probems so
that they can be dagnosed and repared. "How hot s t?" s usuay of far ess mportance. Once
the
probem s ocated, thermography and other test methods, as we as experence and common
sense,
are used to dagnose the nature of the probem. The foowng st contans |ust a few of the
possbe
eectrca system-reated survey appcatons:
Transmsson nes
- Spces
- Shoes/end bes
Inductve heatng probems
- Insuators
Cracked or damaged/trackng
Dstrbuton nes/systems
- Spces
- Lne camps
- Dsconnects
- O swtches/breakers
- Capactors
- Poe-mounted transformers
- Lghtnng arrestors
- Imbaances
Substatons
- Dsconnects, cutouts, ar swtches
- O-ed swtches/breakers (externa and
nterna fauts)
- Capactors
- Transformers
Interna probems
Bushngs
O eves
Coong tubes
Lghtnng arrestors
- Bus connectons
Generator Factes
- Generator
Bearngs
Brushes
Wndngs
Cooant/o nes: bockage
- Motors
Connectons
Bearngs
Wndng/coong patterns
Motor Contro Center
Imbaances
(.&
In-Pant Eectrca Systems
- Swtchgear
- Motor Contro Center
- Bus
- Cabe trays
- Batteres and chargng crcuts
- Power/Lghtng dstrbuton panes
Software anayss toos can quantfy and graphcay
dspay temperature data. As shown above, the mdde
conductor/connecton s a much hgher temperature
ndcatng a oose connecton.
Fgure 6.2.4. Ar breaker probem. Hghghted by temperature dherence
between two dherent breakers. Lkey caused by poor connecton.
Fgure 6.2.5. Overoaded contacts show dherent temperature proes ndcatng
one contact seeng much greater oad, a potentay unsafe stuaton.
8%)%*%) Mechanica! 4"ste App!ications
Rotatng equpment appcatons are ony a sma subset of the possbe areas where
thermography
can be used n a mechanca predctve mantenance program. In addton to the abty to
detect
probems assocated wth bearng faure, agnment, baance, and ooseness, thermography
can be
used to dene many temperature proes ndcatve of equpment operatona fauts or faure.
The
foowng st provdes a few appcaton exampes and s not a ncusve:
Steam Systems
- Boers
Refractory
Tubes
- Traps
- Vaves
- Lnes
Heaters and furnaces
- Refractory nspectons
- Tube restrctons
Fuds
- Vesse eves
- Ppene bockages
O&M Best Practices Guide,
Release 3.0

Envronmenta
- Water
dscharge
patterns
- Ar
dscharge
patterns
Motors and
rotatng
equpment
- Bearngs

Mechanca
faure
Improper
ubrcaton
- Coupng
and agnment probems
- Eectrca connectons on motors
- Ar coong of motors
(.'
Fgure 6.2.6. IR scans of mutpe eectrc motors can hghght those wth hot
bearngs ndctng an mbaance or wear probem.
Fgure 6.2.7. Possbe gearbox probem ndcated by whte area dened by
arrow. Desgn drawngs of gearbox shoud be examned to dene possbe cause
of eevated temperatures.
Fgure 6.2.8. Sezed conveyer bet roer as ndcated by eevated temperatures n
bet/roer contact area.
Fgure 6.2.9. Inoperabe steam heaters seen by cooer bue areas when compared
to the operatng heaters warmer red or orange coors.
(.(
Fgure 6.2.10. IR scans of boer can hghght those areas where the refractory
has broken down eadng to costy heat oss.
Fgure 6.2.11. When trended, IR scans of snge bearngs provde a usefu ndcator of
wear and eventua need for repacement.
Fgure 6.2.12. Steam or hot water dstrbuton system
eaks and/or underground ne ocaton can be
dened wth IR.
(.*
These mages show eevated
temperatures of roof nsuaton
due to dherence n therma
capactance of mosture-aden
nsuaton.
IR thermography s a powerfu too for
ocatng roof eaks. As shown n the mages,
ghter coored regons ndcate areas of
potenta eakage.
8%)%*%* Roo$ Therograph"
The od adage "out of sght, out of mnd" s partcuary true when t appes to at roof
mantenance. We generay forget about the roof unt t eaks on our computers, swtchgear,
tabes,
etc. Roof repacement can be very expensve and at a standard ndustra compex easy run nto
the
hundreds of thousands of doars. Dependng on constructon, ength of tme the roof has eaked,
etc.,
actua budng structura components can be damaged from neakage and years of negect that
drve
up repar cost further. Utzaton of thermography to detect oss of a at roof s membrane
ntegrty
s an appcaton that can provde substanta return by mnmzng area of repar/repacement.
Roof
recondtonng cost can be expected to run ess than haf of new roof cost per square foot. Add to
ths
the savngs to be ganed from recondtonng a sma percentage of the tota roof surface, nstead
of
repacement of the tota roof, and the savngs can easy pay for roof surveys and occasona
repar for
the fe of the budng wth change eft over.
8%)%3 E?uipent 6ost/Pa"#ac@
As ndcated earer, the cost of thermography equpment vares wdey dependng on the
capab-
tes of the equpment. A smpe spot radometer can cost from $500 to $2,500. An IR mager
wth-
out radometrc capabty can range from $7,000 to $20,000. A camera wth fu functonaty can
cost from $18,000 to $65,000. Besdes the camera hardware, other program costs are nvoved.
(.+
Computer hardware, personne tranng, manpower, etc., needs to be accounted for n the
budget.
Beow s a stng of equpment and program needs recommended by a company recognzed as a
eader
n the word of IR program deveopment:
Leve I thermographc tranng
Leve II thermographc tranng
Ongong professona deveopment
IR camera and accessores
Report software
Laptop computer
Coor prnter
Dgta vsua camera
Persona Protectve Equpment (PPE) for arc ash protecton
Payback can vary wdey dependng on the type of facty and use of the equpment. A
produc-
ton facty whose downtme equates to severa thousands of doars per hour can reaze savngs
much
faster than a sma facty wth mnma roof area, eectrca dstrbuton network, etc. On
average, a
facty can expect a payback n 12 months or ess. A sma facty may consder usng the
servces of
an IR survey contractor. Such servces are wdey avaabe and costs range from $600 to
$1,200 per
day. Contracted servces are generay the most cost-ehectve approach for smaer, ess
mantenance-
ntensve factes.
8%)%5 Training Avai!a#i!it"
Tranng for nfrared thermography s avaabe through a varety of system manufacturers
and
vendors. In addton, the Amercan Socety of Non-destructve Testng (ASNT) has estabshed
gudenes for non-destructve testng (NDT) (Leve I, II, or III) certcaton (NASA 2000). These
three eves are desgned to take the student from Leve I - where the student s competent
wth
equpment functon and use, to Leve II - where the student s fuy capabe and experenced
and can
compete dagnostcs and recommendatons, to Leve III - where the student s fuy
experenced to
supervse and teach Leve I and II students.
8%)%8 6ase 4tudies
9= 2iagnostics of /ump
A facty was havng contnua probems wth some to ts motor and pump combnatons.
Pump
bearngs repeatedy faed. An IR nspecton conrmed that the ower thrust bearng was
warmer
than the other bearng n the pump. Further nvestgaton reveaed that the motor-pump
combna-
ton was desgned to operate n the horzonta poston. In order to save oor space, the pump
was
mounted vertcay beow the motor. As a resut, the ower thrust bearng was overoaded
eadng to
premature faure. The faures resuted n a $15,000 repar cost, not ncudng ost producton
tme
($30,000 per mnute producton oss and n excess of $600 per mnute abor).
(.,
9= 2iagnostics of Steam !raps
Steam trap faure detecton can be dmcut by other forms of detecton n many hard to reach
and nconvenent paces. Wthout a good trap mantenance program, t can be expected that
15%
to 60% of a factys traps w be faed open. At $3/1,000 b (very conservatve), a V-n. orce
trap faed open w cost approxmatey $7,800 per year. If the system had 100 traps and 20%
were
faed, the oss woud be n excess of $156,000. An o renery dented 14% of ts traps were
mafunctonng and reazed a savngs of $600,000 a year after repar.
9= 2iagnostics of =oof
A state agency n the northeast operated a facty wth a 360,000 square foot roof area. The
roof was over 22 years od and experencng severa eaks. Cost estmates to repace the roof
ranged
between $2.5 and $3 mon. An nta IR nspecton dented 1,208 square feet of roof requrng
repacement at a tota cost of $20,705. The foowng year another IR nspecton was performed
that found 1,399 square feet of roof requrng repacement at a cost of $18,217. A roof IR
nspecton
program was started and the roof surveyed each year. The survey resuted n ess than 200
square
feet of roof dented needng repacement n any one of the foowng 4 years (one year resuts
were as ow as 30 square feet). The tota cost for roof repar and upkeep for the 6 years was ess
than
$60,000. If the facty woud have been prvatey owned, nterest on the nta $3 mon at 10%
woud have amounted to $300,000 for the rst year aone. Dscountng nterest on $3 mon
over
the 5-year perod, smpe savngs resutng from survey and repar versus nta repacement cost
($3 mon to $60,000) amount to $2,940,000. Ths gure does not take nto account nterest on
the $3 mon, whch woud resut n savngs n excess of another $500,000 to $800,000,
dependng
on oan nterest pad.
8%)%9 Resources
The resources provded beow are by no means a-ncusve. The sted organzatons are not
endorsed by the authors of ths gude and are provded for your nformaton ony. To ocate
addtona
resources, the authors of ths gude recommend contactng reevant trade groups, databases,
and the
word-wde web.
6?9= Systems
Boston, MA
Teephone: 1-800-464-6372
Web address: www.rthermography.com
Mi1ron 9nstrument -ompany, 9nc.
Oakand, N|
Teephone: (201) 405-0900
Web address: www.rmagng.com
(.10
=ayte1
Santa Cruz, CA
Teephone: 1-800-227-8074
Web address: www.raytek-northamerca.com
Electrophysics
Fared, N|
Teephone: (973) 882-0211
Web address: www.eectrophyscs.com O&M Best Practices Guide, Release 3.0
8%)%9%( &n$rared 4ervice 6opanies
$artford Steam ;oiler
Engneerng Servces
Teephone: (703) 739-0350
Web address: www.hsb.com/nfrared/
American !hermal 9maging
Red Wng, MN
Teephone: (877) 385-0051
Web address: www.amercanthermamagng.com
9nfrared Services, 9nc.
5899 S. Broadway Bvd.
Ltteton, CO 80121
Voce: (303) 734-1746
Web address: www.nfrared-thermography.com
Snell !hermal 9nspections
U.S. wde
Teephone: 1-800-636-9820
Web address: www.snenspectons.com
8%)%9%) &n$rared &nternet Resource 4ites
Academy of 9nfrared !hermography
#www.nfraredtranng.net(
Leve I, II, and III certcaton nformaton and tranng schedue
Onne store (books, software, vdeos)
Onne resources (nks, mage gaery, message board)
Communcaton (casseds, news, ndustry-reated nformaton
Company proe and contact nformaton
Snell 9nfrared #Snenfrared.com(
Tranng and course nformaton
Industry nks
IR brary
Newsetter
Casseds
IR appcaton nformaton
(.11
8%*%( &ntroduction
One of the odest predctve mantenance technooges st n use today s that of o anayss.
O anayss s used to dene three basc machne condtons reated to the machnes ubrcaton
or ubrcaton system. Frst s the condton of the o, that s, w ts current condton ubrcate
per desgn? Testng s performed to determne ubrcant vscosty, acdty, etc., as we as other
chemca anayss to quantfy the condton of o addtves ke corroson nhbtors. Second s the
ubrcaton system condton, that s, have any physca boundares been voated causng
ubrcant
contamnaton? By testng for water content, scon, or other contamnants (dependng on the
system desgn), ubrcaton system ntegrty can be evauated. Thrd s the machne condton
tsef.
By anayzng wear partces exstng n the ubrcant, machne wear can be evauated and
quanted.
In addton to system degradaton, o anayss performed and trended over tme can provde
ndcaton of mpropery performed mantenance or operatona practces. Introducton of
contamnaton durng ubrcant change-out, mproper system ush-out after repars, addton of
mproper ubrcant, and mproper equpment operaton are a condtons that have been found by
the trendng and evauaton of o anayss data.
Severa companes provde o anayss servces. These servces are reatvey nexpensve and
some anayss aboratores can provde anayss resuts wthn 24 hours. Some servces are
currenty
usng the Internet to provde quck and easy access to the anayss reports. Anayss equpment
s aso avaabe shoud a facty wsh to estabsh ts own o anayss aboratory. Regardess of
whether the anayss s performed by an ndependent aboratory or by n-house forces, accurate
resuts requre proper sampng technques. Sampes shoud be taken from an actve, ow-
pressure
ne, ahead of any traton devces. For consstent resuts and accurate trendng, sampes shoud
be
taken from the same pace n the system each tme (usng a permanenty nstaed sampe vave
s
hghy recommended). Most ndependent aboratores suppy sampe contaners, abes, and
mang
cartons. If the o anayss s to be done by a aboratory, a that s requred s to take the sampe,
n nformaton such as the machne number, machne type, and sampe date, and send t to
the
aboratory. If the anayss s to be done on-ste, anaytca equpment must be purchased,
nstaed,
and standardzed. Sampe contaners must be purchased, and a sampe nformaton form created
and
prnted.
The most common o anayss tests are used to determne the condton of the ubrcant,
excessve wearng of o-wetted parts, and the presence of contamnaton. O condton s
most easy determned by measurng vscosty, acd number, and base number. Addtona tests
can determne the presence and/or ehectveness of o addtves such as ant-wear addtves,
antoxdants, corroson nhbtors, and ant-foam agents. Component wear can be determned by
measurng the amount of wear metas such as ron, copper, chromum, aumnum, ead, tn, and
ncke. Increases n specc wear metas can mean a partcuar part s wearng, or wear s takng
pace n a partcuar part of the machne. Contamnaton s determned by measurng water
content, specc gravty, and the eve of scon. Often, changes n specc gravty mean that the
ud or ubrcant has been contamnated wth another type of o or fue. The presence of scon
(usuay from sand) s an ndcaton of contamnaton from drt.
(.12
8%*%) Test T"pes
A .arl 6ischer 0ater !est - The Kar Fscher Test quantes the amount of water n the
ubrcant.
Signi4cance) Water serousy damages the ubrcatng propertes of o and promotes
component
corroson. Increased water concentratons ndcate possbe condensaton, cooant eaks, or
process eaks around the seas.
A 9-/ Spectroscopy - Measures the concentraton of wear metas, contamnant metas, and
addtve metas n a ubrcant. w
Signi4cance) Measures and quantes the eements assocated wth wear, contamnaton,
and
addtves. Ths nformaton asssts n determnng the o and machne condton.
The foowng gude hghghts the eements that may be dented by ths test procedure.
Aso
provded are bref descrptons expanng where the partces came from for engnes,
transmssons,
gears, and hydrauc systems.
O
&
M

B
e
s
t
P
r
a
c
ti
c
e
s
G
u
i
d
e
,
R
e
l
e
a
s
e
3
.0
(.13
Spectrometer Metals 5uide
Metal Engines !ransmissions 5ears $ydraulics
Iron Cynder ners, rngs,
gears,
crankshaft, camshaft,
vave
Gears, dsks,
housng,
bearngs, brake
bands,
Gears, bearngs,
shaft,
housng
Rods, cynders,
gears
Chrome Rngs, ners, exhaust
vaves, shaft patng,
staness stee aoy
Roer bearngs Roer bearngs Shaft
Aumnum Pstons, thrust
bearngs,
turbo bearngs, man
Pumps, thrust
washers
Pumps, thrust
washers
Bearngs, thrust
pates
Ncke Vave patng, stee
aoy
from crankshaft,
camshaft,
Stee aoy from
roer
bearngs and shaft
Stee aoy from
roer
bearngs and shaft
Copper Lube cooers, man
and rod
bearngs, bushngs,
Bushngs, cutch
pates
(auto/ powershft),
Bushngs, thrust
pates
Bushngs, thrust
pates,
ube cooers
Lead Man and rod bearngs,
bushngs, ead soder
Bushngs (bronze
aoy), ube
addtve
suppement
Bushngs (bronze
aoy), grease
contamnaton
Bushng (bronze
aoy)
Tn Pston ashng,
bearng
over-ay, bronze aoy,
babbt meta aong
Bearng cage
meta
Bearng cage
meta,
ube addtve
Cadmum N/A N/A N/A N/A
Sver Wrst pn bushngs
(EMDs), sver soder
(from
ube cooers)
Torrngton neede
bearngs (Ason
transmsson)
N/A Sver soder (from
ube
cooers)
Ttanum Gas turbne
bearngs/hub/
N/A N/A N/A
Vanadum From heavy bunker-
type
N/A N/A N/A
Spectrometer Metas Gude (contd)
Test T"pes (contd)
A /article -ount - Measures the sze and quantty of partces n a ubrcant.
Signi4cance) O ceanness and performance. An ncrease n partce sze and gravty s an
ndcaton of a need for o servce.
A @iscosity !est - Measure of a ubrcants resstance to ow at a specc temperature.
Signi4cance) Vscosty s the most mportant physca property of o. Vscosty determnaton
provdes a specc number to compare to the recommended o n servce. An abnorma
vscosty
(15%) s usuay ndcatve that ubrcant repacement s requred.
(.1&
-ontaminant Metals
Scon Drt, seas and
seaants,
cooant nhbtor, ube
addtve
Drt, seas and
seaants, cooant
nhbtor, ube
addtve
(15 ppm or ess)
Drt, seas and
seaants, cooant
addtve, ube
addtve
(15 ppm or ess)
Drt, seas and
seaant,
cooant addtve,
ube
Sodum Lube addtve, cooant
nhbtor, sat water
contamnaton, wash
detergents
Lube addtve,
cooant
nhbtor, sat water
contamnaton,
Lube addtve,
satwater
contamnaton,
arborne
contamnate
Lube addtve,
cooant
nhbtor, satwater
contamnaton,
Multi"Source Metals
Moybdexznu
m
Rng patng, ube
addtve,
cooant nhbtor
Lube addtve,
cooant
nhbtor
Lube addtve,
cooant
nhbtor, cooant
nhbtor, grease
Lube addtve,
cooant
nhbtor
Antmony Lube addtve Lube addtve Lube addtve Lube addtve
Manganese Stee aoy Stee aoy Stee aoy Stee aoy
Lthum N/A Lthum compex
grease
Lthum compex
grease
Lthum compex
grease
Boron Lube addtve, cooant
nhbtor
Lube addtve,
cooant
Lube addtve,
cooant
Lube addtve,
cooant
Additive Metals
Magnesum Detergent dspersant
addtve, arborne
contamnant at some
stes
Detergent
dspersant
addtve, arborne
contamnant at
Detergent
dspersant
addtve, arborne
contamnant at
Detergent
dspersant
addtve, arborne
contamnant at
Cacum Detergent dspersant
addtve, arborne
contamnant at some
stes,
contamnant from
water
Detergent
dspersant
addtve, arborne
contamnant at
some
stes, contamnant
Detergent
dspersant
addtve, arborne
contamnant at
some
stes, contamnant
Detergent
dspersant
addtve, arborne
contamnant at
some
stes, contamnant
Barum Usuay an addtve
from
synthetc ubrcants
Usuay an addtve
from synthetc
ubrcants
Usuay an
addtve
from synthetc
Usuay an addtve
from synthetc
ubrcants
Phosphorus Ant-wear addtve
(ZDP)
Ant-wear addtve
(ZDP)
Ant-wear addtve
(ZPD), EP addtve
(extreme
pressure)
Ant-wear addtve
(ZDP)
Znc Ant-wear addtve
(ZDP)
Ant-wear addtve
(ZDP)
Ant-wear addtve
(ZPD)
Ant-wear addtve
(ZDP)
A 6ourier transform #6!("9= Spectroscopy - Measures the chemca composton of a
ubrcant.
Signi4cance) Moecuar anayss of ubrcants and hydrauc uds by FT-IR spectroscopy
produces drect nformaton on moecuar speces of nterest, ncudng addtves, ud
breakdown
products, and externa contamnaton.
A 2irect =ead 6errography - Measures the reatve amount of ferrous wear n a ubrcant.
Signi4cance) The drect read gves a drect measure of the amount of ferrous wear metas
of
dherent sze present n a sampe. If trendng of ths nformaton reveas changes n the
wear
mode of the system, then acton s requred.
A Analytical 6errography - Aows anayst to vsuay examne wear partces present n a
sampe.
Signi4cance) A traned anayst vsuay determnes the type and severty of wear
deposted onto
the substrate by usng a hgh magncaton mcroscope. The partces are ready dented
and
cassed accordng to sze, shape, and metaurgy.
A !otal Acid >umber - Measures the acdty of a ubrcant.
2escription) Organc acds, a by-product of o oxdaton, degrade o propertes and ead
to
corroson of the nterna components. Hgh acd eves are typcay caused by o oxdaton.
8%*%* T"pes o$ E?uipent
Athough ndependent aboratores generay perform o anayss, some vendors do provde
anayss equpment that can be used on-ste to characterze o condton, wear partces, and
con-
tamnaton. These devces are generay composed of severa dherent types of test equpment
and
standards ncudng vscometers, spectrometers, o anayzers, partce counters, and
mcroscopes.
On-ste testng can provde quck vercaton of a suspected o probem assocated wth
crtca
components such as water contamnaton. It can aso provde a means to qucky dene
ubrcant
condton to determne when to change the ubrcant medum. For the most part, detaed
anayss
w st requre the servces of an ndependent aboratory.
Typca o anayss equpment avaabe
from severa dherent vendors.
8%*%3 4"ste App!ications
A machnes wth motors 7.5 hp or arger, and crtca or hgh-cost machnes shoud be
evauated
for routne ubrcatng o anayss (NASA 2000) from monthy to quartery. A hydrauc
systems,
except mobe systems, shoud be anayzed on a quartery bass. Mobe systems shoud be
consdered
for anayss based upon the machne sze and the cost ehectveness of performng the
anayss.
Generay speakng, t s more cost ehectve n mobe equpment to mantan the hydrauc
ud
based on the ud condton. However, for sma systems, the cost to ush and repace the
hydrauc
ud on a tme bass may be ower than the cost to anayze the ud on a routne bass. Typca
equpment appcatons ncude:
(.1'
Turbnes
Boer feed pumps
Eectrohydrauc contro (EHC) systems
Hydraucs
Servo vaves
Gearboxes
Roer bearngs
Ant-frcton bearngs
Any system where o ceanness s drecty reated to onger ubrcant fe, decreased
equpment
wear, or mproved equpment performance
8%*%5 E?uipent 6ost/Pa"#ac@
For factes utzng a arge number of rotatng machnes that empoy crcuatng ubrcant,
or for factes wth hgh doar equpment usng crcuatng ubrcant, few predctve mantenance
technooges can oher the opportunty of such a hgh return for doars spent. Anayss for a
snge
sampe can run from $15 to $100 dependng on the eve of anayss requested - sampes are
typcay
sent through the ma to the testng center. Gven the hgh equpment repacement cost, abor
cost, and downtme cost nvoved wth a bearng or gearbox faure, a snge faure prevented by
the
performance of o anayss can easy pay for a program for severa years.
8%*%8 Training Avai!a#i!it"
Tranng for ubrcant and wear partce anayss typcay takes pace va vendors. Because the
anayss s usuay conducted by outsde vendors at ther ocaton, tranng conssts of proper
sampng
technques (ocaton and frequency) as we as requste sampe handng gudance.
8%*%9 6ase 4tudies
=educed 5ear ;o 6ailure
Through o anayss, a company determned that each tme o was added to a gear reducer,
con-
tamnaton eves ncreased and ths was accompaned by an ncrease n bearng and gear
faures.
Further examnaton determned that removng the cover pate to add o aowed contamnaton
from the process to fa nto the sump. Based on ths, the system was redesgned to prevent the
ntro-
ducton of contamnaton durng o addton. The resut was a reducton n bearng/gearbox
faure rates.
Oil -hanges 0hen >eeded
A ma|or northeast manufacturer swtched from a preventve mantenance approach of
changng
o n 400 machnes usng a tme-based methodoogy to a condton-based method usng n-house
o
anayss. The o s now beng changed based on ts actua condton and has resuted n a savngs
n
excess of $54,000 per year.
(.1(
Oil -hanges and Equipment Scheduling
A northeast ndustra facty ganed an average of 0.5 years between o changes when t
changed
o change requrements from a preventve mantenance tme-based approach to changng o
based
on actua condtons. Ths resuted n greater than a $20,000 consumabe cost n ess than 9
months.
A arge chemca manufacturng rm saved more than $55,000 n mantenance and ost
produc-
ton cost avodance by schedung repar of a centrfuga compressor when o anayss ndcated
water
contamnaton and the presence of hgh ferrous and non-ferrous partce counts.
8%*%: Re$erences/Resources
organza-
To
groups,
8%*%:%( Ana!"sis E?uipent
Resources
-omputational Systems, 9nc.:
Emerson /rocess Management
Knoxve, TN
Teephone: (865) 675-2400
Fax: (865) 218-1401
Web address: www.compsys.com
=eliability 2irect, 9nc.
League Cty, TX
Teephone: 1-888-710-6786
Fax: (281) 334-4255
Web address: www.reabtydrect.com
Spectro, 9nc.
Industra Trboogy Systems
Ltteton, MA
Teephone: (978) 486-0123
Fax: (978) 486-0030
E-Ma: Info@SpectroInc.com
Web address: www.spectronc.com
Release 3.0
8%*%:%) Oi!
Ana!"sis
La#oratories
-omputational
Systems, 9nc.:
Emerson
/rocess
Management
Knoxve, TN
Teephone:
(865) 675-2400
Fax: (865) 218-
1401
Web address:
www.comsys.com
/olaris
?aboratories
Indanapos, IN
Teephone:
(877) 808-3750
Fax: (317) 808-
3751
Web address:
www.poarsabs1.co
m
Analysts, 9nc.
Locatons throughout the U.S.
Teephone: (800) 336-3637
Fax: (310) 370-6637
Web address: www.anaystsnc.com
?ube!ra1
Sandy, UT
Teephone: 1-866-582-3872 (To Free)
Web address: www.ubetrak.com
(.1*
8%*%:%* &nternet Resource 4ites
www.testo.com www.natrb.com
Sampe report
Free o anayss
Industry-reated artces
Test overvew
Laboratory servces
Tranng servces
Technca artces
Case studes
Newsetters
Appcaton notes
www.compsys.com
(.1+
Laboratory servce
Technca artces
Appcaton papers
Sampe report
Tranng servces
Technca notes
8%3 A!trasonic Ana!"sis
8%3%( &ntroduction
Utrasonc, or utrasounds, are dened as sound waves that have a frequency eve above
20 kHz.
Sound waves n ths frequency spectrum are hgher than what can normay be heard by
humans.
Non-contact utrasonc detectors used n predctve mantenance detect arborne utrasound.
The
frequency spectrums of these utrasounds fa wthn a range of 20 to 100 kHz. In contrast to IR
ems-
sons, utrasounds trave a reatvey short dstance from ther source. Lke IR emssons,
utrasounds
trave n a straght ne and w not penetrate sod surfaces. Most rotatng equpment and
many
ud system condtons w emt sound patterns n the utrasonc frequency spectrum.
Changes n
these utrasonc wave emssons are reectve of equpment condton. Utrasonc detectors
can be
used to dentfy probems reated to component wear as we as ud eaks, vacuum eaks, and
steam
trap faures. A compressed gas or ud forced through a sma openng creates turbuence wth
strong
utrasonc components on the downstream sde of the openng. Even though such a eak may
not be
audbe to the human ear, the utrasound w st be detectabe wth a scannng utrasound
devce.
Utrasounds generated n vacuum systems are generated wthn the system. A sma
percentage
of these utrasonc waves escape from the vacuum eak and are detectabe, provded the
montorng s
performed cose to the source or the detector gan s propery ad|usted to ncrease detecton
perform-
ance. In addton to system vacuum or ud eaks, utrasonc wave detecton s aso usefu n
denng
abnorma condtons generated wthn a system or component. Poory seated vaves (as n the
case
of a faed steam trap) emt utrasounds wthn the system boundares as the ud eaks past
the vave
seat (smar to the sonc sgnature generated f the ud was eakng through the ppe or ttng
was).
These utrasounds can be detected usng a contact-type utrasonc probe.
Utrasonc detecton devces can aso be used for bearng condton montorng. Accordng
to
Natona Aeronautcs and Space Admnstraton (NASA) research, a 12-50x ncrease n the
amp-
tude of a montored utrasonc frequency (28 to 32 kHz) can provde an eary ndcaton of
bearng
deteroraton.
Utrasonc detecton devces are becomng more wdey used n detecton of certan
eectrca
system anomaes. Arcng/trackng or corona a produce some form of onzaton that dsturbs
the
ar moecues around the equpment beng dagnosed and produces some eve of utrasonc
sgnature.
An utrasonc devce can detect the hgh-frequency nose produced by ths ehect and transate
t, va
heterodynng, down nto the audbe ranges. The specc sound quaty of each type of
emsson s
heard n headphones whe the ntensty of the sgna can be observed on a meter to aow
quant-
caton of the sgna.
In addton to transatng utrasonc sound waves nto frequences heard by the human ear
or
seen on a meter face, many utrasonc sound wave detectors provde the capabty to capture
and
store the detectors output. Utzng dspay and anayss software, a tme waveform of the
utrasonc
sgnature can then be vsuay dspayed. Ths functonaty ncreases the technoogys
capabty to
capture and store quantabe data reated to a components operatng condton. Utrasonc
sgnature
nformaton can then be used to basene, anayze, and trend a components condton. In
contrast to
a techncans sub|ectve anayss of a components condton usng an audo sgna, many
utrasonc
anomaes ndcatve of component probems are more easy dened usng a sgnature proe.
The
foowng mages of utrasonc tme waveforms from two dentca gearboxes ustrate how
utrasonc
(.1,
sgnature data storage and anayss can be used to quantfy machne condton. Gearbox "1"
waveform shows an utrasonc sgnature anomay that may be attrbutabe to mssng or worn
gear
teeth, whe Gearbox "2" sgnature shows a at proe.
Gearbox 1
Gearbox 2
Generay, ths type of dagnoss can be performed on a standard persona computer (PC). The
programs not ony provde the spectra and tme seres vews of the utrasonc sgnature but
enabe
users to hear the transated sound sampes smutaneousy as they are vewng them on the PC
montor.
8%3%) T"pes o$ E?uipent
Utrasonc anayss s one of the ess compex and
ess
expensve predctve mantenance technooges. The
equpment
s reatvey sma, ght, and easy to use. Measurement data
are
presented n a straghtforward manner usng meters or
dgta
readouts. The cost of the equpment s moderate and the
amount
of tranng s mnma when compared to other
predctve
mantenance technooges. The
pcture to the rght shows a
typca utrasonc detecton
devce.
(.20
Typca hand-hed utrasonc detector
Snce utrasounds trave ony a short dstance, some scannng
appcatons coud present a safety hazard to the techncan or the
area of nterest may not be easy accessbe. In these appcatons,
the scannng devce s generay desgned wth a gan ad|ust to
ncrease ts senstvty, thereby aowng scannng from a greater
dstance than norma. Some utrasonc detectors are desgned to
aow connecton of a speca paraboc dsh-type sensng devce
(shown at rght) that greaty extends the norma scannng dstance.
8%3%* 4"ste App!ications
8%3%*%( Pressure/<acuu Lea@s
Compressed ar
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Heat exchangers
Boers
Condensers
Tanks
Ppes
Vaves
Paraboc dsh used wth utrasonc
detector greaty extends detecton
range abtes.
Utrasonc detecton can be used to ocate underground system eaks
and detect heat exchanger tube eakage.
Steam traps.
8%3%*%) Mechanica! App!ications
Mechanca nspecton
Bearngs
Lack of ubrcaton
From steam trap fauts
and vave eakage to
compressor probems,
utrasonc detecton can
be used to nd a varety
of probems that generate
utrasonc sgnatures.
Pumps
Motors
Gears/Gearboxes
Fans
Compressors
Conveyers.
(.21
8%3%*%* E!ectrica! App!ications
Arcng/trackng/corona
Swtchgear
Transformers
Insuators
Mechanca devces are not the ony sources of
utrasonc
emsson. Eectrca equpment w aso generate
utrasonc
waves f arcng/trackng or corona are present.
8%3%3 E?uipent 6ost/Pa"#ac@
As ndcated earer, utrasonc anayss
equpment cost s mnma when compared
to
other predctve mantenance
technooges.
A typca handhed scanner, software,
probes,
w cost from $750 to $10,000 - dependng on
the type, accuracy and features. The
mnma
expense combned wth the arge savngs
opportuntes w most often resut n an
equpment payback perod of 6 months or ess.
8%3%5 Training Avai!a#i!it"
Tranng for utrasonc anayss s
avaabe
through a varety of system manufacturers and
vendors. Dependng on your needs,
consder
tranng that w quafy you for the
Amercan
Socety of Non-destructve Testng (ASNT)
varous eves of certcaton. Genercay, these
eves take the foowng form:
Leve I - the student s competent wth
equpment functon and use; Leve II - the
student s fuy capabe and experenced and
can
compete dagnostcs and
recommendatons;
Leve III - the student s fuy experenced
to
supervse and teach Leve I and II student.
(.22
Seas/Potheads
|uncton boxes
Crcut breakers.
Steam Trap Appcatons
(NASA 2000):
Steam traps shoud be montored on the down-
stream sde of the trap usng the test equpments
contact mode. Each type of steam trap produces
a dstnct sound as brey descrbed beow. It s
recommended that users receve tranng and then
gan experence n a controed envronment before
dagnosng operatng systems.
Typca utrasonc sgnatures w ncude and
openng and cosng sound characterzed by steam
rushng sound foowed by a perod of reatve
quet. Many types of traps fa n the open poston,
producng a contnuous, rushng sound. Common
trap types and ther dagnostc sgnatures ncude:
Inverted Bucket: A norma trap sounds as f t s
oatng; a faed trap snks, producng a contnuous
ow nose.
Foat and Thermostatc (Contnuous Load): Fow
and nose assocated wth these traps are usuay
moduated as the trap opens and coses. Faed
traps are normay cod and sent.
Thermostatc: Utrasonc testng resuts of ths type of
trap vary. The sgnatures produced by these traps
can be contnuous or ntermttent dependng on the
type. It s best to reference a propery functonng
trap for a basene sgnature for comparson.
8%3%8 6ase 4tudies
Bltrasound 2etects -ompressed Air ?ea1s
A northeast ndustra pant was experencng some ar probems. The factys two
compressors
were n the on mode for an nordnate amount of tme, and pant management assumed a
thrd com-
pressor was needed, at a cost of $50,000. Instead, the foundry nvested ess than $1,000 n
contract-
ng an outsde rm to perform an utrasound nspecton of ts ar system. In a snge day, the
utrasound techncan detected 64 ar eaks accountng for an estmated tota ar oss of 295.8
cfm
(26% of tota system capacty). Consderng t cost approxmatey $50,014 per year (cacuated
at
$.04/kowatt/hour) to operate the two ar compressors, at a tota of 1,120 cfm, correctng ths
ar oss
saved the pant $13,000 per year. In addton, the pant avoded havng to spend another
$50,000 on
another ar compressor, because after the eaks were found and repared, the exstng
compressors were
adequate to suppy demand.
A Mdwest manufacturer saved an estmated $75,900 n annua energy costs as a resut of
an
utrasound survey of ts ar system. A tota of 107 ar eaks were detected and tagged for
repar. These
eaks accounted for an ar oss of 1,031 cfm, equa to 16% of the tota 6,400 cfm produced by
the ar
compressors that suppy the facty.
Steam !rap Monitoring (NASA 2000)
Impementaton of a steam trap montorng program often has sgncant nanca benet.
Inta
steam trap surveys n the petrochemca ndustry reveaed that 34% of the steam traps
nspected had
faed, mosty n the open poston. For factes wth a perodc steam trap montorng
program, the
foowng dstrbuton of degradatons were dscovered durng each survey:
Fve steam eaks (other than traps) per 150 traps
Two eakng vaves per 150 traps
Twenty of the 150 traps eak
Budng oh these ndngs - one trap (faed open) wth a V nch orce w ose roughy
500 MBtu/year (at 25 ps) f undscovered. Wth a cost of steam at $7.50 per MBtu, a boer
emcency
of 75% and a system energzed for 50% of the year, the annua cost savngs of detectng ths
eak s
$2,500. Ths one eak coud |ustfy the purchase of an utrasonc detector - and ths s key
one of
many eaks to be found.
8%3%9 R
e$erences/Resources
The references and resources provded
beow are by no means a-ncusve. The
sted organzatons are not endorsed by
the authors of ths gude and are provded
for your nformaton ony. To ocate
addtona resources, the authors of ths gude
recommend contactng reevant trade groups,
8%3%9%( E?uipent Resources
BE Systems
Emsford, NY
Teephone: (914) 592-1220 or
1-800-223-1325
Fax: (914) 347-2181
Web address: www.uesystems.com
-!=? Systems, 9nc.
Westmnster, MD
Teephone: (877) 287-5797
Web address: www.ctrsys.com
(.23
Speciali3ed 2iagnostic
!echnologies, 9nc.
SDT North Amerca
Cobourg, Ontaro
Canada
Teephone: 1-800-667-5325
Web address: www.sdtnorthamerca.com
Superior Signal -ompany
Spotswood, N|
Teephone: 1-800-945-TEST(8378) or
(732) 251-0800
Fax: (732) 251-9442
Web address: www.superorsgna.com
8%3%9%) 4ervice 6opanies
Mid"Atlantic 9nfrared Services, 9nc.
Bethesda, MD
Teephone: (301) 320-2870
Web address: www.mdatantcnfrared.com
BE Systems, 9nc.
Teephone: (914) 592-1220 or
1-800-223-1325 (To Free)
Fax: (914) 347-2181
Web address: www.uesystems.com
?ee1 See1
Teephone: TX: (512) 246-2071
CA: (909) 786-0795
FL: (727) 866-8118
Web address: www.eekseek.com
(.2&
8%3%9%* &nternet Resource 4ites
www.uesystems.com
Technoogy overvew
Tranng
Lnks
Sound demos
www.superorsgna.com
Technoogy overvew
Utrasonc sound btes (exampes)
Utrasonc spectra graphs

8%5 <i#ration Ana!"sis
8%5%( &ntroduction
As a of us who rde or drve an automobe wth some reguarty know, certan mechanca
fauts
or probems produce symptoms that can be detected by our sense of fee. Vbratons fet n the
steer-
ng whee can be an ndcator of an out-of-baance whee or ooseness n the steerng nkage.
Trans-
msson gear probems can be fet on the shft nkage. Looseness n exhaust system
components can
sometmes be fet as vbratons n the oorboard. The common thread wth a these probems
s that
degeneraton of some mechanca devce beyond permssbe operatona desgn mtatons
has man-
fested tsef by the generaton of abnorma eves of vbraton. What s vbraton and what do
we
mean by eves of vbraton? The dctonary denes vbraton as "a perodc moton of the
partces
of an eastc body or medum n aternatey opposte drectons from the poston of equbrum
when that equbrum has been dsturbed or the state of beng vbrated or n vbratory moton
as n
(1) oscaton or (2) a quverng or trembng moton."
The key eements to take away from ths denton are vbraton s moton, and ths moton
s
cycc around a poston of equbrum. How many tmes have you touched a machne to see f
t
was runnng? You are abe to te by touch f the motor s runnng because of vbraton
generated by
moton of rotatona machne components and the transmtta of these forces to the machne
housng.
Many parts of the machne are rotatng and each one of these parts s generatng ts own
dstnctve
pattern and eve of vbraton. The eve and frequency of these vbratons are dherent and the
human touch s not senstve enough to dscern these dherences. Ths s where vbraton
detecton
nstrumentaton and sgnature anayss software can provde us the necessary senstvty.
Sensors are
used to quantfy the magntude of vbraton or how rough or smooth the machne s runnng.
Ths s
expressed as vbraton amptude. Ths magntude of vbraton s expressed as:
A 2isplacement - The tota dstance traveed
by the vbratng part from one extreme mt
of trave to the other extreme mt of trave.
Ths dstance s aso caed the "peak-to-peak
dspacement."
A @elocity - A measurement of the speed at
whch a machne or machne component s
movng as t undergoes oscatng moton.
A Acceleration - The rate of change of veocty.
Recognzng that vbratona forces are cycc,
both the magntude of dspacement and
veocty change from a neutra or mnmum
vaue to some maxmum. Acceeraton
s a vaue representng the maxmum rate
that veocty (speed of the dspacement) s
ncreasng. w
Varous transducers are avaabe that w
sense and provde an eectrca output reectve
of the vbratona dspacement, veocty, or
acceeraton. The specc unt of measure to
best evauate the machne condton w be
Fgure 6.5.1. Vbraton severty chart
(.2'
dependent on the machne speed and desgn. Severa gudenes have been pubshed to provde
assstance n determnaton of the reatve runnng condton of a machne. An exampe s seen n
Fgure 6.5.1. It shoud be sad that the vaues dened n ths gudene, or smar gudenes, are
not
absoute vbraton mts above whch the machne w fa and beow whch the machne w run
ndentey. It s mpossbe to estabsh absoute vbraton mts. However, n settng up a
predctve
mantenance program, t s necessary to estabsh some severty crtera or mts above whch
acton
w be taken. Such charts are not ntended to be used for estabshng vbraton acceptance
crtera
for rebut or newy nstaed machnes. They are to be used to evauate the genera or overa
condton of machnes that are aready nstaed and operatng n servce. For those, settng up a
predctve mantenance program, ackng experence or hstorca data, smar charts can serve
as an
exceent gude to get started.
As ndcated earer,
many vbraton sgnas
are generated at one
tme. Once a magntude
of vbraton exceeds some
predetermned vaue,
vbraton sgnature anayss
can be used n denng the
machne ocaton that s
the source of the vbraton
Fgure 6.5.2. FFT - Exampe of graph breakng down vbraton eve at dherent
frequences
anayss equpment and
software, the ndvdua vbraton sgnas are separated and dspayed n a manner that denes
the
magntude of vbraton and frequency (Fgure 6.5.2). Wth the understandng of machne desgn
and
operaton, an ndvdua schooed n vbraton sgnature anayss can nterpret ths nformaton to
dene the machne probem to a component eve.
8%5%) T"pes o$ E?uipent
Dependng on the appcaton, a wde varety
of
hardware optons exst n the word of vbraton.
Athough
not compcated, actua hardware requrements depend
on severa factors. The speed of the machne, on-
ne
montorng versus oh-ne data coecton, anayss
needs,
sgna output requrements, etc., w ahect the type of
equpment optons avaabe. Regardess of the
approach,
any vbraton program w requre a sensng
devce
(transducer) to measure the exstng vbraton and
transate
ths nformaton nto some eectronc
sgna. Transducers
are reatvey sma n sze (see
Fgure 6.5.3) and can be
permanenty mounted or amxed to the
montorng ocaton
perodcay durng data coecton.
Fgure 6.5.3. Typca vbraton transducers
In some cases, the actua transaton of the vbraton to an eectrca sgna occurs n a
handhed
montorng devce. A meta probe attached to a handhed nstrument s hed aganst a pont of
nterest and the nstrument transates the motons fet on the probe to some sort of eectrca
sgna.
Other portabe devces use a transducer and handhed data-coecton devce. Both styes w
provde
(.2( O&M Best Practices Guide, Release 3.0
and n need of repar or
repacement. By usng
contoh sensor vbras tpe
genggam. has pembacaan
menydedakan tngkat
angsung ndkas vbras
tpe anass vbras, catatan pada
ayar tampan memberkan
nformas geombang getaran
aktua sean tu dapat
menganass konds kemampuan
mesn.
semacam ayar d mana
getaran besarnya
ddenskan. Gaya dan ukuran
peraatan sangat bervaras,
tetap peraatan drancang
untuk men|ad portabe.
Beberapa akuss snya dan anass
peraatan antarmuka PC angsung
dengan sensor.
Sean nstrumen yang drancang untuk mengukur getaran besar, banyak produsen
menyedakan nstrumentas yang akan meakukan anass snya |uga. Beberapa
peraatan adaah desan yang berdr sendr dan meakukan anass ndependen
bdang antarmuka komputer sementara peraatan annya desan tranducers
antarmuka angsung dengan PC d mana perangkat unak anass dgunakan untuk
menafsrkan data snya.
8%5%* Ap!i@asi 4iste
Pemantauan getaran dan anass dapat dgunakan untuk menemukan dan mendagnosa
berbaga masaah yang berkatan dengan peraatan berputar. Daftar berkut memberkan
beberapa beraku umum norma konds peraatan yang dterma secara tdak norma/
kesaahan dmana dapat berguna daam pemeharaan predktf untuk mengedentkas
permasaahan yang ada:
Ketdaksembangan
rotor eksentrk
Msagnment
Masaah Resonans
keonggaran
mekank /
keemahan
menggosok
Rotor
Masaah
Lengan-
bantaan
Bergur eemen bantaan masaah
(.2*
masaah getaran arus nduks
permasaahan pada gear
permasahan pada srk
permasaahan pada sabuk pengarah.
Peraatan anass n untuk menentukan adanya masaah yang bukan merupakan
prosedur sederhana dan mudah dakukan. Anass getaran harus benar dakukan
dan sangat membutuhkan evauas dar ndvdu yang terath dan teramp,
berpengetahuan bak daam teknoog dan peraatan yang akan du|. Penentuan
beberapa masaah yang tercantum kurang mudah darpada masaah an dan
mungkn memerukan pengaaman yang banyak oeh tekns agar memudahkan
mendagnosa konds secara benar.
8%5%3 Bia"a Pera!atan/ Penge#a!ian Moda!
Sepert yang dtun|ukkan sebeumnya , gaya , |ens , dan kemampuan peraatan
montorng getaran sangat bervaras . Tentu , baya peraatan berkut varans n .
Transduser dengan baya d bawah $ 100. Harga untuk perangkat pembaca vbras
yang mampu mendenskan besarnya tanpa kemampuan anass adaah nak
sektar $ 1.000. Baya nak dar sana.Sebuah pembaca vbrras dengan kuatas
tngg dan semua aksesors dapat meebh $ 30.000.Sebuah stus ndustr yang
khas dapat mengharapkan untuk memuhkan baya nvestas peraatan dengan
kuatas tngg daam waktu 2 tahun. Stus dengan |umah mnma peraatan
berputar, nstaas peraatan baya rendah, dan / atau tdak ada kekhawatran
terkat produks mungkn akan menguntungkan uneco nomcay untuk pembean
sstem $ 30.000 anass getaran. Fastas n mungkn berguna untuk menetapkan
program nterna pembacaan vbras dengan menggunakan perangkat pengukuran
vbras yang murah dan kemudan menggunakan |asa kontraktor uar untuk
meakukan surve berkaa. Layanan n umumnya berksar d baya dar $ 600
sampa $ 1.200 per har.
8%5%5 Pe!atihan "ang Tersedia
Peathan untuk anass getaran terseda meau berbaga produsen dan vendor.
Peathan tambahan dan sertkas terseda meau Getaran Insttute (hat bagan
Sumber daya untuk nformas kontak) dmana sertkas hanya untuk Tngkat I - IV
yang terseda.
8%5%8 4tudi @asus
Menganilisa 5etaran /ada /ompa
Anass getaran pada kombnas bermotor / pompa 200-hp mengakbatkan
penentuan ukuran benarporos dan bantaan dengan benar pada kedua u|ung
pompa dan u|ung motor. Baya perbakan kurang dar $ 2,700. Operas an|utan
yang menyebabkan kegagaan dan baya penggantan meebh $ 10.000.
8%5%9 Re$erensi / 4u#er Da"a
Referens dan sumber daya yang dsedakan d bawah n adaah tdak berart semua nkusf.
Organsas yang terdaftar tdak ddukung oeh penus buku n dan dsedakan hanya untuk
nformas anda. Untuk menemukan sumber daya tambahan, penus buku n menyarankan
menghubung keompok-keompok yang reevan perdagangan, database, dan web d seuruh
duna.
(.2+
8%5%9%( Training E?uipent
Resources
0ilcoon =esearch, 9nc.
Gathersburg, MD
Teephone: (301) 330-8811 or 1-800-945-
2696
Web ste: www.wcoxon.com
Web address: www.compsys.com
9ndustrial =esearch !echnology
Bethehem, PA - Pttsburgh, PA -
Ceveand, OH - Detrot, MI - Chcago, IL -
Chareston, SC
Teephone: (610) 867-0101 or
1-800-360-3594
Fax: (610) 867-2341
8%5%9%* Training/&nternet
Resource 4ites
@ibration 9nstitute
www.vbnst.org
6262 S. Kngery Hghway
Sute 212, Wowbrook, IL 60527
Teephone: (630)654-2254
Fax: (630)654-2271
www.pant-mantenance.com
Tranng matera
Industry nks
Free software
- FFT/CMMS/Inventory contro
Technca artces
Mantenance-reated artces
2?9 Engineering -orporation
U.S. wde
Teephone: 1-800-654-2844 or (206) 842-7656
Web address: www.dengneerng.com
-ommtest, 9nc.
Knoxve, TN
Teephone: 1-877-582-2946
Web address: www.commtest.com
835 Innovaton Drve
Knoxve, TN 37932
Teephone: (865) 675-2110
Fax: (865) 218-1401
www.reabtyweb.com
Tranng matera
Industry nks
Free software
- FFT/CMMS/Inventory contro
Technca artces
www.mantenance-news.com
Industry nks
Technca artces
(.2,
8%8 Ana!isa Motor
8%8%( Pendahu!uan
Ketka berhadapan untuk menganass konds motor , nframerah ( IR ) dan getaran
tdak akan memberkan semua |awaban yang dbutuhkan untuk mencrkan konds
bermotor yang benar. Seama beberapa tahun terakhr , teknk anass konds motor
yang teah berevous dar pengu|an sederhana men|ad teknk pengu|an yang ebh
akurat menentukan konds motor .Kesaahan motor atau konds sepert betan
srkut pendek, kumparan terbuka, pengaturan tors yang tdak benar, serta banyak
masaah mekans terkat dapat ddagnoss dengan menggunakan teknk anass
bermotor. Penggunaan teknk-teknk pemeharaan predktf dan teknoog untuk
mengevauas betan soas dan konds motor yang beum tumbuh secepat teknk
predks annya. Peraatan untuk anass motor mash cukup maha dan anass
yang tepat membutuhkan tngkat tngg keterampan dan pengetahuan. Kema|uan
terkn daam peraatan yang mudah dbawa dan penngkatan |umah vendor yang
menyedakan ayanan pengu|an yang terus berkembang tetntang teknk predks
anass motor. Saat n, ebh dar 20 |ens tes motor yang ada, tergantung pada
bagamana tes ndvdua ddenskan dan dkeompokkan. Bagan d bawah n
memberkan gambaran tentang dua tes yang umum dgunakan.
8%8%) PenguBian Ana!isa Motor
8%8%)%( Per#andingan Ge!o#ang Listri@
Sean tahanan dndng soas tanah , saah satu perhatan utama terkat dengan
konds soas betan motor. Geombang perbandngan pengu|an dapat dgunakan
untuk mengdentkas putaran boak-bak dan fase ke fase untuk kerusakan
soas, serta pembakan atau srkut terbuka d sambungan dar satu atau ebh
kumparan atau keompok co . Kema|uan terbaru daam portabtas perangkat tes
sekarang memungknkan teknk tes n untuk dgunakan daam pemecahan
masaah dan pemeharaan predktf . Karena perbedaan ketebaan soas ,
kumparan soas motor cenderung ebh rentan terhadap kegagaan dar tekanan
yang meekat yang ada daam motor dar soas dndng motor. Geombang
perbandngan pengu|an mengdentkas kerusakan soas dengan menerapkan
frekuens tngg sementara geombang ke bagan yang sama dar berkeok-keok
dan membandngkan bentuk geombang tegangan yang dhaskan . Perbedaan
terhat pada bentuk geombang yang dhaskan soas ndkatf atau co kerusakan
. Seorang tekns u| terath dapat menggunakan perbedaan n untuk benar
mendagnosa |ens dan tngkat keparahan kesaahan . Sean pemanfaatan n
teknk anass bermotor daam program pemeharaan predktf , |uga dapat
dgunakan untuk mengdentkas praktek-praktek perbakan motork yang tdak
tepat atau tdak tepat konds operas ( kecepatan , suhu , beban ) . Surge
pengu|an perbandngan adaah teknk pemeharaan predktf cukup kompeks dan
maha . Sepert kebanyakan teknk pemeharaan predktf , peuang penghematan
terbesar tdak datang angsung dar mencegah bencana kegagaan komponen
(yatu , motor) meankan manfaat penghematan baya kurang nyata . Downtme
berkurang , kemampuan untuk men|adwakan pemeharaan, penngkatan
produks , penurunan embur , dan penurunan baya persedaan adaah hanya
beberapa keuntungan untuk dapat mempredks kegagaan motor yang akan
datang .
8%8%)%) Ana!isa Tanda.tanda arus otor
Aat an yang berguna untuk motor predks gudang pemeharaan bermotor anass tanda-
tanda saat n (MCSA). MCSA menyedakan metode yang tdak mengganggu untuk
mendeteks masaah mekank dan strk daam peraatan saat beroperas. Teknoog n
ddasarkan pada prnsp bahwa motor strk konvensona mengendara beban mekank
bertndak sebaga transduser. Motor (bertndak sebaga transduser) ndra varas beban
mekank dan mengubahnya men|ad varas arus strk yang dkrm sepan|ang kabe motor.
tanda tanda saat n mencermnkan konds mesn dan mrp tanda-tanda dproduks
menggunakan memantau getaran. Snya-snya saat n dcatat dan dproses oeh
perangkat unak untuk menghaskan representas vsua dar frekuens yang ada terhadap
amptudo arus. Anass varas n dapat memberkan ndkas konds mesn, yang mungkn
cenderung terus dar waktu ke waktu untuk memberkan perngatan dn dar mesn
kerusakan atau perubahan proses.
anass pada motor saat n adaah saah satu teknk predktf cukup kompeks dan maha.
Kerumtan sebagan besar bermua dar sfat yang reatf sub|ektf dar
mengnterpretaskan spektra, dan terbatasnya |umah spektrum hstors atau komparatf
ndustr uas yang terseda untuk apkas tertentu. |ens anass n basanya terbatas pada
apkas ms krts dan / atau orang-orang dengan mpkas kehdupan / kesehatan /
keseamatan.
8%8%* 4iste Ap!i@asi
penurunan pengemasan barang
pengaturan tombo tors yang Saah
Kerusakan batang atau kasus gg peumasan
gg memaka yang aus
wsata Dbatas katup tekanan
Hambatan d daerah katup perekat
Peepasan gg bermotor pnon
bantaan yang tdak benar atau pemasangan gg
keakuratan kese|a|aran poros atau kesembangan rotor
kerusakan Isoas
korset pada Turn-ke-turn
korset pada pasa-ke-pas
srkut pendek
Terbak atau guungan yang terbuka.

I
m
p
r
o
p
e
r

s
e
a
/
p
a
c
k
n
g

n
s
t
aa
8%8%3 Bia"a Pera!atan/ Penge#a!ian Moda!
Sepert yang dtun|ukkan sebeumnya, anass peraatan motor mash maha dan
umumnya memerukan tngkat tngg peathan dan pengaaman yang benar untuk
mengansa masaah peraatan. Sebuah fastas untuk memproses se|umah motor
besar pentng detakkan meau menemukan bahwa kepemkan teknoog n dan
person terath ebh dar membayar untuk drnya sendr daam mengurang waktu
strahat, baya embur, dan kebutuhan persedaan motor. Fastas yang ebh kec
mungkn menemukan penggunaan saah satu dar banyak penyeda ayanan
dkontrak berharga daam mendenskan dan men|aga kesehatan motor daam
fastas mereka. Sepert kebanyakan ayanan kontrak pemeharaan predktf, baya
akan berksar dar $ 600 sampa $ 1.200 per har untuk dukungan d tempat.
Menemukan masaah motor tungga yang gaga akan menghaskan fastas waktu
strahat yang cepat dapat merngankan baya ayanan n.
8%8%5 pe!atihan "ang urah
peathan untuk anass motor basanya sangat khusus dan basanya terseda
meau berbaga sstem produsen dan vendor.
8%8%8 Re$erensi / 4u#er Da"a
Referens dan sumber daya yang dsedakan d bawah n adaah tdak berart semua
nkusf. Organsas yang terdaftar tdak ddukung oeh penus buku n dan
dsedakan hanya untuk nformas anda. Untuk menemukan sumber daya tambahan,
penus buku n menyarankan menghubung keompok-keompok yang reevan
perdagangan, database, dan word wde web.
8%8%8%( E?uipent Resources
Emerson /rocessManagement
835 Innovaton Drve w
Knoxve, TN 37932 w
Teephone: (865) 675-2110 w
Fax: (865) 218-1401 w
-hauvin ArnouC, 9nc.
d.b.a. AEMC Instruments w
200 Foxborough Bouevard w
Foxborough, MA 02035 w
Teephone: (508) 698-2115
or (800) 343-1391 w
Fax: (508) 698-2118 w
Ema: saes@aemc.com w
9ndustrial !echnology =esearch
Bethehem, PA - Pttsburgh, PA -
Ceveand, OH - Detrot, MI - Chcago, IL
-
Chareston, SC - Hamton, ONT w
Teephone: (610) 867-0101 or (800) 360-3594
w
Fax: (610) 867-2341 w
8%8%8%* &nternet 4ite Resources
www.mt-onne.com
Technoogy overvew
Technoogy vendors
Industry artces
(.32
A@O 9nternational
4651 S. Westmoreand Road w
Daas, TX 75237-1017 w
Teephone: (800) 723-2861 w
Fax: (214) 333-3533 w
;a1er 9nstrument -ompany
4812 McMurry Avenue w
Fort Cons, CO 80525 w
Teephone: (970) 282-1200 or (800) 752-8272 w
Fax: (970) 282-1010 w
www.reabtyweb.com
Servce companes
Tranng servces
Software nks (ncudng Motor Master)
8%9 Tren Per$ora
8%9%( Pengantar
Sean pemeharaan preventf umum kta akukan, atau teah dakukan pada
Kendaraan kam, banyak dar kta masuk dan tren nformas parametrk pentng
terkat dengan kesehatan kendaraan kta dan menggunakan nformas n untuk
menentukan kebutuhan pemeharaan. Kam menghtung dan tren meage mob
kam per gaon gas. Kam meacak suhu mesn dan tekanan o. Kam meacak
penggunaan mnyak. Informas n kemudan dgunakan untuk menentukan kapan
pemeharaan kendaraan dperukan. Kegatan pemeharaan sepert tune-up,
penggantan termostat, ushes sstem pendngn, penggantan bet, o sea
penggant, d, semua dapat awanya drangsang oeh nformas kendaraan
parametrk kta trend.
Menggunakan pendekatan tren kner|a n |uga dapat men|ad aat yang berharga
daam men|aga kesehatan dan kner|a operasona dar komponen d fastas kam /
tanaman . Dengan ogn dan tren perbedaan tekanan yang mentas pasokan atau
debt sarngan daam sstem HVAC , kta dapat menentukan kapan penggantan
ter dperukan , darpada mengubah ter keuar pada nterva yang teah
dtentukan ( pemeharaan preventf ) . Loggng dan tren data suhu dapat
memantau kner|a banyak penukar panas . Informas n dapat dgunakan untuk
membantu daam pen|adwaan pembershan tabung . Ha n |uga dapat berfungs
sebaga ndkas bahwa katup kontro aran tdak beker|a dengan benar atau
tndakan pengendaan kma tdak memada . Mungkn penurunan kner|a penukar
panas , sepert yang terhat oeh perubahan suhu deta , adaah karena foung
boogs pada kam hsap pompa pendngn ngkaran . Penngkatan suhu boer
tumpukan mungkn merupakan ndkas tabung scang. Kta mungkn peru
meakukan pembershan tabung dan menyesuakan tndakan pengendaan kma
kam . Perubahan esens pembakaran mungkn menun|ukkan tdak benar operas
kontro oksgen trm, kontro aran bahan bakar , kotak udara kebocoran , atau
tabung scang.
Ide kunc dar kner|a tren adaah bahwa banyak dar peraatan yang dpasang d
fastas kam sudah dsedakan dengan nstrumentas yang dapat dgunakan untuk
membantu daam penentuan konds kesehatan / komponen terkat. Dmana
nstrumen tdak hadr, nstaas tekanan, suhu, atau saat penebang data
pengnderaan dapat reatf urus ke depan dan agak murah. Sebuah sumber yang
bak khususnya untuk ebh memaham meter portabe atau data ogger dan vendor
mereka adaah aporan ber|udu Portabe Data penebang Dagnostk Aat untuk
Operas Gedung Energ-Esen (PECI 1999).
8%9%) 6ara Me#entu@ Progra per$ora Trending
Saah satu angkah pertama dar setap program pemeharaan predktf adaah
untuk mengetahu apa peraatan yang ada d fastas Anda. Pertama, membuat
daftar peraatan utama, kemudan memprortaskan peraatan pada daftar untuk
menentukan mana potongan-potongan peraatan sangat pentng untuk operas
fastas Anda, pentng untuk keseamatan person, atau dapat memk dampak
anggaran yang sgnkan (bak meau kegagaan atau operas tdak esen).
Mengevauas data apa parametrk harus / dapat dengan mudah dkumpukan dar
yang terpasang atau portabe nstrumentas untuk memberkan nformas yang
berkatan dengan konds / kner|a peraatan pada daftar nduk berdasarkan
prortas peraatan Anda.
Tentukan apa, |ka ada, dar data yang ddenskan sudah dkumpukan.
Mengevauas apakah nformas parametrk terkat saat n sedang dacak dan |ka
nformas yang menyedakan nformas mengena konds atau esens komponen
atau sstem. Hentkan pengumpuan nformas tdak berguna daam evauas
komponen konds / esens kecua dwa|bkan oeh persyaratan admnstratf
annya.
Tentukan dan mengnsta nstrumentas saat n tdak terseda untuk memantau
komponen pentng yang konds / esens.
Informas og pada beberapa frekuens dtentukan oeh rekayasa tanaman atau staf
operasona. Sebaga contoh, frekuens mungkn setap 4 |am sementara operas
atau hanya dapat membaca satu seteah mencapa konds steady-state, tergantung
pada kebutuhan evauas data.
Menyedakan data yang dkumpukan untuk ndvdu dengan pengetahuan dan
atar beakang yang dperukan untuk benar tren dan mengevauasnya.
8%9%* 4iste ap!i@asi
Umumnya, setap komponen tanaman dengan dnsta, atau mudah dnsta,
nstrumentas berguna daam mengevauas konds komponen, operas, atau
esens dapat cenderung terus. Informas |uga dapat dperoeh dengan
menggunakan nstrumentas portabe, (msanya, termometer nframerah atau
berbaga berdr sendr perangkat data oggng). Beberapa apkas umum
mungkn:
Penukar panas
Sarngan
Pompa
Peraatan HVAC
Kompresor
Mesn dese / bensn
Boer.
8%9%3 Pera!atan Bia"a / penge#a!ian oda!
Baya untuk mendrkan program trendng efektf mnma dan dapat memberkan
saah satu keuntungan terbesar pada doar dkeuarkan. Kebanyakan tanaman
memk banyak nstrumentas yang dperukan untuk mendapatkan nformas
parametrk sudah terpasang. Instrumentas saat n menawarkan banyak kesempatan
baya-efektf untuk mengumpukan nformas tanpa harus mengeuarkan baya
men|aankan sauran dengan kekuatan snya dan kabe. Para pengumpu nformas
umumnya sudah daam daftar ga| dan daam banyak kasus, sudah mengumpukan
nformas yang dbutuhkan untuk cenderung terus. Untuk sebagan besar, membuat
program trendng akan membutuhkan sedkt ebh dar menggunakan nformas yang
teah dkumpukan dan saat n mengumpukan debu. Ketka sstem data-oggng
portabe dbe, pengembaan uang ekstra yang dhabskan dengan cepat puh daam
penngkatan esens mesn dan penurunan baya energ.
8%9%5 pe!atihan "ang urah
Peathan untuk kner|a trendng sangat spesk apkas. Sebagan besar trendng
dakukan meau sensor sstem yang teah ternsta, sstem otomas bangunan yang
ada dan / atau penggunaan portabe data ogger. Semua sstem n akan berfungs
secara berbeda dengan penddkan dan peathan basanya terseda meau vendor
peraatan atau dstrbutor.
(.3&
8%9%8 4tudi @asus
/eluang E4siensi Operasional Mengguna1an 2ata 2ata ?ogger untu1
@alidasi Operasi ;oiler #6EM/ %&&'(
!u7uan) 5una1an 2ata logger #D menit run"time, data time"series(
untu1 memvalidasi operasi boiler yang tepat.
Situasi) fasilitas federal dengan beban boiler pemanasan : proses.
0a1tu penggunaan a1hir run 2ata logger terpasang. 2ata yang
dilapor1an dari 1ondisi pembebanan punca1 musim.
!emuan) Menin7au data run"time D menit #data yang di1umpul1an
dengan medan magnet yang berdiri sendiri memung1in1an logger
ditempat1an di de1at boiler pemba1aran udara blower bermotor(
mengung1ap1an bersepeda berlebihan boilerE 5ambar F.'.G
menya7i1an data tersebut. Sebuah bar pada gambar mening1at dari &
1e G menun7u11an bersepeda boiler Hon,H bar 1embali dari G 1e &
menun7u11an bersepeda boiler Ho<.H Oleh 1arena itu, setiap batang
dalam gra41 merupa1an salah satu on : o< si1lus.
$asil) /engolahan data ini menun7u11an rata"rata F,D on : o< si1lus per
7am " 7auh melebihi yang dian7ur1an G"%, tergantung pada 1ondisi
beban. E1splorasi lebih lan7ut menemu1an boiler gross over"si3ing
1arena de1omisioning sebagian beban bangunan : proses. $asil
re1omendasi termasu1 instalasi yang lebih 1ecil, dengan u1uran, dan
boiler lebih e4sien untu1 membawa beban.
8%: Re$erensi
FEMP. 2007. Metering <est Practices >ide) A >ide to Achieving Ftility *esorce E%ciency7
DOE/EE-
0323. U.S. Department of Energy, Federa Energy Management Program, Washngton, D.C.
NASA. 2000. Reabty Centered Mantenance Gude for Factes and Coatera Equpment.
Natona Aeronautcs and Space Admnstraton, Washngton, D.C.
PECI. 1999. Porta,le 8ata "oggers 8iagnostic Tools for EnergyGE%cient <ilding &perations.
Prepared
for the U.S. EPA and U.S. DOE by Portand Energy Conservaton, Incorporated, Portand,
Oregon.
(.3'
BAB 7 commssonng Bangunan yang ada w
9%( Pendahu!uan
Commssonng dar bangunan yang ada dengan cepat men|ad saah satu topk
yang pang pentng d arena mana|emen gedung. D Sektor Federa,
commssonng teah damb pada pentngnya baru dengan dberakukannya EISA
2007, dmana fastas federa n harus dna untuk commssonng tndakan.
Secara umum, komsonng adaah proses untuk memastkan bahwa bangunan
meakukan sesua dengan maksud desan dan kebutuhan pemk dan penghunnya
(Anderson 1997). Sementara penetan tambahan dperukan untuk ebh
menentukan baya dan menghaskan manfaat komsonng bangunan baru dan
yang sudah ada, beberapa kasus teah menun|ukkan has O & M yang
berhubungan dengan penngkatan esens energ pada urutan 5% sampa 30%
meput berbaga bangunan menggunakan. Perode pengembaan moda yang
dhaskan basanya kurang dar 2 tahun dan serng kurang dar 0,5 tahun.
Ideanya, proses pembangunan commssonng dmua seama tahap perencanaan
desan gedung baru atau pemasangan peraatan baru. Faktanya adaah bahwa
sebagan besar bangunan tdak pernah dtugaskan. Bahkan saat n, dengan bukt
yang dhaskan manfaat yang dharapkan, sangat sedkt bangunan baru
men|aan proses commssonng engkap. Sebaknya, bangunan baru basanya
dserahkan kepada staf operasona gedung dengan masaah operas d tempat,
dokumentas engkap, dan peathan operator mnma untuk peraatan tertentu-
bangunan. In masaah yang sama ter|ad dengan nstaas peraatan utama.
Kemudan, seama fase bangunan dan peraatan operasona, esens keseuruhan
sstem mekank degradas sebaga sensor meayang, penyesuaan |angka pendek
yang dbuat, kebutuhan penyewa berubah, dan sebaganya. Bahkan seteah
penyesuaan dakukan, mungkn meau upaya recommssonng satu ka,
penurunan kner|a kontnu.
Commssonng dar bangunan yang ada (dan ebh khusus mekanka / eektrka
sstem energ memakan daam dr mereka dan sstem kontro yang memantau
mereka) sangat pentng untuk memastkan operas hemat energ. Manfaat
tambahan termasuk memperpan|ang umur peraatan, menngkatkan kepuasan
penyewa meau penngkatan kenyamanan ruang, menngkatkan kuatas udara
daam ruangan, dan panggan darurat sedkt O & M.
Tabe 7.1.1 d bawah (dadaptas dar FEMP 2006) memberkan pedoman commssonng |ens
dan kesesuaan mereka untuk stuas fastas yang berbeda
Tabe 7.1.1. Commssonng |ens pertmbangan konds fastas
*.1
Apa Ienis -ommissioning $arus Saya /ilihJ
angunan sa$a adala%& Perti'bang(an&
.Baru atau akan men|aan renovas besar.
-ommissioning - dea untuk konstruks baru atau
renovas besar, dan terbak daksanakan meau
semua tahapan proyek konstruks.pro|ect.
.Tua dan maha untuk beroperas dan
mengaam banyak kegagaan peraatan.
=etro"commissioning - dea untuk fastas yang
ebh tua yang beum pernah meau proses
commssonng.been through a commssonng process.
.Reatf baru dan dtugaskan seama
konstruks, tetap penggunaan energ
semakn menngkat.
=e"commissioning - dea untuk "tune-up" bangunan
yang teah dtugaskan, membawa mereka kemba ke
maksud desan as mereka dan esens operasona.
.Besar dan kompeks, memk sstem
meterng dan program pemeharaan
preventf, tetap mash memk
penggunaan energ yang tngg dan
-ontinuous -ommissioning - dea untuk fastas
dengan sstem otomatsas bangunan (BAS), sstem
meterng canggh, dan dkeoa dengan bak O & M
organsas.
Co))issioning 2isting Buildings
9%) De$enisi
Ada se|umah commssonng pendekatan yang dapat dterapkan untuk membangun
mekank / peraatan strk dan sstem.
>ew ;uilding -ommissioning: New budng commssonng (Cx) merupakan
sarana untuk men|amn meau revew desan, pengu|an fungsona,
dokumentas sstem, dan peathan operator yang sstem dan peraatan d
gedung-gedung baru yang beroperas dengan benar.
=ecommissioning: Recommssonng (RCX), yang kadang-kadang dsebut
sebaga "retrocommssonng," adaah praktek commssonng bangunan yang
ada - mengu| dan menyesuakan sstem bangunan untuk memenuh maksud
desan as dan / atau mengoptmakan sstem untuk memenuh kebutuhan
operasona saat n. RCX bergantung pada bangunan dan peraatan
dokumentas, bersama dengan u| fungsona untuk mengoptmakan kner|a.
-ontinuous -ommissioningK: Terus menerus komsonng mengacu pada
pendekatan commssonng yang terntegras ke daam standar O & M program
fastas. Dengan demkan , kegatan daam mendukung upaya
commssonng kontnu dseesakan secara teratur , dbandngkan dengan
pendekatan recommssonng yang cenderung perstwa yang berbeda . The
kontnyu commssonng ( CC ) pendekatan yang dkembangkan oeh
Laboratorum Imu Energ d Texas A & M Unversty adaah dformakan
pendekatan commssonng terus menerus dan ddenskan sebaga "
proses yang berkean|utan untuk menyeesakan masaah operas ,
menngkatkan kenyamanan , mengoptmakan penggunaan energ dan untuk
mengdentkas retrots untuk ada bangunan komersa dan keembagaan dan
fastas pabrk pusat " ( Texas A & M 2002) . Terus menerus komsonng
adaah yang pang maha ada pendekatan bangunan commssonng karena
aokas yang dperukan staf dan peraatan , namun baya yang ebh tngg
dapat beker|a untuk mengdentkas nesens peraatan yang ter|ad,
memungknkan untuk perbakan cepat, energ dan penghematan baya yang
ebh besar , dan ayanan yang ebh bak bangunan . Menurut dens , terus
menerus komsonng beker|a untuk memastkan operasona gedung ebh
stab dar waktu ke waktu darpada pendekatan recommssonng .
@alue =ecommissioning: Na recommssonng (vcx) adaah phan baya
terendah yang berfokus pada peuang yang pang umum, deanya
menggabungkan mereka ke daam prosedur operas sehar-har. VCX adaah
yang pang komprehensf dan membutuhkan sedktnya khusus keahan. VCX
berkonsentras pada peuang yang pang umum yang basanya membawa
perode pengembaan terpendek. Oeh karena tu, VCX pang bak dterapkan
d gedung-gedung d mana sumber daya untuk recommssonng terstruktur
atau program commssonng terus menerus tdak terseda. Sean
mewu|udkan penghematan energ yang sangat hemat baya, peacakan
manfaat (yatu, penghematan energ, penghematan baya, dan mengurang
keuhan penghun) kegatan VCX dapat membantu daam mengembangkan
pembenaran atas permntaan dana dar pendekatan commssonng ebh kuat.
*.2
*.3
=ing1asan -ommissioning /ende1atan
/ende1atan
commissionin
g
!u7uan Btama ;iaya relatif manfaat Apli1as
Gedung baru
atau peraatan
baru komsonng
Pastkan peraatan
baru terpasang
dengan benar dan
beroperas dengan
benar.
Baya bervaras
tergantung ukuran
bangunan dan
kompekstas sstem:
$ 0.50 sampa $ 3.00
per kak perseg
(Weker 2003).
Pemk tahu peraatan
beroperas dengan
benar dan sebagamana
dmaksud pada
penermaan. Has
dokumentas dan
peathan membantu
membangun
operasona gedung
yang benar dan
berguna untuk kegatan
recommssonng masa
Proses komsonng
harus dterapkan
untuk bangunan baru
dan peraatan pada
awa tahap
perencanaan proyek.
Recommssonng
(RCx)
Sesuakan peraatan
untuk memberkan
|asa daam
speskas peraatan
sementara |uga
memenuh
persyaratan operas
ms / penyewa saat
n.
$ 0.05 sampa $ 0,40
per kak perseg. Data
tambahan dperukan
untuk membantu
baya pnpont
berdasarkan tur
bangunan tertentu
dan ruang ngkup
usaha RCX.
Memverkas dan
mengembakan
peraatan operas sesua
dengan sesua asnya
dengan maksud desan
as dan / atau untuk
memenuh persyaratan
operas saat n
Se|ak RCX adaah
ttk daam acara
waktu, apkas
terbak adaah untuk
bangunan / sstem
yang beum ter|aga
dengan bak
(recommssoned)
untuk beberapa
perode waktu,
terutama sstem-
sstem yang beum
dsesuakan untuk
mengakomodas
perubahan
Commssonng
Berkean|utan
Mengntegraskan
pendekatan
komprehensf daam
commssonng untuk
perg fastas O & M
Program.
Phan baya tertngg
untuk bangunan dan
sstem yang ada.
Mengdentkas dan
aamat masaah yang
ter|ad. Penghematan
energ bertahan. Harus
menghaskan
penghematan energ
terbesar.
Contnuous
Commssonng
adaah pendekatan
dsuka ketka
sumber daya (staf
dan peraatan) yang
terseda.
Na
Recommssonng
(VCx)
Fokus pada yang
pang serng
terseda
recommssonng /
peuang
commssonng retro
dengan
pengembaan
tertngg sebaga
bagan dar haran O
Phan baya terendah
untuk bangunan dan
sstem yang ada.
Dapat dseesakan oeh
staf d rumah. Mnma
depan atau akan
nvestas yang
dbutuhkan.
VCX dapat
dterapkan daam
membangun hampr
semua. Dapat
dgunakan untuk
menun|ukkan
manfaat yang ebh
besar, ebh agresf
ada program
pembangunan
9%* Teuan @has dari "ang ada Bui!ding 6oissioning
Banyak stud kasus dar upaya membangun commssonng yang ada teah dterbtkan
seama bertahun-tahun. Sebuah tn|auan stud kasus untuk beberapa bangunan
dterbtkan oeh Portand Konservas Energ, Inc (PECI), Texas A & M Unversty, proses
dar Gedung Nasona Commssonng Konferens, dan FEMP Ka|an Load dan Teknk
Energ Pengurangan (ALERT) berguna daam mengdentkas angkah yang pang
basanya terseda daam ruang bangunan komersa. Yang pang serng dkutp tndakan
/ peuang adaah:
Atur uang dan suhu set-kemba dan pengaturan suhu - Pengaturan serng
dsesuakan dar waktu ke waktu berdasarkan preferens prbad, untuk mengmbang
sstem operas yang tdak memada, atau untuk mencapa penghematan energ. Sean
tu, sensor memerukan kabras uang secara berkaa.
Stadum / sequencng boer, pendngn, dan unt penanganan udara - Peraatan harus
doperaskan daam kombnas yang pang esen pendngn, boer, dan kpas pada
konds beban yang bervaras.
Atur dan peredam perbakan dan economzers - Gangguan fungs peredam atau buruk
dsete (termasuk sege, aktuator, dan hubungan) dan economzers menghaskan (1)
penngkatan pasokan energ kpas udara daam poss tertutup atau memerukan
pemanasan udara tambahan dan pendngnan ketka terbuka terau banyak, (2) konds
operas bangunan yang tdak dngnkan karena kurangnya udara uar, dan (3)
degradas peraatan prematur dan penggantan.
Memodkas strateg pengendaan seama ber|am-|am standar operas - Motors,
pompa, kpas angn, dan penangan udara serng beroperas pada |adwa 24/7 meskpun
tdak dperukan bak oeh penyewa bangunan atau rencana operasona gedung.
Menghangkan pemanasan smutan dan pendngnan - Pemanasan dan pendngnan
sstem untuk ruang yang sama dapat bersang satu sama an karena setponts yang
tdak benar.
Ar dan dstrbus ar baancng dan penyesuaan - Sstem membutuhkan rebaancng
karena hanyut dan mengubah ms bangunan / ruang ker|a dan / atau persyaratan
penyewa.
Pastkan kontro dan mengendakan sequencng termasuk memungknkan dan re-
memungknkan kontro otomats untuk setponts, akhr pekan, dan har bur. Pastkan
menmpa depaskan.
9%3 Bia"a dan Man$aat
Meskpun ada banyak stud kasus yang terseda d berbaga pendekatan pembangunan
commssonng, stud kasus n tdak hadr dan baya tabungan dukur dengan cara yang
seragam. Sean tu, ada sangat sedkt penaan dar upaya membangun
commssonng ada yang bers "besar" sampe bangunan dar mana baya umum dan
manfaat kesmpuan yang bsa dtark. Ha n mencegah kta dar mampu untuk
menentukan baya untuk berbaga pendekatan commssonng, terutama pada tahun
2004 doar. Kam, bagamanapun, mampu menark dar stud kasus tren daam baya
dan, daam kasus commssonng bangunan yang ada, energ dreasaskan dan / atau
penghematan baya.
9%3%( Bia"a dan Man$aat Gedung Baru 6oissioning
(Weker 2003)
Sementara O & M basanya danggap sebaga yang terbatas pada bangunan yang ada, pentng
untuk membangun perencana, desaner, dan O & M mana|er untuk mempertmbangkan O & M d
seuruh proses gedung baru. Saah satu tndakan yang pentng adaah memastkan sumber daya
yang memada yang berbars untuk bangunan seteah operas
*.&
s operatng. Another hghy mportant acton s commssonng the new budng. New budng
commssonng begns durng the pannng process and runs through na acceptance. The
prmary
goas of new budng commssonng ehorts are to
ensure desgn ntent crtera and the owners requrements are documented and met
ensure systems and equpment are fuy functona and operate n an ntegrated manner
provde documentaton on systems and equpment that w be
verfy O&M stah tranng needs are met.
The cost of new budng commssonng
vares based on severa factors ncudng the
budngs use, whch determnes compexty
of mechanca systems and sze. Typca new
budng commssonng provders fees range
from $0.50 per square foot (/ft2) for "smpe"
budngs (such as some spaces and
cassrooms)
to $3.00/ft2 for compex budngs such as
hosptas and aboratores. Economes-of-scae
do appy. These cost ranges are summarzed n
Fgure 7.4.1.
Fgure 7.4.1. Constructon Phase CX costs
9%3%) ECisting Bui!ding 6oissioning 6osts and Bene$its
Of the numerous pubcatons reportng or assessng exstng budng commssonng ehorts,
three
contan sgncant budng sampes (see "Summary of Recommssonng Case Study
Pubcatons").
These pubcatons, a of whch rey on recommssonng ehorts from the 1990s, show a range
of
resutng costs and savngs. The reported average cost to recommsson s usuay n the range
of
$0.05/ft2 to $0.40/ft2. The smpe payback perod on these ehorts s usuay ess than 2 years
and qute
frequenty ess than 0.5 year. Addtona reported benets ncude reports of mproved omce
comfort,
reduced occupant compants, mproved ndoor ar quaty, extended equpment fe,
reductons n
equpment faure, and mproved budng documentaton.
The Cost Ehectveness of Commerca Budng Commssonng: A Meta-Anayss of
Energy and Non-Energy Impacts n Exstng Budngs and New Constructon n the
Unted States
A comprehensve study competed n ate 2004 (LBNL 2004) was desgned as a "meta-anayss" to
compe and synthesze extensve pubshed and unpubshed data from budngs commssonng pro|ects
undertaken across the Unted States over the past two decades, estabshng the argest avaabe coecton
of standardzed nformaton on commssonng experence. Data were anayzed from 224 budngs across
21 states, representng 30.4 mon square feet of commssoned oor area (73 percent n exstng budngs
and 27 percent n new constructon). The goa of ths program was to deveop a detaed and unform
methodoogy for characterzng, anayzng, and syntheszng the resuts. For exstng budngs, the anayss
found medan commssonng costs of $0.27/ft2, whoe-budng energy savngs of 15 percent, and payback
tmes of 0.7 years. For new constructon, medan commssonng costs were $1.00/ft2 (0.6 percent of tota
constructon costs), yedng a medan payback tme of 4.8 years (excudng quanted non-energy mpacts).
wth an average smpe payback perod of 0.7 year. Average savngs vared sgncanty for the budng use
types - $1.26/ft2/yr for medca research budngs down to $0.17 ft2/yr for schoo budngs.
*.'
9%5 Trac@ing 6oissioning Bene$its
As wth any nvestment, t s mportant to deveop metrcs for trackng and persstence. In the
case of budng commssonng, these metrcs need to be mpemented and tracked on a reguar
bass
for assurance of performance savngs. Beow s a compaton of commssonng metrcs (LBNL
2004)
usefu for persstence trackng.
;uilding -haracteristics and 2emographics
Budng type (usng DOE/CBECS dentons), vntage, ocaton
Year budng commssoned
Reasons for commssonng, decences dented, measures recommended
Energy utili3ation intensity #use or savings(
wElectricity) kWh/budng-year,12 kWh/ft2-year
wPea- electrical po9er) kW/budng; W/ft2
wFel) MMBtu/budng; kBtu/ft2-year
wPrchased thermal energy) MMBtu/budng-year; kBtu/ft2-year
wTotal energy) MMBtu/budng-year; kBtu/ft2-year13
wEnergy cost) $/budng-year; $/ft2-year (based on oca or standardzed energy prces;
nomna |not corrected for naton| and naton-corrected to a unform years currency)
Percent energy use savngs (tota and by fue)
Percent tota energy cost savngs
wPersistence inde?) Post-commssonng energy use n a gven year/pre-commssonng
energy use (unt-ess rato) w
-ommissioning cost
$/budng; $/ ft2 (based on nomna costs or, preferaby, naton-corrected to a unform
years currency eves. Can be gross vaue or net, ad|ustng for the quanted vaue of
non-energy mpacts)
Commssonng cost rato, for new constructon (commssonng cost/tota budng
or renovaton constructon cost, %)
Costs are tabuated separatey for the commssonng agent and other partes
Aocaton of costs by source of funds (budng owner, utty, research grant, other)
Tota budng constructon cost (denomnator for commssonng cost rato)
*.(
-ost e<ectiveness
Undscounted payback tme (commssonng cost/annuazed energy b savngs). Ths
ndcator
s preferaby normazed to standard energy prces; costs and benets are naton
corrected to a
unform years currency eves
2e4ciencies and measures
Decences/budng; Decences/100 kft2
Measures/budng; Measures/100 kft2
Unque codes to dentfy combnatons of decences and measures
(descrbed n more depth beow) |see Measures Matrx| w
-ommissioning scope
Presence of pre-dened "steps" (yes/no), wth dherent crtera for exstng
budngs and new constructon w
>on"energy impacts
Type
Ouanted (when possbe), $/budng-year; $/ft2-year
|can be postve or negatve| - one tme or recurrng w
9%8 The 6oissioning Process
A four-step process for exstng budng commssonng s often recommended (Haas and
Sharp
1999).
Step G) /lanning. The pannng step ncudes deveopng and agreeng upon the overa
com-
mssonng ob|ectves and strateges, assembng the pro|ect team, and compng and
perusng bud-
ng and equpment documentaton. Exampes of ob|ectves coud be a desre to optmze
budng
operatons to reduce operatng costs, address compants from occupants regardng ar quaty
or com-
forts, create a mode facty, and mprove facty O&M ncudng reducng emergency troube
cas.
Regardng the commssonng team formaton, consderatons n formng the team coud
ncude
contracted or n-house stah, eve of ehort requred, desred and necessary quacatons,
avaabty
and use of resdent knowedge, and avaabe fundng resources.
Step %) 9nvestigation. Durng ths step the ste assessment s competed, montorng and
func-
tona test pans are deveoped and executed, test resuts are anayzed, a master st of
decences s
comped, and recommendatons for mprovements, ncudng estmates of energy and cost
savngs,
are generated and presented for consderaton.
Step L) 9mplementation. Accepted recommendatons from the nvestgaton step are put
nto
pace n the mpementaton step. Actons ncude makng repars and mprovements, retestng
and
re-montorng for resuts, ne-tunng mprovements as needed, and revsng estmates energy
and
cost savngs.
*.*
Step +) $and"o< and 9ntegration. Fna documentaton of the commssonng ehort
descrb-
ng the process, ndvduas, systems nformaton, and actons taken s deveoped n ths step.
Aso
deveoped s a pan for future commssonng ehorts. Items addressed by the commssonng pan
shoud ncude recommended procedures for specc budng equpment, frequency of testng,
anayss of resuts, perodc reportng, dentcaton of key payers, and budget requrements.
9%9 6oissioning Provider 7ua!i$ications
The queston of who shoud compete the recommssonng ehort can be addressed once the
recommssonng ob|ectves and budget have been estabshed. Some factes have the n-house
capabty to successfuy recommsson ther own equpment, but most do not. Here are some
quacatons to consder when seectng a commssonng provder:
Experence n recommssonng smar types of budngs by use and/or by desgn
Experence n recommssonng smar types of budng systems
Experence n provdng O&M tranng
Specazed sks to consder ncude
- Ar/water testng and baancng
- Desgn, nstaaton, and/or troubeshootng of DDCs, pneumatc, and EMCSs
- Demonstrated sks n workng wth meterng and testng equpment/nstrumentaton.
Reevant professona censes and certcatons (e.g., professona engneer)
9%: The Future o$ Bui!ding 6oissioning
The budng commssonng ed has grown markedy n the ast ve years. The data to date
have shown tremendous benets across the board when commssonng has been performed.
Whe
much more data are needed n order to fuy verfy and promote the energy and cost benets,
commssonng ntutvey makes great busness sense. As the awareness to the energy, cost and
operatona benets s rased, we shoud expect to see the way commssonng s competed to
become
more ehectve and reabe and workng toward becomng a reguar part of the budng
operatons
process. Expect some of the foowng to hep move the commssonng process forward.
Chronced experences w ead to better estmates of costs and potenta savngs.
Statements of work w become more standardzed.
New functona testng protocos w be deveoped and made wdey avaabe.
New automated dagnostc technooges w become crtca components n estabshng
contnuous commssonng programs.
Certed commssonng provders.
*.+
9%; 6ase 4tudies
9%;%( 4"ste 4hutdo-n During Anoccupied Periods
(Texas A&M 2002)
The Fgure 7.9.1 presents the measured budng eectrcty consumpton, excudng cher
consumpton, before and after mpementaton of ar-handng unts (AHUs) and omce
equpment
turn-oh on nghts and weekends n the Stephen F. Austn Budng n Austn, Texas.
The Stephen F. Austn Budng has 470,000 square feet of oor area wth 22 dua duct
AHUs.
Durng the rst phase of mpementaton, 16 AHUs were turned oh from mdnght to 4 a.m.
weekdays and weekends. Durng the second phase, 22 AHUs were turned oh from 11:00 p.m.
to
5 a.m. durng weekdays and weekends. Durng the second phase, a occupants were asked to
turn
oh omce equpment when they eave ther omce. The measured resuts show that the
nghttme
whoe budng eectrcty use decreased from 1,250 kW to 900 kW durng the rst phase.
Durng
the second phase, the nghttme mnmum eectrcty decreased to 800 kW. It was observed
that the
day peak eectrcty consumpton after nght shutdowns began s sgncanty ower than the
base
peak. For exampe, the owest peak durng the second phase s 1,833 kW, whch s 8% ower
than the
base peak. The ower eectrcty peak ndcates that some omce equpment remaned oh
durng the
daytme or empoyees were more conscentous n turnng oh ghts and equpment when they
eft the
omce. The annua energy cost savng, ncudng eectrcty, heatng and coong, was
determned to
be $100,000/yr usng measured houry data.
Fgure 7.9.1. Whoe-budng eectrcty use before and after nght shutdown program.
Data gaps were perods when data were not avaabe. Average nghtme savngs s
350 kW (1,250 kW - 900 kW).
*.,
9%;%) &n.>ouse Recoissioning at a DOE Nationa! La#orator"
The Wam R. Wey Envronmenta Moecuar Scences Laboratory (EMSL) at the Pacc
Northwest Natona Laboratory (PNNL) n Rchand, Washngton, s a 200,000-square-foot natona
scentc user facty. In sca year (FY) 2000, the energy management team at PNNL recognzed
an
opportunty to mprove the performance of the aboratory and reduce energy use and costs
through
recommssonng. Resuts: In FY 2002, the estmated resutng annua energy savngs of 27% and
annua energy cost savngs (avodance) of 35%, or $173,735, versus expected consumpton and
cost.
Wth a tota nvestment of approxmatey $125,000, ths retrocommssonng ehort had a smpe
payback of we ess than 1 year.
The energy performance for PNNLs EMSL budng s shown n Fgure 7.9.2.
The PNNL team foowed the basc four-step commssonng approach. Durng the pannng
step, the team of n-house stah wth experence n equpment operaton, energy management,
and
engneerng was assembed and overa ob|ectves and strateges were agreed upon.
In the nvestgaton step, a st of potenta energy emcency measures (EEMs) for the budng
was deveoped, the budng systems were evauated, cost estmates for correctve actons were
generated, and opportuntes prortzed. In deveopng the st of potenta EEMs, the DOE
Industra
Assessment Center (www.ac.rutgers.edu/database) served as a startng pont.
Durng the mpementaton step, the mpementaton budget was nazed and occupant
approvas obtaned before changes were put nto ehect. EEMs deemed easy to compete,
measure, and
most key to succeed were the rst to be addressed. Resuts of these nta actons were then
used to
bud-up credbty for the recommssonng approach and gan support to accompsh the fu
range
of EEMs. Competed EEMs were montored for resuts wth read|ustments made as necessary.
For the hand-oh and ntegraton step, PNNL has contnued the recommssonng ehort wth
actvtes such as montorng budng energy data, perodc revew of operatona changes,
occupant
and operator feedback, and monthy update reports. On-gong montorng of budng
performance
heps to ensure that retrocommssoned budng systems contnue to operate n ther optmzed
state
and energy savngs contnue to be reazed.
Fgure 7.9.2. PNNL EMSL budng energy performance by sca year (FY)
*.10
Roughy 200 ow- and no-cost EEMs were put nto pace at EMSL. Exampes of competed
EEMs
ncude
HVAC systems tunng ncudng modfyng ched water temperature setponts, ensurng
correct
operaton of heatng and coong vaves, optmzng cher operatons, checkng and
correctng
suppy fan return dampers, optmzng seected fan heatng/coong strateges, reducng
dead band
mts on dgta contros, and resettng budng ar ows as approprate.
Ad|ustng temperatures by modfyng heat recovery system operatona temperatures,
modfyng
suppy fan ar dscharge temperatures, resettng zona thermostats to better match the
condtons
of the space (occuped or unoccuped), and appyng addtona nght setbacks.
Addng hoday schedues to budng contros.
Desgnatng stah members to revew operatona strateges for facty systems for
operatona
emcency mprovement opportuntes. w
Whe the energy and cost savngs of the EMSL recommssonng ehort are on the hgh-end,
reported benets of retrocommssonng ehorts at other budngs are aso mpressve.
Commssonng
of exstng budngs s an opton that needs to be consdered for ncuson n any O&M
program.
Summary of Recommssonng Case Study Pubcatons
"What Can Commssonng Do for Your Budng" (PECI 1997) comped a database of
175 budngs commssoned between 1993 and 1997. Commssoned budngs were
ocated n the Unted States and Canada, ranged n sze from 12,500 to 2.2 mon square
feet, ranged n age from 1 (new) to 74 years wth a medan age of 6 years, and covered
a range of end uses ncudng omce budngs, reta factes, hosptas, schoos, and
aboratores. Data n the case study are comped by budng use and provde the foowng
genera ndngs: costs to commsson ranged from $0.02 to $2.88 per square foot wth
a medan cost per square foot rangng from $0.09 to $0.31 per square foot. Reported
benets ncude energy use and energy cost savngs, extended equpment fe, mproved
documentaton, reduced equpment faure, ncreased stah tranng, mproved temperature
contro, mproved reatve humdty contro, reduced occupant compants, ar baancng, and
mproved ndoor ar quaty (.e., contamnant contro, mproved ventaton, and reduced
carbon doxde).
"Commssonng Exstng Budngs" (Gregerson 1997) ooks at the recommssonng
of 44 exstng budngs. Commssonng ehorts occurred prmary between 1993 and
1996 ran from $0.05 to $0.40 per square foot wth energy savngs usuay rangng from
5% to 15% and paybacks of ess than 2 years. Ths anayss aso reports that sgncant
opportuntes are often found n budngs wth arge deferred mantenance, energy ntensve
budngs, and medca and research factes.
The "FEMP Contnuous Commssonng Gudebook for Federa Energy Managers" (Texas
A&M 2002) provdes a summary of resuts at 28 budngs contnuousy commssoned as
part of the Texas LoanSTAR program. Budng uses ncuded hosptas, omces, and dua-use
budngs wth aboratores and omces or cassrooms and omces. Measured annua energy
savngs averaged $0.64 per square foot per year (/ft2/yr) wth an average smpe payback
perod of 0.7 year. Average savngs vared sgncanty for the budng use types - $1.26/
ft2/yr for medca research budngs down to $0.17 ft2/yr for schoo budngs.
*.11
9%(= Additiona! Resources
In addton to the references sted at the end of ths chapter, there are many sources of
nformaton on exstng and new budng commssonng va the Internet.
The Portand Energy Conservaton, Inc. webste (http://www.pec.org) shoud be your rst stop
when searchng for addtona nformaton on exstng and new budng commssonng. Ths
webste
ohers a wde varety of materas ncudng gudance on the commssonng process, case studes,
functona testng gudes, nks to other webstes supportng commssonng actvtes, and more.
Other potenta sources ncude your state energy omce (some oher addtona gudance, case
studes, and possby even fundng/grants) and your servcng uttes as recommssonng s an
exceent way to hep meet demand sde management ntatve goas.
9%(( Re$erences
FEMP. 2006. #ommissioning for Federal Facilities, A Practical gide to <ilding #ommissioning,
*eGcommissioning, *etroGcommissioning, and #ontinos #ommissioning. Deveoped by
U.S. Department of Energy and Envro-Management and Research, Washngton, D.C.
Gregerson, |. 1997. #ommissioning E?isting <ildings7 TU-97-3, E Source, Bouder, Coorado.
Haas, T. and T. Sharp. 1999. A Practical >ide for #ommissioning E?isting <ildings7 ORNL/TM-
1999/34, Oak Rdge Natona Laboratory, Oak Rdge, Tennessee.
Lawrence Berkeey Natona Laboratory (LBNL). 2004. The #ostGEHectivenesss of #ommercialG
<ilding
#ommissioning) A MetaGAnalysis of Energy and BonGEnergy Impacts in E?isting <ildings and
Be9
#onstrction in the Fnited States. LBNL-56637. Can be accessed at http://eetd.b.gov/ems/PUBS/PDF/
Cx-Costs-Benets.pdf .
PECI. 1997. $hat #an #ommissioning 8o For 3or <ilding6 Portand Energy Conservaton, Inc.,
Federa Energy Management Program, U.S. Department of Energy, Washngton, D.C.
Texas A&M. 2002. #ontinos #ommissioning >ide,oo- for Federal Energy Managers7 Federa
Energy Management Program, U.S. Department of Energy, Washngton, D.C. Avaabe URL:
https://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/operatons_mantenance/om_ccgude.htm .
Weker, P. 2003. <ilding #ommissioning. Energy 2003. Avaabe URL:
http://www.energy2003.ee.doe.gov/presentatons/om/4-weker.pdf .
*.12
Chapter 8 Meterng for Operatons and Mantenance
:%( &ntroduction
Meterng and sub-meterng of energy and resource use s a crtca component of a
comprehensve O&M program. Meterng for O&M and energy/resource emcency refers to the
measurement of quanttes of energy devered, for exampe, kowatt-hours of eectrcty,
cubc feet
of natura gas, pounds of steam, and gaons of water. Meterng may aso nvove dentfyng
tmes-
of-use for the varous energy sources, the nstantaneous demand for energy, as we as dentfy
energy
use for a coecton of budngs, ndvdua budngs, rooms, or specc equpment (e.g., a
boer,
cher, or motor).
Facty resource meterng has a varety
of appcatons for the Federa facty energy
manager. The necessty to contro costs, dagnose
By October 1, 2012, n accordance wth
gudenes estabshed by the Secretary under
paragraph (2) a Federa budngs sha, for the
mportant reasons for energy and water meterng. purposes of emcent use of energy and reducton
Furthermore, wth the escaatng voatty of n the cost of eectrcty used n such budngs,
be metered. Each agency sha use, to the
maxmum extent practcabe, advanced meters
or advanced meterng devces that provde data
at east day and that measure at east houry
consumpton of eectrcty n the Federa budngs
prvate sector n meterng appcatons. To ths day of the agency. Such data sha be ncorporated
at Federa stes, t s common to nd one "master" nto exstng Federa energy trackng systems
and
made avaabe to Federa facty managers.
to we n excess of 500 budngs. These master-
metered accounts make t very dmcut to manage
energy use and are the prmary drver for the egsaton beow. w
Energy /olicy Act %&&D #E/Act %&&D() Secton 103 of
EPAct 2005 requres that "a Federa budngs sha, for the
purposes of emcent use of energy and reducton n the cost of
eectrcty used n such budngs, be metered . to the maxmum
extent practcabe." Ths requrement of aw s the drvng force
behnd the ongong ehorts of Federa agences to meter ther
eectrc use. The prmary meterng requrements estabshed
n Secton 103 of EPAct 2005, Energy Use Management and
Accountabty,1 are summarzed by these key ponts:
A wBy October 1, 2012, a Federa budngs w be metered
for
eectrcty f practcabe.
Fgure 8.1.1. Typca utty socket-
type meter
A wInstaed meters w support the emcent use of energy and reducton n cost of eectrcty
used.
A wAdvanced meterng devces that provde nterva data on at east a day bass w be used
sub|ect to practcabty. w
The meterng requrements of EPAct 2005 amended Secton 543 of the Natona Energy Conservaton Pocy Act (42 U.S.C. 8253).
+.1
Energy Pocy Act of 2005, Pubc
Law 109-58, Secton 103
equpment mafuncton, aocate usage and set
resource emcency goas are a ncreasngy
energy and water rates, these needs are becomng
more mportant.
Hstorcay, the Federa sector has agged the
meter servng oads representng a few budngs
Metering 1or O-erations and Maintenance
A wMetered data w be used made avaabe to Federa facty managers.
A wRequres Federa agences to submt to the Department of Energy (DOE) an mpementaton
pan
dentfyng personne responsbe for achevng meterng requrements, and any determnaton
by the agency that advanced meters or meterng systems are not practcabe n ther specc
stuaton.
Energy 9ndependence and Security Act of %&&' #E9SA %&&'() Among other
requrements
EISA 2007 further strengthens the meterng requrements of EPAct 2005 wth the foowng
anguage:
A wNot ater than October 1, 2016, each agency sha provde for equvaent meterng of natura
gas
and steam, n accordance wth gudenes estabshed by the Secretary under paragraph (2).
In addton to energy, gas, and steam meterng of water s encouraged to obtan data to
support
the water ntensty reducton goas outned n EISA 2007.
:%) &portance o$ Metering and the Business 6ase
Meterng provdes the nformaton that 9hen analyCed aows the budng operatons stah to
make
nformed decsons on how to best operate mechanca/eectrca systems and equpment. These
decsons w utmatey ahect energy costs, equpment costs, and overa budng performance.
Outsde of snge-budng stes, there s mted budng or equpment sub-meterng wthn the
Federa sector. Snge budng stes are metered for tota use by ther servcng utty provders,
whe
mut-budng stes usuay rey on a master meter provded by the uttes at the uttes ponts
of
entry to the ste. Stes are bed by ther utty provders based on the cumuatve usage
readngs
obtaned from these utty, or revenue, meters over the bng perod, usuay about one month.
But
now consder the appcaton of meters to ndvdua budngs and even energy-ntensve
equpment
that provdes facty managers and operators rea-tme nformaton on how much energy has
been or
s beng used. Ths type of nformaton can be used to assst n optmzng budng and
equpment
operatons, n utty procurements, n budng energy budget pannng and trackng, and so on.
It s mportant to keep n mnd that meters are not an energy emcency/energy conservaton
technoogy per se; nstead, meters and ther supportng systems are devces that provde
budng
owners and operators data that can be used to:
Reduce energy/utty use
Reduce energy/utty costs
Improve overa budng operatons
Improve equpment operatons.
How the metered data are used s crtca to a successfu meterng program. Dependng on
the
type of data coected, t can enabe the foowng practces and functons:
Vercaton of utty bs
Comparson of utty rates
Proper aocaton of costs or bng of rembursabe tenants
+.2
Demand response or oad sheddng when purchasng eectrcty under tme-based rates
Measurement and vercaton of energy pro|ect performance
Benchmarkng budng energy use
Identfyng operatona emcency mprovement opportuntes and retrot pro|ect
opportuntes
Usage reportng and trackng n support of estabshng and montorng utty budgets and
costs,
and n deveopng annua agency energy reports.
Utmatey, the busness case for meterng energy/utty use s based on the antcpated
benets to
the ste. Most of the metered data uses sted above w resut n energy cost savngs that can
be used
to |ustfy the cost to purchase, nsta, and operate the meterng system. The degree of cost
savngs
reazed depends on the unt cost of the energy/utty beng saved and on the ehectveness wth
whch
the ste anayzes the data and acts upon ts ndngs/recommendatons. But other potenta
benets
shoud aso be consdered as part of the meterng busness case. Exampes can ncude
Supportng ehorts to attan Energy Star and/or LEED-EB (Leadershp n Energy and
Envronmenta Desgn - Exstng Budngs) certcatons
Promotng tenant satsfacton by provdng nformaton that tenants nd usefu n managng
ther
operatons
Proongng equpment fe (and reducng capta nvestment requrements) and mprovng ts
reabty by verfyng the emcent operaton of equpment
Assessng the mpact of utty prce uctuatons pror to or as they happen, aowng
stes/agences
to address budget shortfas on a proactve bass.
:%* Metering App!ications
The uses for metered data vary from ste-to-ste and whe not a stes have the same uses,
some of
the more common appcatons are presented beow (Sydowsk 1993).
) 2ata =ecording. Advanced meters can dupcate the conventona meterng functon of
recordng tota consumpton, pus oher enhanced functons such as tme-of-use, peak
demand,
oad survey, and power outage recordng. For eectrc meterng, advanced meters may aso
ncude
recordng of other eectrc characterstcs, such as votage, current, and power factor.
A !otal -onsumption. Ths s the most basc data recordng functon, whch dupcates the
standard kowatt-hour of eectrcty (kWh), hundred cubc feet voume (CCF) of gas, pounds
(b)
of steam, or gaons (ga) of water consumed between meter readngs.
A !ime"of"Bse Metering. Dherent rates can be charged for on-peak and oh-peak tme
perods by
accumuatng the tota consumpton durng operator-dened tme wndows. The tme
wndows
may vary durng both tme of day and weekday/weekend/hoday.
A /ea1 2emand Metering. Bng of many arger commerca and ndustra customers s
based
on tota consumpton and the hghest 15-, 30-, or 60-mnute demand durng the bng
perod.
The peak demand may be reported as a snge hghest vaue, hghest four vaues, or
hghest vaue
durng each hour (a peak demand vaues must be accompaned by an assocated tme
stamp).
+.3
A ?oad Survey #/ro4le or !ime"Series 2ata(. Energy consumpton and conservaton mpact
studes, as we as more compex anayss of system oadng, requre more detaed demand
data. A
oad survey provdes perodc consumpton or demand data (n tme ncrements of 1, 5, 15,
30, or
60 mnutes).
A Monitoring and -ontrol. A two-way communcaton nk between a centra staton and
customer ste provdes the opportunty for ntegratng some other utty functons nto the
meterng functons. Meters can be programmed to detect and report by excepton (e.g.,
report
ony when a faut s detected) for power outage, eak detecton, and tamper detecton. The
meter
can aso dspatch contro functons, such as remote servce dsconnect/reconnect, demand-
sde
management (DSM) oad contro, and oad schedung.
A ?oad -ontrol. Load contro ncudes DSM contro functons such as ar condtoner and water
heater oad-sheddng. The DSM oad contro coud be trggered by a xed agorthm operatng
ndependenty or rea-tme centra staton contro.
A ?oad Scheduling. Ths ncudes schedued start and stop of equpment to mnmze or shft
oad
to take maxmum advantage of the demand and tme-of-use bng rate structures.
A ?ea1 2etection. Contnuous montorng of gas or water usage or pressure can be used to
detect eaks. w
:%3 Metering Approaches
The four predomnant eves of resource meterng (EPRI 1996) are:
One-tme/spot measurement
Run-tme measurement
Short-term montorng
Long-term montorng
Each eve has ts own unque characterstcs - no one montorng approach s usefu for
a pro|ects. Ony ong-term montorng meets requrements set forth n EPAct 2005. A short
descrpton of each montorng eve s provded beow.
:%3%( One.Tie/4pot Measureents
One-tme measurements are usefu n many
"basene" actvtes to understand
nstantaneous
energy use, equpment performance, or oadng. These
measurements become partcuary usefu n trendng
equpment performance over tme. For exampe, a spot
measurement of a boer-stack exhaust
temperature,
trended over tme, can be very dagnostc of
boer
emcency.
One-tme/Spot Measurement Advantages
Lowest cost
Ease of use
Non-ntrusve
Fast resuts
One-tme/Spot Measurement Dsadvantages
Low accuracy
Lmted appcaton
Measures snge operatng parameter
Reated to energy performance, one-tme measurements are usefu when an energy emcency
pro|ect has resuted n a nte change n system performance. The amperage of an eectrc motor
or
ghtng system taken before and after a retrot can be usefu to quantfy system savngs -
assumng
smar usage (hours of operaton) before and after.
+.&
Equpment usefu n makng one-tme/spot measurements ncude camp-on amp probes,
contact
and non-contact temperature devces, non-ntrusve ow measurement devces, and a varety
of
combuston-emcency devces. Most of these measurements are obtaned and recorded n the
ed by
the anayst.
:%3%) Run.Tie Measureents
Run-tme measurements are made n
stuatons
where hours-of-operaton are the crtca
varabe.
These measurements are prevaent where an
energy
emcency pro|ect has mpacted the use (.e., hours
of
operaton) of a devce. Approprate appcatons
for
run-tme measurements ncude the run tmes of
fans
and pumps, or the operatona characterstcs of
heatng,
coong, or ghtng systems.
Run-Tme Measurement Advantages
Low cost
Reatvey easy of use
Non-ntrusve
Usefu for constant-oad devces
Run-Tme Measurement Dsadvantages
Lmted appcaton
Measures snge operatng parameter
Requres addtona cacuatons/
assumptons
Because run-tme measurements do not capture the energy-use component of the system,
these
measurements are typcay used n con|uncton wth one-tme/spot measurements. Equpment
usefu
n makng run-tme measurements ncude a varety of stand-aone (battery-operated) data
oggers
provdng tme-seres record on run-tme. Most of these devces are non-ntrusve (.e., the
process or
system s not mpacted by ther use or set-up) and are ether optcay trggered or take
advantage of
the eectromagnetc characterstcs of eectrca devces. Run-tme measurements are usuay
obtaned
n the ed by the devce, recorded to memory, and then downoaded by the anayst at a ater
date.
:%3%* 4hort.Ter Measureents/ Short-Term Measurement Advantages
Monitoring Md-eve cost
Can quantfy magntude and duraton
Short-term montorng combnes both eements Reatvey fast resuts
of the prevous two eves nto a tme-seres record Short-Term Measurement Dsadvantages
of energy or resource use: magntude and duraton. Md-eve accuracy
Typcay, short-term montorng s used to verfy Lmted appcaton
Seasona or occupancy varance decent
More dmcut to nsta/montor
the montorng s usuay ess than one year, and n
most cases on the order of weeks to months. In the
case of energy emcency mprovement vadaton, aso known as measrement and
veri+cation, these
measurements may be made for two-weeks pror and post nstaaton of an emcency
mprovement
pro|ect. These data are then, usng engneerng and statstca methods, extrapoated over the
year to
report the annua mpact.
Equpment usefu n short-term montorng ncudes a host of portabe, stand-aone data
oggers capabe of mutvarate tme-seres data coecton and storage. Most of these data
oggers
accept a host of sensors ncudng temperature, pressure, votage, current ow, etc., and have
standardzed on nput communcatons (e.g., 4 to 20 mamperes or 0 to 5 vots). These
oggers
are capabe of recordng at user-seected ntervas from fractons of a second, to houry, to
day
recordngs. These systems usuay rey on n-ed manua downoadng or, f avaabe, modem
and/or network connectons.
+.'
performance, ntate trendng, or vadate energy
emcency mprovement. In ths eve, the term of
:%3%3 Long.Ter Measureents/
Monitoring
Long-term montorng aso makes use of tme-seres
recordng of energy or resource use, but over a
onger
duraton. Dherent from short-term use, ths eve
focuses on measurements used n ong-term trendng or
performance vercaton. The term s typcay
more
than a year and qute often the nstaaton s
permanent.
Long-Term Measurement Advantages
Hghest accuracy
Can quantfy magntude and duraton
Captures most varance
Long-Term Measurement Dsadvantages
Hgh cost
Most dmcut to nsta/montor
Tme duraton for resut avaabty
Usefu appcatons for ths eve of montorng ncude stuatons where system use s
nuenced
by varances n weather, occupant behavor, or other operatng condtons. Other appcatons
ncude rembursabe resource aocaton, tenant bng actvtes, or n cases where the
persstence of
energy or resource savngs over tme s at ssue.
Equpment usefu n ong-term montorng ncuded a varety of data oggers, utty-grade
meters,
or xed data acquston systems. In most cases these systems communcate va a network
connecton/
phone modem to a host computer and/or over the nternet.
:%3%5 The Metering >ierarch"
Gven the above descrbed meterng approaches, there s a ogca order, or herarchy, to
consder
as you ook to maxmze your meterng vaue whe mnmzng your meterng cost. Fgure 8.4.1
presents ths concept as a functon of eve of ehort and dagnostc capabty that appes to
eectrc
meterng. Ths proposed herarchy starts at the most aggregate eve of data coecton and
processng
- the 9holeG,ilding meter. Assumng access to nterva eectrc data (these are data coected
usuay at 15-mnute ntervas), ths meter and resutng data can be dagnostc n dentfyng
trends
and varance n whoe-budng performance. In addton, these data can usefu n understandng
the operaton and emcency of ma|or budng systems (e.g., chers, boers, ar handers). Whe
the resouton of whoe-budng data may not be ne enough to dentfy specc operatona or
emcency ssues, t can often be used to "frame the queston" of what equpment/system s
performng
nconsstenty and n need of further exporaton.
Fgure 8.4.1. Eectrc meterng herarchy
+.(
If the whoe-budng meter represents the most aggregate eve, the next ner eve s at
the
electrical panelIs,Gpanel. Ths second ter n the meterng herarchy focuses on oads
connected at
a pane (or sub-pane) eve as aggregatons of specc oads. Exampes of pane-eve
montorng
ncude ghtng panes or motor panes (.e., motor contro centers - MCCs) where hours of
operaton or emcency pro|ect vadaton are of nterest.
Movng up one more eve n the herarchy, we examne circitGlevel montorng. The focus
of
meterng at ths eve s wthn the pane or sub-pane and the montorng of a specc crcut of
nterest. Ths crcut may have specc pug oads of nterest such as computers or other
perpheras,
or may be of nterest for power quaty or harmoncs studes.
The na eve n the herarchy, havng the nest data resouton, s the end-use eve. End-
use
montorng serves to soate a partcuar system or equpment type for detaed study. In many
cases,
the ob|ectve of end-use montorng s equpment performance, whether to dentfy nemcency
or
vadate savngs estmates. Chers, boers, coong towers, pumps and motors are often end-
use
metered for performance metrcs.
Whe the above herarchy presents a step-wse approach to meterng and emcency
dagnostcs,
by no means are we suggestng that a herarchy steps need be foowed sequentay when
movng
from whoe-budng to end-use meterng. In fact, n some cases there shoud be enough
nformaton
to move from the whoe-budng eve drecty to end-use eve when dagnosng or trendng
emcency opportuntes. In cases where nemcency by specc equpment s not so apparent,
the
addtona steps may be beneca to propery dentfy the poory operatng equpment.
:%5 Metering 4"ste
6oponents
There are four necessary components to a
vabe budng-eve meterng system; the meters,
the data-coecton system, the data storage/
retreva system, and the anayss system/capabty
(AEC 2003; EPRI 1996). Each component s
descrbed beow.
:%5%( Meters
At the most basc eve, a meters provde
some output reated to resource use - energy,
water, natura gas, and steam. Beyond ths basc
eve, more sophstcated meters take advantage
of addtona capabtes ncudng eectrca
demand trackng, power
quaty measurements,
and mutpe-meter
communcaton for water
eak
detecton appcatons.
Fgure 8.5.1. Typca eectrca sub pane
(box on eft) used n ong-term montorng
For eectrca systems, meters can be nstaed to track whoe-budng energy use (e.g.,
utty
meters), sub-pane energy use (e.g., a ghtng or process crcut), or a specc end use (e.g., a
motor
or cher). See Fgure 8.5.1 for sub-pane. For water, steam, natura gas, and other ow-reated
appcatons, meters are typcay n-ne nstaatons usng postve dspacement, nserton
turbne,
+.*
or pressure-reated technques. Dependng on the need, any of these meters w vary n sze,
type,
output conguraton, accuracy, and prce. A more compete treatment of utty meters,
appcatons,
and evauaton crtera can be found n the FEMP Meterng Best Practces Gude (FEMP 2007).
To better understand portabe meters or data oggers and ther vendors the report tted
Porta,le
8ata "oggers 8iagnostic Tools for EnergyGE%cient <ilding &perations (PECI 1999) s partcuary
good. A st of vendors of arger, dedcated, whoe-budng meters can be found n the report
tted
Advanced Ftility Metering (AEC 2003).
:%5%) Data 6o!!ection
Modern meterng data-coecton systems take advantage of recent deveopments n
communca-
tons technooges. Over the past 15 years, Automated Meter Readng (AMR) systems have
ncreased n sophstcaton and reabty, and now represent a very economc means of data
coecton. When deveopng the communcatons porton of your meterng program, t s
mportant
to consder what exstng communcatons nfrastructure you can take advantage of (e.g.,
budng
automaton system, oca area network) to potentay ower the cost of AMR. In addton, f
you have a arge ste wth dstrbuted budngs you may nd benet n consderng mutpe
communcatons technooges (e.g., networks n one area, phone nes n another, and wreess n
a
thrd) to gan the necessary communcatons coverage. Avaabe technooges ncude:
wTraditional or celllar phone modem) Consdered a proven technoogy, generay avaabe
and
secure. Ths mode can be expensve and one needs to be connected to access to rea-tme
data
w"ocal area net9or-s) A proven technoogy wth ncreasng avaabty and aways connected.
Ths mode can have IT securty concerns/ssues.
w<ilding atomation systems) When present provdes advantage of accessbty and fast
communcaton. Some systems can have compatbty or data avaabty ssues.
w*adio freEencyI9ireless net9or-s) Wth no wres to nsta, ths mode has great ogstca
and cost
advantage. Issues do arse wth potenta for eectrca nterference and hardware costs.
wPo9er line carriers) Exceent use of exstng nfrastructure and connect-abty. Overa
system
cost and data transfer rates need to be researched before mpementaton.
:%5%* Data 4torage
The need for, and the duraton of, data storage shoud be carefuy consdered n the desgn
and
mpementaton of a meterng system. A cear understandng of data needs and appcatons w
drve
storage decsons. At the most basc eve, metered data are easy stored n one of many
avaabe
database systems. The duraton of data storage s a functon of data use; ong-term end-use
studes
requre onger duraton storage, short-term day comparsons requre ess. There are a varety of
appcaton servce provders (ASPs) that can provde data storage and retreva servces on a fee-
based servce.
The specc requrements of the data storage/database system shoud be decded wth
assstance
from ste IT stah or others knowedgeabe, or those who w be usng the system. Beow are
concepts
and speccatons based on work done for the Caforna Energy Commsson Pubc Interest
Energy
Research Program (PIER) and the Budng Technooges Program of the U.S. Department of
Energy
+.+
(CEC 2007). A more compete st of data storage software and hardware consderatons can
be found
n the FEMP Meterng Best Practces Gude (FEMP 2007).
Data sha be stored n a structured query anguage (SOL)-compant database format or
tme
seres format. Mnmum requrements are a SOL server or equvaent.
The database sha aow other appcaton programs to read and access the data wth
approprate
password protecton whe the database s runnng. The database sha not requre shuttng
down
n order to access or have data added.
Trend data sha be archved n a database from ed equpment n tme ntervas no ess
than
once per day.
A data sha be stored n database e format for drect use by thrd-party appcaton
programs.
Sumcent data storage capacty w be abe to store at east two years of data for a data
ponts.
In addton, storage capacty w aso aow for compresson of one year of data for hstorc
trends
and archvng.
Tme stamps sha be coected on a data. The tme stamp, dependng on system
archtecture,
w be captured at the ed controer or system controer and drected to the database
archve.
:%5%3 Data Ana!"sis
Large-scae anayss of energy data can be tme consumng and expensve. In many cases,
the
manufacturers of meterng equpment aso provde oh-the-shef or custom software
appcatons to
assst these functons. In addton to the meter manufacturers, thrd-party software vendors,
ncudng
some ASPs can provde data capture, coecton/storage, and anayss servces. Anaytca
servces
can range from smpe use-reportng and tenant bng, to more sophstcated actvtes of
energy use
dagnostcs and system performance ndcators.
:%8 Metering Econoics
The economc vaue of meterng s drecty proportona to the use of the resutng data.
The
range of potenta resource savngs reated to meterng vary wth the budng, equpment, and
the
use of the metered data. Economc savngs attrbuted to meterng can be as hgh as 20%; the
hgher
savngs percentages requrng a very proactve use of the metered data.
Meterng system nstaed costs w vary wth system, exstng nfrastructure, and meter
type. On
average, ong-term whoe-budng type meter nstaed cost runs between $1,000 to $5,000
per pont
or meter. Ths range s so arge because some budngs requre extensve rewrng and
addtona
actvtes reated to brngng exstng systems up to code. Assumng mted requrements and
code
ssues, an average per meter (eectrc) nstaed cost s roughy $1,500.
As Federa agences move toward ncreased meterng, decsons need to be made on the
optma
eve of meterng. In the extreme case, one woud have dmcuty |ustfyng a meter nstaaton
on
a sma, sedom used, remote storage budng. On the other hand, a arge, contnuousy
occuped
admnstratve budng woud make a better case. At ssue s where to draw the ne, that s,
beow
some set of crtera the economc case for meterng becomes margna.
+.,

EPAct 2005 requres that Federa budngs be metered for eectrcty "where practcabe." The
foowng formua to cost-|ustfy an eectrc meter (or other utty meters) was presented n DOE
(2006):
|[ Installed Cost [ q
[ Desired Simple Payback ]
% Annual Savings
Where:
wInstalled #ost refers to the tota cost to purchase, nsta, and commsson the meter. As
prevousy
noted, the cost of a meter appcaton w vary based on a number of factors. Budng eectrc
meters are often n the range of $1,000 to $5,000 competey nstaed. Ths broad range
reects
the uncertanty of system upgrades that may be assocated wth eectrca code compance
ssues.
w8esired Simple Pay,ac- represents the number of years t w take the meterng system to
produce
(ead to) cost savngs equa to the nstaed cost. Most agences prefer a smpe payback
perod of
10 years or ess.
wAnnal #ost s the tota annua cost of the fees and expenses to cover communcatons, data
coecton and storage, and data anayss, as we as meter operatons and mantenance. The
annua cost w vary based on severa factors and s typcay n the range of $120/year ($10/
w
month) to $600/year ($50/month).
w5 Annal Savings s the estmated cost savngs benets to be reazed from the productve
use of
the metered data. Federa stes are advsed to use a mnmum of 2 percent annua savngs
when
consderng meters for EPAct 2005 compance. w
Usng the above formua aso requres that there be a reasonabe way to estmate the current
annua eectrcty (utty) costs for the budng beng consdered. Except n cases where the
budngs aready have standard meters, actua usage data to estmate the annua costs w not
be
avaabe. In these cases, one of the foowng accepted methods of estmatng budng energy
use
shoud be apped (FEMP 2007):
Square footage
Energy-use ntensty
Cabrated software
Short-term meterng
To demonstrate how the meterng cost |ustcaton formua s used, the foowng vaues
w be used:
Instaed cost = $5,000
Desred smpe payback = 10 years
Annua cost = $25/month = $300/year
% annua savngs = 2 percent
+.10
||| + qq Annual Cost q
= ] Minimum Annual Electric Bill

Sample calclation) #>O!E) !he values in this sample are for demonstration
purposes only.
Sites considering metering applications should use values speci4c to their site.(
= |($5,000) (10 years) + $300/year| (0.02)
= $40,000 mnmum annua eectrc b
In ths e?ample, an eectrc meter appcaton w be cost-|usted f the budngs annua
eectrcty use s more than $40,000.
As prevousy mentoned, the resuts from ths equaton are senstve to the nput varabes.
:%9 Metering Financing Options
There are a number of potenta nancng aternatves avaabe to Federa stes. Factors
ahectng
the nancng aternatves avaabe ncude estmated system cost, agency poces, and utty
company support oherngs, to name a few. In some cases, stes w be abe to nance ther
meterng
systems through a combnaton of approaches, whe n other cases they may be mted to
snge
optons.
:%9%( Metering Financing >ierarch"
As a way for stes to begn ther nta
consderatons of nancng aternatves, the
meterng
nancng herarchy has been deveoped (Fgure
8.7.1).
Ths herarchy s based on fe-cyce costs to
the
stes facty, utty, or energy management
program
as many consder fe-cyce costs to be the
most
sgncant factor n seectng ther nancng
approach.
Addtona herarches may be deveoped based on
factors such as speed of mpementaton or owest
rst/
up-front cost. Note that a owest rst cost
approach
may aow for faster mpementaton or a meterng
program wth expanded capabtes.
The Meterng Fnancng Herarchy
"No-Cost" Optons:
Pocy-drected approaches
Incude n constructon and renovaton pro|ects
Assess tenant fees
Renvest energy savngs
Utty provded (for tme-based rates customers)
Appropratons Optons:
Lne tem appropratons
Locay managed appropratons
Aternatve Fnancng:
Utty company nancng
Energy savngs performance contracts (ESPCs)
Fgure 8.7.1. The meterng nancng herarchy
The approaches addressed at the top of the herarchy are the so-caed "no cost" optons.
Ths s
not to mpy that the meters are free: nstead, the costs to purchase and nsta the meters are
covered
n part or n tota by programs other than the ste factes, uttes, or energy program.
The appropratons approaches are next n ths herarchys order. Whe the costs for the
meterng
system are now beng ncurred by the ste or agency factes programs, agency
appropratons are a
famar approach where the tota costs of the meters are pad at the tme of purchase and
nstaaton.
+.11
Aternatvey nanced approaches appear at the bottom of ths herarchy snce the overa fe-
cyce costs are hgher than the appropratons approaches due to added nancng charges. Ths
s not
to mpy that these approaches are any ess key to succeed than the other optons. Ste
meterng
opportuntes at some stes may benet from aternatve nancng as a way expand the meterng
system or add capabtes beyond the EPAct 2005 requrements.
Specc to aternatvey nanced approaches and as descrbed n the document tted:
Approaches
for the Application of Advanced Meters and Metering Systems at Federal Facilities throgh
Alternatively
Financed #ontracts (LBNL 2005), there are at east ve potenta approaches to usng
aternatvey
nanced pro|ects to acheve the benets of advanced meters and meterng systems. Each of
these
approaches s brey descrbed beow wth more deta provded n the above mentoned report:
1. Install as part of other energy conservation measures #E-Ms( or the M&@ e<ort
of the
pro7ect - the meters nstaed as part of other ECMs (such as peak oad management) or
the
M&V pan of an ESPC or the performance assurance pan of a UESC (ether as requred
for M&V or augmented by addtona facty funds) can be used to acheve the benets of
advanced meterng.
2. w 9nstall using pro7ect savings - a porton of savngs from other ECMs can be used to
nsta
and use advanced meterng. Ths approach has been used n a reatvey arge, compex
facty wth sgncant potenta for addtona suppy sde savngs opportuntes.
3. w 9nstall as E-M with stipulated savings - Ths approach has aso been used n a
reatvey
arge facty wth sgncant potenta for foow-on savngs.
4. w 9nstall as an E-M with stipulated initial savings and follow"on share of savings
- Ths
approach s an extenson of approach 3 wth the appcaton of the Award Fee Pan
ncentve
concept, whch aows a sharng of subsequent savngs from actons taken on opportuntes
dented by the meterng system.
5. w 9nstall in support of retro"commissioning E-M - the cost-ehectve use of
retro-commssonng of reatvey arge and compex budngs has been repeatedy
demonstrated by Texas A&M Unversty. w
Advanced meterng technooges are unque energy conservaton measures because ther
prmary
benet s to hep dentfy energy savng opportuntes. The probem s resutng energy savngs
are often dmcut to quantfy pror to nstaaton and use. Thus, nstaaton through aternatve
nancng for severa of the dented approaches does rey on stpuatng savngs, whch s
contrary to
FEMP M&V gudance.
Crtca to the success of advanced meterng technooges s the avaabty of stah that are
motvated and traned to use the data. Ths ncudes the abty to gather, anayze, drect, and
mpement changes that work to optmze performance and energy emcency. *emem,er,
metering
,y itself does not save energyA instead, metering shold ,e vie9ed as a technology that ena,les
optimiCed
performance and energy e%ciency7 The strateges summarzed a requre dedcated stah
capabe of
ahectng changes as a resut of the anayss of metered data. These stah can be n-house, wth
an
energy servces company, or even a Resource Emcency Manager.2
See http://www.energy.wsu.edu/pro|ects/rem/ for nformaton on Resource Emcency Managers.
+.12
:%: 4teps in Meter P!anning
The deveopment of a meterng pan s hghy dependent on a stes needs, ts msson,
exstng
meterng equpment, and avaabe nfrastructure. When t comes to meterng, one siCe does
not +t
all. Beow are some very genera gudenes dentfyng the steps and actons necessary for a
quaty
meterng program. These gudenes summarze nformaton found n FEMP (2006), AEC
(2002),
EPRI (1996), and Sydowsk (1993) where more detaed nformaton can be found.
Whchever approach a ste uses n ts pannng ehort, there are key eements that shoud
be
addressed for a utty meterng programs (FEMP 2006):
Estabsh program goas and ob|ectves
Identfy needs to support seected anayss approaches
Deveop and appy evauaton crtera
Impementaton, desgn, and nstaaton
Performance vadaton and persstence
Fgure 8.8.1 provdes a more detaed overvew of the pannng process.
:%:%( Esta#!ish Progra Goa!s and O#Bectives
The crtca rst step for a meterng programs s to estabsh the stes overa meterng
ob|ectve.
Whe the utmate goa of the meterng program s to reduce utty use and/or costs, how ths s
done
w depend on how the metered data are used. Some of the more typca uses ncude cost
aocaton
among tenants, b vercaton, demand management, and energy use dagnostcs. Exampes
of
possbe ob|ectves mght be:
To fuy enabe energy b aocaton throughout an entre facty.
To ehectvey manage eectrc oads to mnmze costs under
a tme-based rate schedue.
To dentfy system-specc operatona emcency opportuntes.
:%:%) &denti$" Needs to 4upport 4e!ected Ana!"sis Approaches
The nformaton obtaned n ths step s used to ensure that the necessary data are
obtaned
and ts anayss s supported. Incusve s the survey of any exstng meterng components that
are
operatona and n use as they may support the new programs goas and ob|ectves.
w8ata needs serves as the starting point for this portion of the plan=s development. What specc types
of
data are needed to support the programs goas and ob|ectves. For exampe, aocaton
eectrcty
costs based on actua use w requre
(at a mnmum) kWh and kW data at the budng eve or
for portons of the budngs occuped by dherent tenants.
wAnalysis methodologies are a critical component of a site=s metering program7 Data by tsef s
not of
much use wthout some anayss to determne what t means. w
+.13
EEipment needs are
,ased
on the data reEirements and
the analysis
methodologies
identi+ed, and shoud dentfy
what types of meterng/
montorng equpment and
hardware/software toos
woud be most approprate
to provde that data and ts
communcaton and storage.
Srvey e?isting metering
systems. Many mutpe
budng stes have some
eve of budng meterng or
sub-meterng n pace.
Sta%ng resorces needed
to operate the meterng
system when n pace are
aso crtca to a successfu
meterng program.
Some Ouestons to Consder n Deveopng Your
Ob|ectves
What are the annua utty costs for your facty?
Who are the prmary energy users and why?
What operatons actons can hep reduce utty costs?
Where s the poory desgned or operatng equpment?
What equpment shoud be repaced and when?
Do ke budngs use smar amounts of energy?
Do budngs have smar operatng schedues?
Do budngs have unque operatng requrements?
By budng, how much energy do you use day? Weeky? Monthy?
Are your energy savngs strateges/pro|ects producng resuts?
What utty rate opportuntes can you take advantages of?
Are there regona or natona/agency ntatves to address specc
utty usage ssues (e.g., water management)
Has utty prce voatty been, or coud t be, an ssue at your ste?
Secrity reEirements vary 9idely across the Federal sector7
In
genera, nformaton technoogy (IT) stah shoud be
asked
to partcpate n the deveopment of the meterng program
pannng ehorts at the very begnnng of the process.
:%:%* Deve!op and App!" Eva!uation
6riteria
Meters shoud be apped where they w ead to a
cost-
ehectve reducton n utty use and/or costs. Determnng
whch
budngs can be metered cost-ehectvey requres that crtera
be
estabshed and apped that take nto account the fe-cyce
costs
to meter and the benets to be reazed. The prmary
varabes
that mpact the cost-ehectveness of meters are:
Data
Needs
Goals
Analysis
Methodologies
Evaluation Criteria
Economic Metrics
Cost
Savings
Benefts
Pass
Cost/Beneft
Test
Equipment
Needs
The annua utty cost of the budng beng
metered
The cost to purchase and nsta the meter and
assocated
hardware
Expected savngs resutng
from the productve use of
data, typcay n the range of
2 percent to 10 percent,
but sometmes hgher
dependng on how the metered
data are used
Ste economc crtera - usuay payback perod.
+.1&
Yes
Implementation
Building Priorities
Schedules
Performance Validation
Cost
Savings
Benefts
Plan Modifcations
and Persistence
Fgure 8.8.1. Deveopment process
for meter system pannng
:%:%3 &p!eentation' Design' and &nsta!!ation
The pannng process up to ths pont has been argey anaytca. Based on the goas,
ob|ectves,
anayss needs, and appcaton of evauaton crtera, there s now enough nformaton to
desgn the
actua meterng system. Eements of the mpementaton, desgn, and nstaaton steps
ncude the
foowng sub-eements dscussed beow:
System nancng, or how much funds are avaabe and how w these funds be obtaned,
needs to
be addressed eary n the desgn process and revsted once cost estmates based on actua
desgns
are competed.
Prortzaton of budngs and/or uttes to be metered. There may be a need or a greater
benet
to meterng some budngs and/or some uttes before others.
The desgn of the meterng system hardware appcaton needs to: w
- Satsfy functona requrements w
- Dene a system archtecture w
- Deveop equpment speccatons w
- Revew and rene the cost estmate to purchase and nsta the meterng system. w
:%:%5 Per$orance <a!idation and Persistence
Once the meterng system s up and runnng, the overa program focus shfts to makng
sure:
Accurate data are obtaned and put to tmey productve use
The meterng system contnues to operate ehectvey and reaby.
:%; 6ase 4tud" D Genera! 4ervices AdinistrationEs
Fasteneier Federa! 6ourthouse
In 2005, the operatons stah at the
Kastenmeer Federa Courthouse n
Madson, Wsconsn, agreed to serve
as
a pot ste for the demonstraton of
the
newy deveoped web-enabed Whoe-
Budng Energy Dagnostcan (WBE).
The WBE was orgnay deveoped by
the
Pacc Northwest Natona Laboratory
(PNNL) wth fundng from the Department
of Energys Budng Technooges Program.
In an ehort to make the too more
ahordabe and more wdey avaabe
to
the Federa sector, DOEs Federa Energy
Management Program (FEMP) funded the
deveopment of a web-enabed verson of
the WBE. The WBE modue nstaed at
the Kastenmeer Federa Courthouse
was a commercazed verson of the too.
Fgure 8.9.1. Instaed wreess montorng system for WBE-
based system
Photo courtesy of NorthWrte, Inc.,
Mnneapos, MN.
+.1'
The WBE modue tracks energy uses at the budng eve - n ths case, the tota eectrc and
natura gas use. The vaues of expected energy consumpton are generated by emprca modes
of
the budng, whch are automatcay deveoped by the WBE. In genera, the mode uses tme of
week, outdoor ar dry-bub temperature, and reatve humdty as ndependent varabes. The
WBE
then graphcay provdes budng operators aarms for unexpected usage to dentfy ma|or
changes n
energy consumpton (PNNL 2005).
As part of the demonstraton pro|ect, NorthWrte, Inc., partnered wth FEMP to make the web-
enabed WBE modue avaabe to the Madson Courthouse as part of an overa sute of
operatons
and management toos. The Madson Courthouse s a 100,000-square-foot budng n Madson,
Wsconsn. The budng spaces ncude court rooms, chambers for the |udges, |ury rooms, hodng
ces, and omces for the Cerk of Courts, Bankruptcy Courts and U.S. marshas. Day budng
occupancy ncudes approxmatey 120 fu-tme empoyees pus day vstors.
The one-year demonstraton started n May 2005 wth the nstaaton of the eectrc puse
meter and a montor devce, whch reads puse outputs from the meter and sends them
wreessy to
a network operatons center, needed to support the web-enabed WBE (Fgure 8.9.1). A gas puse
meter was nstaed n |uy 2005. Summary of costs to purchase, nsta, and operate the
meterng
system at the Kastenmeer Federa Courthouse s as foows:
$1,000 to purchase and nsta the eectrc and gas meters (approxmatey $500 each)
$3,500 to nsta the propretary WBE-based too hardware
$2,500 to tran agency stah on the use of the commerca web-based sute of toos (whch
ncuded
the WBE-based too as we as addtona ste mantenance management functonaty)
$100 per month for the montor servce
$250 per month to subscrbe to the WBE-based too and commerca mantenance
management
servces sute of toos.
The reports and graphcs generated by the WBE modue are revewed day by the budng
mechanc as part of the mornng startup, wth an emphass on verfyng that peak usages do not
vary unexpectedy (Fgures 8.9.2 and 8.9.3). These day revews of the data have been hepfu n
dagnosng:
Screenshots courtesy
of NorthWrte, Inc.,
Mnneapos, MN.
Fgure 8.9.2. Sampe screen capture for a generc budng showng
an aarm or hgh-energy usng condton. Incuded s an estmated cost
mpact assocated wth the hgher than expected eectrcty use.
+.1(
Fgure 8.9.3. Data from
the montorng devce
provdes a comparson of
2 days of eectrcty use for
Sunday, |anuary 15, 2006,
and Monday, |anuary 16,
2006. Fgure shows unex-
pected oh-hour usage on the
15th, whe eectrcty
consumpton on the 16th
was as expected.
Incompete reprogrammng of schedues on the budng automaton system (BAS) foowng
a
tme change
Improper boer sequencng operatons
An ar-hander operatng 24/7 nstead of on the schedue as programmed by the BAS
Bet sppage due to wear on a arge horsepower motor
Refrgerant eaks n rooftop compressors.
The WBE modue aso ets the Genera Servces Admnstraton (GSA) stah observe the
ehects
of varabe-speed drves and drect-expanson coong operatons, ncudng occasona spkes
n
eectrca consumpton, and verfy that energy-ntensve IT downoads are competed durng
oh-
hours.
Snce ths s a web-based system, the GSA regona energy omce n Chcago s abe to
access and
revew the system data. Ths second set of eyes works to aert the Madson stah of other
possbe
emergng trends.
?essons ?earned)
Metered data were nstrumenta n dentfyng hgh or abnorma energy use, and asssted n
dagnosng nemcent equpment and systems operatons at the Kastenmeer Federa
Courthouse.
The abty to vew data at mutpe, ncudng remote, ocatons aowed for expanded
assessment
capabtes.
Meterng natura gas consumpton, whe not requred by EPAct 2005, proved beneca.
Meterng natura gas consumpton s now requred by EISA 2007. w
+.1*
:%(= Re$erences
AEC. 2003. Advanced Ftility Metering. Under contract NREL/SR-710-33539, Archtectura Energy
Corporaton, Bouder, Coorado.
Caforna Energy Commsson (CEC) 2007. #ontinos Performance Monitoring Systems,
Speci+cation
>ide for Performance Monitoring Systems7 Sacramento, Caforna. Avaabe at: http://cbs.b.gov/
performance-montorng/speccatons .
EISA 2007. Energy Independence and Secrity Act of 200!. Pubc Law 110-140. Sgned
December 19,
2007.
EPAct 2005. Energy Policy Act of 2005. Pubc Law 109-58, as amended, 119 Stat. 624 et seq.
EPRI. 1996. EndGFse Performance Monitoring Dand,oo-. EPRI TR-106960, Eectrc Power
Research
Insttute, Pao Ato, Caforna.
FEMP. 2007. Metering <est Practices) A >ide to Achieving Ftility *esorce E%ciency. DOE/EE-
0323.
Avaabe at: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/mbpg.pdf .
FEMP. 2006. >idance for Electric Metering in Federal <ildings. DOE/EE-0312. Avaabe at:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/adv_meterng.pdf .
LBNL. 2005. Approaches for the Application of Advanced Meters and Metering Systems at
Federal
Facilities throgh Alternatively Financed #ontracts. Lawrence Berkey Natona Laboratory,
Berkey,
Caforna. Avaabe at: http://ateam.b.gov/mv.
Pacc Northwest Natona Laboratory (PNNL). 2005. $holeG<ilding Energy .$<E1 Modle.
Rchand, Washngton. Avaabe at: http://www.budngsystemsprogram.pn.gov/fdd/wbd/wbeman.stm.
Prepared
for the U.S. EPA and U.S. DOE by Portand Energy Conservaton, Incorporated, Portand, Oregon.
Sydowsk, R.F. 1993. Advanced Metering TechniEes. PNL-8487, Pacc Northwest Natona
Laboratory, Rchand, Washngton.
+.1+
Chapter 9 O&M Ideas for Ma|or Equpment Types
;%( &ntroduction
At the heart of a O&M es the equpment. Across the Federa sector, ths equpment vares
greaty n age, sze, type, mode, fue used, condton, etc. Whe t s we beyond the scope of
ths
gude to study a equpment types, we tred to focus our ehorts on the more common types
prevaent
n the Federa sector. The ob|ectves of ths chapter are the foowng:
Present genera equpment descrptons and operatng prncpes for the ma|or equpment
types.
Dscuss the key mantenance components of that equpment.
Hghght mportant safety ssues.
Pont out cost and energy emcency ssues.
Hghght any water-reated emcency mpacts ssues.
Provde recommended genera O&M actvtes n the form of checksts.
Where possbe, provde case studes.
The chec-lists provided at the end of each section 9ere complied from a nm,er of resorces7 These
are
not presented to replace activities speci+cally recommended ,y yor eEipment vendors or
manfactrers7
In most cases, these chec-lists represent indstry standard ,est practices for the given
eEipment7 They
are presented here to spplement e?isting &'M procedres, or to merely serve as reminders of
activities
that shold ,e ta-ing place7 The recommendations in this gide are designed to spplement those
of the
manfactrer, or, as is all too often the case, provide gidance for systems and eEipment for 9hich
technical
docmentation has ,een lost7 As a rle, this gide 9ill +rst defer to the manfactrer=s recommendations
on
eEipment operations and maintenance7
Actions and activities recoended in this guide shou!d
on!" #e attepted #" trained and certi$ied personne!% &$ such
personne! are not avai!a#!e' the actions recoended here
shou!d not #e initiated%
;%(%( Loc@ and Tag
Lock and tag (aso referred to as ockout-tagout) s a wdey accepted safety procedure
desgned
to ensure equpment beng servced s not energzed whe beng worked on. The system works
by physcay ockng the potenta hazard (usuay an eectrc swtch, ow vave, etc.) n
poston
such that system actvaton s not possbe. In addton to the ock, a tag s attached to the
devce
ndcatng that work s beng competed and the system shoud not be energzed.
When mutpe stah are workng on dherent parts of a arger system, the ocked devce s
secured
wth a fodng scssors camp (Fgure 9.1.1) that has many ock hoes capabe of hodng t
cosed. In
ths stuaton, each stah member appes ther own ock to the scssor camp; therefore, the
ocked-out
devce cannot be actvated unt a stah have removed ther ock from the camp.
,.1
O&M !deas 1or Ma3or 24ui-)ent 0$-es
Fgure 9.1.1. Typca fodng ock and tag
scssor camp. Ths camp aows for ocks
for up to 6 dherent facty stah.
There are we-accepted conventons for ock-and-tag n the Unted States, these ncude:
No two keys or ocks shoud ever be the same.
A stah members ock and tag must not be removed by anyone other than the ndvdua who
nstaed the ock and tag uness remova s accompshed under the drecton of the empoyer.
Lock and tag devces sha ndcate the dentty of the empoyee appyng the devce(s).
Tag devces sha warn aganst hazardous condtons f the machne or equpment s energzed
and
sha ncude drectons such as: *o +ot Start, *o +ot Open, *o +ot Close, *o +ot
-nergi.e,
*o +ot Operate,
Tags must be securey attached to energy-soatng devces so that they cannot be
nadvertenty or
accdentay detached durng use.
Empoyer procedures and tranng for ock and tag use and remova must have been
deveoped,
documented, and ncorporated nto the empoyers energy contro program. w
The Occupatona Safety and Heath Admnstratons (OSHA) standard on the Contro of
Hazardous Energy (Lockout-Tagout), found n CFR 1910.147, spes out the steps empoyers must
take to prevent accdents assocated wth hazardous energy. The standard addresses practces
and
procedures necessary to dsabe machnery and prevent the reease of potentay hazardous
energy
whe mantenance or servce s performed.
,.2
;%) Boi!ers
;%)%( &ntroduction
Boers are fue-burnng appances that produce ether hot water or steam that gets
crcuated
through ppng for heatng or process uses.
Boer systems are ma|or nanca nvestments, yet the methods for protectng these
nvest-
ments vary wdey. Proper mantenance and operaton of boers systems s mportant wth
regard to
emcency and reabty. Wthout ths attenton, boers can be very dangerous (NBBPVI
2001b).
;%)%) T"pes o$ Boi!ers (Nes and Rosaer 1998)
Boer desgns can be cassed n three man dvsons - re-tube boers, water-tube
boers, and
eectrc boers.
;%)%)%( Fire.Tu#e Boi!ers
Fre-tube boers rey on hot gases
crcuatng
through the boer nsde tubes that are submerged
n
water (Fgure 9.2.1). These gases usuay make
severa
passes through these tubes, thereby
transferrng
ther heat through the tube was causng the water
to bo on the other sde. Fre-tube boers are
generay avaabe n the range 20 through 800
boer
horsepower (bhp) and n pressures up to 150
ps.
Boer horsepower: As dened, 34.5 b of
steam at 212F coud do the same work (ftng
weght) as one horse. In terms of Btu output--
1 bhp equas 33,475 Btu/hr.
Reprnted wth permsson
of The Boer Emcency
Insttute, Auburn, Aabama.
Fgure 9.2.1. Horzonta return re-tube boer (hot gases pass through tube submerged n water).
;%)%)%) ,ater.Tu#e Boi!ers
Most hgh-pressure and arge boers are of ths type (Fgure 9.2.2). It s mportant to note
that
the sma tubes n the water-tube boer can wthstand hgh pressure better than the arge
vesses of a
re-tube boer. In the water-tube boer, gases ow over water-ed tubes. These water-ed
tubes
are n turn connected to arge contaners caed drums.
,.3
Reprnted wth permsson of
The Boer Emcency Insttute,
Auburn, Aabama.
Fgure 9.2.2. Longtudna-drum water-tube boer (water passes through tubes
surrounded by hot gases).
Water-tube boers are avaabe n szes rangng from smaer resdenta type to very arge
utty
cass boers. Boer pressures range from 15 ps through pressures exceedng 3,500 ps.
;%)%)%* E!ectric Boi!ers
Eectrc boers (Fgure 9.2.3) are very emcent sources of hot water or steam, whch are
avaabe
n ratngs from 5 to over 50,000 kW. They can provde sumcent heat for any HVAC requrement
n
appcatons rangng from humdcaton to prmary heat sources.
The Boer Emcency Insttute,
Auburn, Aabama.
Fgure 9.2.3. Eectrc boer
,.&
;%)%* Fe" 6oponents (Nakonezny 2001)
;%)%*%( 6ritica! 6oponents
Reprnted wth permsson of The Natona Board of Boer and
Pressure Vesse Inspectors.
Most peope do not reaze the amount of
energy that s contaned wthn a boer. Take
for exampe, the foowng ustraton by Wam
Axtman: "If you coud capture a the energy
reabty, and performance. These crtca reeased when a 30-gaon home hot-water tank
pressure parts ncude: ashes nto exposve faure at 332F, you woud
have enough force to send the average car
(weghng 2,500 pounds) to a heght of neary
125 feet. Ths s equvaent to more than the
heght of a 14-story apartment budng, startng
Consequenty, any mantenance program wth a ft-oh veocty of 85 mes per hour!"
must address the steam drum, as we as any (NBBPVI 2001b)
other drums, n the convecton passes of the
boer. In genera, probems n the drums are
assocated wth corroson. In some nstances, where drums have roed tubes, rong may
produce
excessve stresses that can ead to damage n the gament areas. Probems n the drums
normay
ead to ndcatons that are seen on the surfaces - ether nsde dameter (ID) or outsde
dameter
(OD).
Assess'ent/ Inspecton and testng focuses on detectng surface ndcatons. The
preferred
nondestructve examnaton (NDE) method s wet uorescent magnetc partce testng
(WFMT).
Because WFMT uses uorescent partces that are examned under utravoet ght, t s
more
senstve than dry powder type-magnetc partce testng (MT) and t s faster than qud
dye
penetrant testng (PT) methods. WFMT shoud ncude the ma|or weds, seected
attachment
weds, and at east some of the gaments. If ocatons of corroson are found, then
utrasonc
thckness testng (UTT) may be performed to assess thnnng due to meta oss. In rare
nstances,
metaographc repcaton may be performed.
A $eaders - Boers desgned for temperatures above 900F (482C) can have superheater
outet
headers that are sub|ect to creep - the pastc deformaton (stran) of the header from ong-
term exposure to temperature and stress. For hgh temperature headers, tests can ncude
metaographc repcaton and utrasonc ange beam shear wave nspectons of hgher
stress
wed ocatons. However, ndustra boers are more typcay desgned for temperatures
ess than
900F (482C) such that faure s not normay reated to creep. Lower temperature
headers
are sub|ect to corroson or possbe eroson. Addtonay, cyces of therma expanson and
mechanca oadng may ead to fatgue damage.
Assess'ent/ NDE shoud ncude testng of the weds by MT or WFMT. In addton, t s
advsabe to perform nterna nspecton wth a vdeo probe to assess water sde
ceanness, to
note any budup of deposts or mantenance debrs that coud obstruct ow, and to
determne f
corroson s a probem. Inspected headers shoud ncude some of the water crcut headers
as we
as superheater headers. If a ocaton of corroson s seen, then UTT to quantfy remanng
wa
thckness s advsabe.
,.'
In genera, the crtca components are those
whose faure w drecty ahect the reabty
of the boer. The crtca components can be
prortzed by the mpact they have on safety,
A 2rums - The steam drum s the snge
most expensve component n the boer.
A !ubing - By far, the greatest number of forced outages n a types of boers are caused by
tube
faures. Faure mechansms vary greaty from the ong term to the short term. Superheater
tubes operatng at sumcent temperature can fa ong term (over many years) due to norma
fe
expendture. For these tubes wth predcted nte fe, Babcock & Wcox (B&W) ohers the
NOTIS test and remanng fe anayss. However, most tubes n the ndustra boer do not
have a nte fe due to ther temperature of operaton under norma condtons. Tubes are
more
key to fa because of abnorma deteroraton such as water/steam-sde deposts retardng
heat
transfer, ow obstructons, tube corroson (ID and/or OD), fatgue, and tube eroson.
Assess'ent/ Tubng s one of the components where vsua examnaton s of great
mportance
because many tube damage mechansms ead to vsua sgns such as dstorton, dscooraton,
sweng, or surface damage. The prmary NDE method for obtanng data used n tube
assessment
s contact UTT for tube thckness measurements. Contact UTT s done on accessbe tube
surfaces by pacng the UT transducer onto the tube usng a coupant, a ge or ud that
transmts
the UT sound nto the tube. Varatons on standard contact UTT have been deveoped due to
access mtatons. Exampes are nterna rotatng nspecton system (IRIS)-based technques
n whch the UT sgna s reected from a hgh rpm rotatng mrror to scan tubes from the ID -
especay n the area ad|acent to drums; and B&Ws mmerson UT where a mutpe
transducer
probe s nserted nto boer bank tubes from the steam drum to provde measurements at
four
orthogona ponts. These systems can be advantageous n the assessment of pttng.
A /iping
- Main Steam - For ower temperature systems, the ppng s sub|ect to the same damage
as
noted for the boer headers. In addton, the ppng supports may experence deteroraton
and become damaged from excessve or cycca system oads.
Assess'ent/ The NDE method of choce for testng of externa wed surfaces s WFMT.
MT and PT are sometmes used f ghtng or ppe geometry make WFMT mpractca. Non-
dranabe sectons, such as saggng horzonta runs, are sub|ect to nterna corroson and
pttng. These areas shoud be examned by nterna vdeo probe and/or UTT
measurements.
Voumetrc nspecton (.e., utrasonc shear wave) of seected ppng weds may be
ncuded
n the NDE; however, concerns for wed ntegrty assocated wth the growth of subsurface
cracks s a probem assocated wth creep of hgh-temperature ppng and s not a concern
on
most ndustra nstaatons.
- 6eedwater - A ppng system often overooked s feedwater ppng. Dependng upon the
operatng parameters of the feedwater system, the ow rates, and the ppng geometry,
the
ppe may be prone to corroson or ow asssted corroson (FAC). Ths s aso referred to as
eroson-corroson. If susceptbe, the ppe may experence matera oss from nterna
surfaces
near bends, pumps, n|ecton ponts, and ow transtons. Ingress of ar nto the system
can
ead to corroson and pttng. Out-of-servce corroson can occur f the boer s de for ong
perods.
Assess'ent/ Interna vsua nspecton wth a vdeo probe s recommended f access
aows.
NDE can ncude MT, PT, or WFMT at seected weds. UTT shoud be done n any ocaton
where FAC s suspected to ensure there s not sgncant ppng wa oss.
,.(
A 2eaerators - Overooked for many years n condton assessment and mantenance
nspecton
programs, deaerators have been known to fa catastrophcay n both ndustra and utty
pants. The damage mechansm s corroson of she weds, whch occurs on the ID surfaces.
w
Assess'ent/ Deaerators weds shoud have a thorough vsua nspecton. A nterna
weds and
seected externa attachment weds shoud be tested by WFMT.
;%)%*%) Other 6oponents (Wamson-Thermoo Company 2001)
A Air openings
Assess'ent/ Verfy that combuston and ventaton ar openngs to the boer room and/
or budng are open and unobstructed. Check operaton and wrng of automatc
combuston
ar dampers, f used. Verfy that boer vent dscharge and ar ntake are cean and free of
obstructons.
A 6lue gas vent system
Assess'ent/ Vsuay nspect entre ue gas ventng system for bockage, deteroraton, or
eakage. Repar any |onts that show sgns of eakage n accordance wth vent
manufacturers
nstructons. Verfy that masonry chmneys are ned, nng s n good condton, and there
are
not openngs nto the chmney.
A /ilot and main burner Mames
Assess'ent/ Vsuay nspect pot burner and man burner ames.
- Proper pot ame
Bue ame.
Inner cone engung thermocoupe.
Thermocoupe gowng cherry red.
- Improper pot ame
Overred - Large ame ftng or bowng past thermocoupe.
Underred - Sma ame. Inner cone not engung thermocoupe.
Lack of prmary ar - Yeow ame tp.
Incorrecty heated thermocoupe.
- Check burner ames-Man burner
- Proper man burner ame
- Yeow-orange streaks may appear (caused by dust)
Improper man burner ame
-
-
-
Overred - Large ames.
Underred - Sma ames.
Lack of prmary ar - Yeow tppng on ames (sootng w occur).
,.*
A ;oiler heating surfaces
Assess'ent/ Use a brght ght to nspect the boer ue coector and heatng surfaces. If the
vent ppe or boer nteror surfaces show evdence of soot, cean boer heatng surfaces.
Remove
the ue coector and cean the boer, f necessary, after coser nspecton of boer heatng
surfaces. If there s evdence of rusty scae deposts on boer surfaces, check the water ppng
and contro system to make sure the boer return water temperature s propery mantaned.
Reconnect vent and draft dverter. Check nsde and around boer for evdence of any eaks
from
the boer. If found, ocate source of eaks and repar.
A ;urners and base
Assess'ent/ Inspect burners and a other components n the boer base. If burners must be
ceaned, rase the rear of each burner to reease from support sot, sde forward, and remove.
Then brush and vacuum the burners thoroughy, makng sure a ports are free of debrs.
Carefuy
repace a burners, makng sure burner wth pot bracket s repaced n ts orgna poston
and
a burners are uprght (ports up). Inspect the base nsuaton.
;%)%3 4a$et" &ssues (NBBPVI 2001c)
Boer safety s a key ob|ectve of the
At atmospherc pressure, 1 ft3 of water converted
to steam expands to occupy 1,600 ft3 of space. If
ths expanson takes pace n a vented tank, after
on boer safety and "ncdents" reated to boers whch the vent s cosed, the condensng steam w
and pressure vesses that occur each year. Fgure create a vacuum wth an externa force on the tank
of J00 tons! Boer operators must understand ths
concept (NTT 1996).
one ncdent category resutng n n|ury was poor
mantenance/operator error. Furthermore, statstcs trackng oss-of-fe ncdents reported that n
1999, three of seven boer-reated deaths were attrbuted to poor mantenance/operator error.
The
pont of reayng ths nformaton s to suggest that through proper mantenance and operator
tranng
these ncdents may be reduced.
Fgure 9.2.4. Adapted from 1999 Natona Board of Boer and Pressure Vesse Inspectors ncdent report
summary.
,.+
Natona Board of Boer and Pressure Vesse
Inspectors. Ths organzaton tracks and reports
9.2.4 detas the 1999 boer ncdents by ma|or
category. It s mportant to note that the number
Boer nspectons shoud be performed at reguar ntervas by certed boer nspectors.
Inspectons shoud ncude vercaton and functon of a safety systems and procedures as
we as
operator certcaton revew.
;%)%5 6ost and Energ"/,ater E$$icienc" (Dyer and Mapes 1988)
;%)%5%( E$$icienc"' 4a$et"' and Li$e o$ the E?uipent
It s mpossbe to change the emcency wthout changng the safety of the operaton and
the
resutant fe of the equpment, whch n turn ahects mantenance cost. An exampe to
ustrate
ths reaton between emcency, safety, and fe of the equpment s shown n Fgure 9.2.5. The
temperature dstrbuton n an emcenty operated boer s shown as the sod ne. If foung
deveops on the water sde due to poor water quaty contro, t w resut n a temperature
ncrease
of the hot gases on the re sde as shown by the dashed ne. Ths foung w resut n an
ncrease
n stack temperature, thus decreasng the emcency of the boer. A meta faure w aso
change
the fe of the boer, snce foung matera w aow corroson to occur, eadng to ncreased
mantenance cost and decreased equpment reabty and safety.
of The Boer Emcency Inst-
tute, Auburn, Aabama.
Fgure 9.2.5. Ehect of foung on water sde
;%)%5%) Boi!er Energ" Best Practices
In a study conducted by the Boer Emcency Insttute n Auburn, Aabama, researchers
have
deveoped eeven ways to mprove boer emcency wth mportant reasons behnd each
acton.
A =educe ecess air - Excess ar means there s more ar for combuston than s requred.
The
extra ar s heated up and thrown away. The most mportant parameter ahectng
combuston
emcency s the ar/fue rato.
- Symptom - The oxygen n the ar that s not used for combuston s dscharged n the
ue gas;
therefore, a smpe measurement of oxygen eve n the exhaust gas tes us how much
ar s
beng used. >ote: It s worth mentonng the other sde of the spectrum. The so caed
"decent ar" must be avoded as we because (1) t decreases emcency, (2) aows
depost of
soot on the re sde, and (3) the ue gases are potentay exposve.
,.,
- Action *eEired - Determne the combuston emcency usng dedcated or portabe
combuston anayss equpment. Ad|ustments for better burnng ncude:
Ceanng
New tps/orces
Damper repar
Contro repar
Refractory repar
Fue pressure
Furnace pressure
Swr at burner net
Atomzng pressure
Fue temperature
Burner poston
Bed thckness
Rato under/overre ar
Undergrate ar dstrbuton.
A 9nstall waste heat recovery - The magntude of the stack oss for boers wthout recovery
s
about 18% on gas-red and about 12% for o- and coa-red boers. A ma|or probem wth
heat recovery n ue gas s corroson. If ue gas s cooed, drops of acd condense at the acd
dew temperature. As the temperature of the ue gas s dropped further, the water dew pont
s
reached at whch water condenses. The water mxes wth the acd and reduces the severty of
the
corroson probem.
- Symptom - Fue gas temperature s the ndcator that determnes whether an economzer
or ar
heater s needed. It must be remembered that many factors cause hgh ue gas
temperature
(e.g., foued water sde or re sde surfaces, excess ar).
- Action *eEired - If ue gas temperature exceeds mnmum aowabe temperature by 50F
or
more, a conventona economzer may be economcay feasbe. An unconventona
recovery
devce shoud be consdered f the ow-temperature waste heat saved can be used to
heatng
water or ar. Cautionar$ +ote/ A high Ke gas temperatre may ,e a sign of poor heat
transfer
reslting from scale or soot deposits7 <oilers shold ,e cleaned and tned ,efore
considering the
installation of a 9aste heat recovery system7
A =educe scale and soot deposits - Scae or
deposts serve
as an nsuator, resutng n more heat from the ame
gong
up the stack rather than to the water due to these
deposts.
Any scae formaton has a tremendous potenta to
decrease
the heat transfer.
- Symptom - The best ndrect ndcator for scae or
depost bud-up s the
ue gas temperature. If
at the
same oad and excess ar
the ue gas temperature
rses
wth tme, the ehect s
probaby due to scae or
deposts.
Scae deposts on the water
sde and soot deposts on the re
sde of a boer not ony act as
nsuators that reduce emcency,
but aso cause damage to the tube
structure due to overheatng and
corroson.
- Action *eEired - Soot s caused prmary by ncompete combuston. Ths s probaby due
to decent ar, a foued burner, a defectve burner, etc. Ad|ust excess ar. Make repars as
necessary to emnate smoke and carbon monoxde.
Scae formaton s due to poor water quaty. Frst, the water must be soft as t enters the
boer. Sumcent chemca must be fed n the boer to contro hardness.
,.10
A =educe blowdown - Bowdown resuts n the energy n the hot water beng ost to the
sewer
uness energy recovery equpment s used. There are two types of bowdown. Mud bow s
desgned to remove the heavy sudge that accumuates at the bottom of the boer.
Contnuous or
skmmng bow s desgned to remove ght sods that are dssoved n the water.
- Symptom - Observe the coseness of the varous water quaty parameters to the
toerances
stpuated for the boer per manufacturer speccatons and check a sampe of mud
bowdown
to ensure bowdown s ony used for that purpose. Check the water quaty n the boer
usng
standards chemca tests.
- Acton Requred - Conduct proper pre-treatment of the water by ensurng makeup s
softened. Perform a "mud test" each tme a mud bowdown s executed to reduce t to a
mnmum. A test shoud be conducted to see how hgh tota dssoved sods (TDS) n the
boer can be carred wthout carryover.
A =ecover waste heat from blowdown -
Bowdown
contans energy, whch can be captured by a waste
heat
recovery system.
Typca uses for waste heat ncude:
Heatng of combuston ar w
- Symptom and Action *eEired - Any boer
wth
a sgncant makeup (say 5%) s a canddate
for
bowdown waste heat recovery.
Makeup water heatng

Boer feedwater heatng
Approprate process water heatng
Domestc water heatng.
A Stop dynamic operation on applicable boilers
- Symptom - Any boer whch ether stays oh a sgncant amount of tme or contnuousy
vares n rng rate can be changed to mprove emcency.
- Action *eEired - For boers whch operate on and oh, t may be possbe to reduce the
rng
rate by changng burner tps. Another pont to consder s whether more boers are
beng
used than necessary.
A =educe line pressure - Lne pressure sets the steam temperature for saturated steam.
- Symptom and Action *eEired - Any steam ne that s beng operated at a pressure
hgher than
the process requrements ohers a potenta to save energy by reducng steam ne
pressure to
a mnmum requred pressure determned by engneerng studes of the systems for
dherent
seasons of the year.
wOperate boilers at pea1 e*ciency - Pants havng two or more boers can save energy
by oad
management such that each boer s operated to obtan combned peak emcency.
- Symptom and Action *eEired - Improved emcency can be obtaned by proper oad
seecton,
f operators determne rng schedue by those boers, whch operate "smoothy."
A /reheat combustion air - Snce the boer and stack reease heat, whch rses to the top
of the
boer room, the ar ducts can be arranged so the boer s abe to draw the hot ar down
back to
the boer.
- Symptom - Measure vertca temperature n the boer room to ndcate magntude of
stratcaton of the ar.
- Action *eEired - Modfy the ar crcuaton so the boer ntake for outsde ar s abe to
draw
from the top of the boer room.
,.11
Reprnted wth permsson of the Natona Board of Boer and Pressure Vesse Inspectors.
Genera Requrements for a Safe and Emcent Boer Room
1. w Keep the boer room cean and cear of a unnecessary tems. The boer room shoud not be consdered
an a-purpose storage area. The burner requres proper ar crcuaton n order to prevent ncompete fue
combuston. Use boer operatng og sheets, mantenance records, and the producton of carbon monoxde.
The boer room s for the boer!
2. w Ensure that a personne who operate or mantan the boer room are propery traned on a equpment,
contros, safety devces, and up-to-date operatng procedures.
3. w Before start-up, ensure that the boer room s free of a potentay dangerous stuatons, ke ammabe
materas, mechanca, or physca damage to the boer or reated equpment. Cear ntakes and exhaust
vents; check for deteroraton and possbe eaks.
4. w Ensure a thorough nspecton by a propery quaed nspector.
5. w After any extensve repar or new nstaaton of equpment, make sure a quaed boer nspector re-nspects
the entre system.
6. w Montor a new equpment cosey unt safety and emcency are demonstrated.
7. Use boer operatng og sheets, mantenance records, and manufacturers recommendatons to estabsh a
preventve mantenance schedue based on operatng condtons, past mantenance, repar, and repacement
that were performed on the equpment.
8. w Estabsh a checkst for proper startup and shutdown of boers and a reated equpment accordng to
manufacturers recommendatons.
9. w Observe equpment extensvey before aowng an automatng operaton system to be used wth mnma
supervson.
10. Estabsh a perodc preventve mantenance and safety program that foows manufacturers recommendatons.
A Switch from steam to air atomi3ation - The energy to produce the ar s a tny fracton of
the
energy n the fue, whe the energy n the steam s usuay 1% or more of the energy n the
fue.
- Symptom - Any steam-atomzed burner s a canddate for retrot.
- Action *eEired - Check economcs to see f satsfactory return on nvestment s avaabe.
;%)%8 Maintenance o$ Boi!ers
(NBBPVI 2001a)
A boer emcency mprovement program must ncude two aspects: (1) acton to brng the
boer to peak emcency and (2) acton to mantan the emcency at the maxmum eve. Good
mantenance and emcency start wth havng a workng knowedge of the components
assocated
wth the boer, keepng records, etc., and end wth ceanng heat transfer surfaces, ad|ustng the
ar-to-fue rato, etc (NBBPVI 2001a). Sampe steam/hot-water boer mantenance, testng and
nspecton ogs, as we as water quaty testng og can be found can be found at the end of ths
secton foowng the mantenance checksts.
;%)%9 Diagnostic Too!s
w-ombustion analy3er - A combuston anayzer sampes, anayzes, and reports the
combuston
emcency of most types of combuston equpment ncudng boers, furnaces, and water
heaters.
When propery mantaned and cabrated, these devces provde an accurate measure of
combuston emcency from whch emcency correctons can be made. Combuston anayzers
come n a varety of styes from portabe unts to dedcated unts.
,.12
w!hermography - An nfrared thermometer or camera aows for an accurate, non-contact
assessment of temperature. Appcatons for boers ncude nsuaton assessments on
boers,
steam, and condensate-return ppng. Other appcatons ncude motor/bearng
temperature
assessments on feedwater pumps and draft fan systems. More nformaton on
thermography can
be found n Chapter 6. w
;%)%: Avai!a#!e 4o$t-are Too!s
wSteam System !ool Suite
*escription/ If you consder potenta steam system mprovements n your pant, the
resuts
coud be worthwhe. In fact, n many factes, steam system mprovements can save 10% to
20% n
fue costs.
To hep you tap nto potenta savngs n your facty, DOE ohers a sute of toos for
evauatng
and dentfyng steam system mprovements. The toos suggest a range of ways to save steam
energy
and boost productvty. They aso compare your system aganst dented best practces and
the sef-
evauatons of smar factes.
wSteam System Scoping !ool
Ths too s desgned to hep steam system energy managers and operatons personne to
perform
nta sef-assessments of ther steam systems. Ths too w proe and grade steam system
operatons
and management. Ths too w hep you to evauate your steam system operatons aganst
best
practces.
wSteam System Assessment !ool #SSA!( :ersion L
SSAT aows steam anaysts to deveop approxmate modes of rea steam systems. Usng
these
modes, you can appy SSAT to quantfy the magntude-energy, cost, and emssons-savngs-
of key
potenta steam mprovement opportuntes. SSAT contans the key features of typca steam
systems.
New to Verson 3 ncudes a set of tempates for measurement n both Engsh and metrc
unts. The new tempates correct a known probems wth Verson 2, such as an update to the
User
Cacuatons sheet, whch aows better access to Mcrosoft Exce functonaty. Verson 3 s aso
now
compatbe wth Mcrosoft Vsta and Mcrosoft Exce 2007.
A LE /lusC 0ersion 1,2
The program cacuates the most economca thckness of ndustra nsuaton for user
nput
operatng condtons. You can make cacuatons usng the but-n therma performance
reatonshps
of generc nsuaton materas or suppy conductvty data for other materas.
Availabilit$/ To downoad the Steam System Too Sute and earn more about DOE
Ouaed
Specasts and tranng opportuntes, vst the Industra Technoogy Program Web ste:
www1.eere.energy.gov/ndustry/bestpractces .
,.13
;%)%; Re!evant Operationa!/Energ" E$$icienc" Measures
There are many operatona/energy emcency measures that coud be presented for proper
boer
operaton and contro. The foowng secton focuses on the most prevaent O&M
recommendatons
havng the greatest energy mpacts at Federa factes. These recommendatons are aso some
of the
most easy mpemented for boer operators and O&M stah/contractors.
;%)%;%( Boi!er Measure G(2 Boi!er Loading' 4e?uencing' 4chedu!ing'
and 6ontro!
The degree to whch a boer s oaded can be determned by the boers rng rate. Some
boer
manufacturers produce boers that operate at a snge rng rate, but most manufacturers
boers can
operate over a wde range of rng rates. The rng rate dctates the amount of heat that s
produced
by the boer and consequenty, moduates to meet the heatng requrements of a gven system
or
process. In tradtona commerca budngs, the hot water or steam demands w be
consderaby
greater n the wnter months, graduay decreasng n the sprng/fa months and nay httng ts
ow
pont durng the summer. A boer w hande ths changng demand by ncreasng or decreasng
the
boers rng rate. Meetng these changng oads ntroduces chaenges to boer operators to
meet
the gven oads whe oadng, sequencng and schedung the boers propery.
Any gas-red boer that cyces on and oh reguary or
has
a rng rate that contnuay changes over short perods can
be
atered to mprove the boers emcency. Frequent boer
cycng
s usuay a sgn of nsumcent budng and/or process
oadng.
Possbe soutons to ths probem (Dyer 1991) ncude
ad|ustng
the boers hgh and ow pressure mts (or dherenta)
farther
apart and thus keepng the boer on and oh for onger perods of
tme. The second opton s repacement wth a propery szed
boer.
O&M !ip)
Load management measures,
ncudng optma matchng of
boer sze and boer oad,
can save as much as 50% of
a ,oiler=s fue use.
The emcency penaty assocated wth ow-rng stem from the operatona characterstc of
the
boer. Typcay, a boer has ts hghest emcency at hgh re and near fu oad. Ths emcency
usuay decreases wth decreasng oad.
The emcency penaty reated to the boer cyce conssts of a pre-purge, a rng nterva, and
a
post-purge, foowed by an de (oh) perod. Whe necessary to ensure a safe burn cyce, the pre-
and
post-purge cyces resut n heat oss up the exhaust stack. Short cycng resuts n excessve heat
oss.
Tabe 9.2.1 ndcates the energy oss resutng from ths type of cycng (Dyer 1991).
Tabe 9.2.1. Boer cycng energy oss
,.1&
>umber of
-ycles:$our
/ercentage of
Energy ?oss
2 2
5 8
10 30
Based on equa tme between on and oh, purge 1 mnute, stack temp = 400F,
arow
Opportunity 9denti4cation
Boer operators shoud record n the day og f the boer s cycng frequenty. If excessve
cycng s observed, operators shoud consder the optons gven above to correct the probem.
Boer operators shoud aso record n the day og the rng rate to meet the gven hot
water or
steam oad. If the boers rng rate contnuousy cyces over short perods of tme and wth
fary
sma varatons n oad - ths shoud be noted. Seasona varatons n rng rate shoud be
noted wth
an eye for sporadc rng over tme. Correctons n rng rates requre knowedge of boer
contros
and shoud ony be made by quaed stah.
2iagnostic Equipment
2ata ?oggers. The dagnostc test equpment to consder for assessng boer cycng
ncudes
many types of eectrc data oggng equpment. These data oggers can be congured to
record the
tme-seres eectrca energy devered to the boers purge fan as ether an amperage or
wattage
measurement. These data coud then be used to dentfy cycng frequency and hours of
operaton.
Other data oggng optons ncude a varety of stand-aone data oggers that record run-
tme
of eectrc devces and are actvated by sensng the magnetc ed generated durng eectrc
motor
operaton. As above, these oggers deveop a tmes-seres record of on-tme whch s then used
to
dentfy cycng frequency and hours of operaton.
Energy Savings and Economics
Estimated Annual Energy Savings. Usng Tabe 9.2.1 the annua energy savngs, whch
coud be
reazed by emnatng or reducng cycng osses, can be estmated as foows:
where:
BL = current boer oad or rng rate, %/100
RFC = rated fue consumpton at fu oad, MMBtu/hr
EFF = boer emcency, %/100
EL1 = current energy oss due to cycng, %
EL2 = tuned energy oss due to cycng, %
H = hours the boer operates at the gven cycng rate, hours
,.1'
Estimated Annual -ost Savings. The annua cost savngs, whch coud be reazed by
emnat-
ng or reducng cycng osses, can be estmated as foows:
Annual Cost Savings = Annual Energy Savings FC
where: FC = fue cost, $/MMBtu
;oiler ?oading Energy Savings and Economics Eample
Eample Synopsis) A boers hgh pressure set pont was ncreased to reduce the cycng
osses
of a gven boer. Before the change was mpemented, the boer cyced on and oh 5 tmes per
hour,
durng ow oad condtons. Wth the new set pont, the boer ony cyces on and oh 2 tmes per
hour. The boer operates at ths ow oad condton approxmatey 2,500 hours per year, and has
a
rng rate at ths reduced oadng of 20%. The rated fue consumpton at fu oad s 10 MMBtu/hr,
wth an emcency of 82%. The average fue cost for the boer s $9.00/MMBtu.
The annua energy savngs can be estmated as:
The annua cost savngs can be estmated as:
An assocated energy conservaton measure that shoud be consdered, n reaton to boer
sequencng and contro, reates to the number of boers that operate to meet a gven process or
budng oad. The more boers that operate to meet a gven oad, resuts n ower rng rates for
each
boer. Boer manufacturers shoud be contacted to acqure nformaton on how we each boer
performs at a gven rng rate, and the boers shoud be operated accordngy to oad the boers
as
emcenty as possbe. The ste shoud aso make every possbe ehort to reduce the number of
boers
operatng at a gven tme.
Operation and Maintenance N /ersistence
Most boers requre day attenton ncudng aspects of oggng boer functons, temperatures
and pressures. Boer operators need to contnuousy montor the boers operaton to ensure
proper
operaton, emcency and safety. For deas on persstence actons see the Boer Operatons and
Mantenance Checkst at the end of ths secton.
,.1(
;%)%;%) Boi!er Measure G)2 Boi!er 6o#ustion E$$icienc"
The boer combuston process s ahected by many varabes
ncudng the temperature, pressure, and humdty of
ambent
ar; the composton of the fue and the rate of fue and
ar
suppy to the process. It s mportant to note that the
theoretca
representaton of the combuston process s |ust that -
theoretca.
It s mportant to consder a of the rea-word
nemcences
and how the fue and ar actuay come together when makng
combuston emcency estmates.
O&M !ip)
A comprehensve tune-up wth
precson testng equpment to
detect and correct excess ar
osses, smokng, unburned fue
osses, sootng, and hgh stack
temperatures can resut n ,oiler
fue savngs of 2% to 20%.
The emcency of the combuston process s typcay measured through the percent oxygen
(O2) n the exhaust gas. The amount of oxygen (or excess ar as t s often referred to) n the
exhaust gas s dened as the amount of ar, above that whch s theoretcay requred for
compete
combuston. It s mperatve that boers are operated wth some excess ar to ensure compete
and
safe combuston. Yet, the amount of excess ar needs to be controed so to mnmze the
osses
assocated wth the heat that s expeed n the exhaust gases. Tabe 9.2.2 summarzes the
typca
optmum excess ar requrements of conventona boers (Doty and Turner 2009).
Tabe 9.2.2. Optmum excess ar
6uel !ype
Natura gas
Natura gas
Natura gas
No. 2 o
No. 2 o
No. 2 o
No. 6 o
6iring
Method
Natura draft
Forced draft
Low excess ar
Rotary cup
Ar-atomzed
Steam-atomzed
Steam-atomzed
Optimum
Ecess Air #O(
20 to 30
5 to 10
0.4 to 0.2
15 to 20
10 to 15
10 to 15
10 to 15
Equivalent O%
#by volume(
4 to 5
1 to 2
0.1 to 0.5
3 to 4
2 to 3
2 to 3
2 to 3
The tuned combuston emcency vaues specc to the sub|ect boer are typcay pubshed
by
the manufacturer. These vaues, usuay pubshed as easy to use charts, w dspay the
optmum
combuston emcency compared to the boer oad or rng rate. Usng ths nformaton, ste
personne can determne the maxmum combuston emcency at the average oad of the
sub|ect
boer.
If the boer has arge varances n oad (rng rate) throughout the year, and the gven
boer
combuston emcency vares sgncanty wth oad (rng rate), the equaton referenced beow
can
be cacuated for each season, wth the approprate emcency and fue consumpton for the
gven
season.
!uning the ;oiler. The boer can be tuned by ad|ustng the ar to fue rato nkages
feedng the boer burner. Experenced boer operators w need to ad|ust the ar to fue
nkages
accordngy to ncrease or decrease the gven ratos to acheve the optmum excess ar and
resutng
combuston emcency.
,.1*
2iagnostic Equipment. To accuratey measure combuston emcency, excess ar and a host
of
other dagnostc parameters, a combuston anayzer s recommended. These devces, made by a
number of dherent manufacturers, are typcay portabe, handhed devces that are quck and
easy to
use. Most modern combuston anayzers w measure and cacuate the foowng:
Combuston ar ambent temperature, Ta
Stack temperature of the boer, Ts
Percent excess ar, %
Percent O2, %
Percent CO2, %
Percent CO, %
Ntrc Oxde, NX ppm
Combuston emcency, EF
A typca combuston anayzer s shown beow n Fgure 9.2.6. The probe seen n the pcture
s nserted n a hoe n the exhaust stack of the boer. If the boer has a heat recovery system
n the boer exhaust stack, such as an economzer, the probe shoud be nserted above the heat
recovery system. Fgure 9.2.7 provdes exampe ocatons for measurement of stack temperature
and
combuston ar temperature readngs (Combuston Anayss Bascs 2004).
,.1+
Fgure 9.2.6. Combuston anayzer
Fgure 9.2.7. Exampe ocatons - combuston anayss
Estimated Annual Energy Savings. The annua energy savngs, whch coud be reazed
by
mprovng combuston emcency, can be estmated as foows:
where w
EFF1 = current combuston emcency, % w
EFF2 = tuned combuston emcency, %
AFC = annua fue consumpton, MMBtu/yr
mprovng
combuston emcency, can be estmated as foows:
where FC = fue cost, $/MMBtu
-ombustion E*ciency Energy Savings and Economics Eample
Eample Synopsis) A boer has an annua fue consumpton of 5,000 MMBtu/yr. A
combuston
emcency test reveas an excess ar rato of 28.1%, an excess oxygen rato of 5%, a ue gas
temperature
of 400F, and a 79.5% combuston emcency. The boer manufacturers speccaton sheets
ndcate that the boer can safey operate at a 9.5% excess ar rato, whch woud reduce the
ue gas
temperature to 300F and ncrease the combuston emcency to 83.1%. The average fue cost
for the
boer s $9.00/MMBtu.
Combuston anayss measurements shoud be taken reguary to ensure emcent boer
operaton
a year. Dependng on use, boers shoud be tuned at east annuay; hgh use boers at east
twce annuay.
,.1,
Boers that have hghy varabe oads throughout the year shoud consder the nstaaton
of onne oxygen anayzers. These anayzers w montor the O2 n the exhaust gas and provde
feedback to the nkages controng the ar to fue ratos nto the boers burner (DOE 2002). Ths
type of contro usuay ohers sgncant savngs by contnuousy changng the ar to fue nkages
and
mantanng optmum combuston emcences at a tmes. It shoud be noted that even f the
boer
has an oxygen "trm" system, the boer operators shoud perodcay test the boers wth
handhed
combuston anayzers to ensure the automated contros are cabrated and operatng propery.
;%)%;%* Boi!er Measure G*2 Trending Boi!er 4tac@ Teperature
Trendng the boer stack temperature ensures the mnmum amount of heat s expeed wth
the
boers exhaust gases. Ths essentay mnmzes the tota therma mass owng wth the
exhaust ar
out of the boer. A ower boer stack temperature means more of the heat s gong nto the water
or
steam servng the process oad or HVAC system n the budng.
The stack temperature of the boer can be optmzed and mantaned by makng sure a heat
transfer surfaces (both on the re-sde and on the water sde) are cean. Ths s accompshed
through
an ehectve water treatment program (water sde ahect) and a re-sde ceanng program.
A na method of stack-gas temperature optmzaton can be accompshed through the use of
a
heat recovery system such as an economzer. An economzer paces an ar to water heat
exchanger n
the exhaust stack that uses the heat n the exhaust gases to preheat the feed water nto the
boer.
;%)%;%3 Opportunit" &denti$ication
Ths secton w focus on mantanng an ehectve water sde mantenance/ceanng, and re
sde ceanng program as these are no-ow cost measures to mpement, that shoud be part of
the
Operatons and Mantenance program for the budng.
Fire side Cleaning and Maintenance Progra', Fre sde ceanng conssts of manuay
ceanng
the partcuates that accumuate on the re sde of the boer. Reducng the resdue on the re
sde of
the boer ncreases the amount of heat that gets absorbed nto the water, and heps mantan
proper
emssons from the boer. Some partcuate accumuaton s norma for contnuousy operatng
boers, but excessve re sde resdue can be an ndcaton of faed nterna components that are
expeng unburned fue nto the combuston chamber, causng excess sootng. Excess sootng
can
aso be the resut of ncompete combuston due to nadequate excess ar.
3ater side Cleaning and Maintenance Progra', Hot water
O&M !ip)
Every 40F reducton n net stack
temperature (outet temperature
requre any addtona chemcas or day water treatment tests. mnus net combuston ar
Steam boers on the other hand, ose steam due to a varety of temperature) s estmated to save
1% to 2% of a boers fue use.
consstent water eves. Boer water-sde mantenance for steam
boers conssts of mantanng "soft water" for the feed-water and
emnatng as much dssoved oxygen as possbe. The rst requres day chemca montorng
and
treatment of the feed-water. The presence of "hard-water" can create a "scae" budup on the
ppes.
Once but up, the scae acts as an nsuator and nhbts heat transfer nto the boer water. Ths
creates excess heat n the combuston chamber that gets vented wth the exhaust gases rather
than
absorbng nto the process water.
,.20
boers are usuay cosed oop systems, therefore the boer water
s treated before t enters the boer and ppng, and does not
crcumstances and therefore requre addtona water to mantan
Scae formaton on the water sde of the boer s due to poor water quaty, as such, water
must be
treated before t enters the boer. Tabe 9.2.3 presents the chemca mts recommended for
Boer-
Water Concentratons (Doty and Turner 2009).
The tabe coumns hghght the mts accordng to the Amercan Boer Manufacturers
Assocaton (ABMA) for total solids4 al(alinit$4 suspended solids4 and silica. For each
coumn
headng the ABMA vaue represents the target mt whe the coumn headed "Possbe"
represents
the upper mt.
Tabe 9.2.3. Recommended mts for boer-water concentratons
The second water-sde mantenance actvty requres an operatona de-aerator to remove
excess oxygen. Excess oxygen n the feed-water ppng can ead to oxygen pttng and
utmatey
corroson whch can cause ppe faure. As seen n Fgures 9.2.8 through 9.2.13, proper de-
aerator
operaton s essenta to prevent oxygen pttng whch can cause catastrophc faures n steam
systems
(Eckern 2006).
Dagnostc equpment conssts of a boer-stack thermometer and water treatment test
equpment
necessary to propery anayze the boer water. Loca water treatment companes shoud be
contacted
to determne the approprate addtves and controng agents needed for the partcuar water
compostons that are unque to the gven communty or regon.
Fgure 9.2.8. Boer tube - scae depost
Release 3.0
Fgure 9.2.9. Boer
tube - faure
(rupture)
,.21
2rum
/ressure
#psig(
!otal Solids Al1alinity Suspended
Solids
Silica
ABMA Possb
e
ABMA Possb
e
ABMA Possb
e
ABMA
0 to 300 3,500 6,000 700 1,000 300 250 125
301 to 450 3,000 5,000 600 900 250 200 90
451 to 600 2,500 4,000 500 500 150 100 50
601 to 750 2,000 2,500 400 400 100 50 35
751 to 900 1,500 -- 300 300 60 -- 20
901 to 1,000 1,250 -- 250 250 40 -- 8
1,001 to 1,500 1,000 -- 200 200 20 -- 2
Fgure 9.2.14 presents energy oss percentage as a functon of scae thckness. Ths
nformaton s
very usefu n estmatng the resutng energy oss from scae bud-up.
Fgure 9.2.10. Feed-water ppe - oxygen
pttng
Fgure 9.2.12. Condensate ppe - oxygen
pttng
Fgure 9.2.11. Boer tube - faure (rupture)
Fgure 9.2.13. Condensate ppe - acdc
corroson
Fgure 9.2.14. Boer energy osses versus scae thckness
Estimated Annual Energy Savings
The annua energy savngs, whch coud be reazed by removng scae from the water sde of
the
boer, can be estmated as foows:
,.22
where
BL = current boer oad or rng rate, %/100
RFC = rated fue consumpton at fu oad, MMBtu/hr
EFF = boer emcency, %/100
EL1 = current energy oss due to scae budup, %
EL2 = tuned energy oss wth out scae budup, %
H = hours the boer operates at the gven cycng rate, hours
Estimated Annual -ost Savings
The annua cost savngs, whch coud be reazed by removng scae from the water sde of
the
boer, can be estmated as foows:
where
FC = fue cost, $/MMBtu
;oiler !ube -leaning Energy Savings and Economics Eample
Eample Synopsis) After vsuay nspectng the water sde of a water tube boer, norma
scae
3/64 nch thck was found on the nner surface of the tubes resutng n an estmated 3%
emcency
penaty (see Fgure 9.2.14). On-ste O&M personne are gong to manuay remove the scae.
The
boer currenty operates 4,000 hrs per year, at an average rng rate of 50%, wth a boer
emcency of
82% and a rated fue consumpton at fu oad of 10 MMBtu/hr. The average fue cost for the
boer s
$9.00/MMBtu.
O
&
M

Best Practices Guide, Release 3.0
,.23
Boer operators shoud record the resuts of the boer water-chemstry tests day. The water-
chemstry tests shoud be recorded and benchmarked to determne the necessary treatment.
Boer operators shoud compete day records of the de-aerators operaton to ensure
contnuous
and proper operaton.
Boer operators shoud take day ogs of stack temperature for trendng purposes as ths s a
hghy dagnostc ndcaton of boer heat-transfer-surface condton. An ncreasng stack
temperature can be ndcatve of reduced heat transfer.
The re sde of the boer shoud be ceaned once a year, and s usuay mandated by oca
emsson reguatory commttee. w
The Boer Operatons and Mantenance Checkst, sampe boer mantenance og, and water
quaty test report form are provded at the end of ths secton for revew and consderaton.
;%)%(= Boi!er Ru!es o$ Thu#
In the report, $ise *les for Indstrial Energy E%ciency, the EPA deveops a comprehensve
st of
rues-of-thumb reatng to boer emcency mprovements. Some of these rues are presented
beow
(EPA 2003):
w;oiler =ule G. Ehectve boer oad management technques, such as operatng on hgh re
settngs or nstang smaer boers, can save over 7% of a typca facility=s tota energy use
wth
an average smpe payback of ess than 2 years.
w;oiler =ule %. Load management measures, ncudng optma matchng of boer sze and
boer
oad, can save as much as 50% of a ,oiler=s fue use.
w;oiler =ule L. An upgraded boer mantenance program ncudng optmzng ar-to-fue
rato,
burner mantenance, and tube ceanng, can save about 2% of a facility=s tota energy use
wth an
average smpy payback of 5 months.
w;oiler =ule +. A comprehensve tune-up wth precson testng equpment to detect and
correct
excess ar osses, smokng, unburned fue osses, sootng, and hgh stack temperatures can
resut n
,oiler fue savngs of 2% to 20%.
w;oiler =ule D. A 3% decrease n ue gas O2 typcay produces ,oiler fue savngs of 2%.
w;oiler =ule F. Every 40F reducton n net stack temperature (outet temperature mnus
net
combuston ar temperature s estmated to save 1% to 2% of a boers fue use.
w;oiler =ule '. Removng a 1/32 nch depost on boer heat transfer surfaces can decrease a
boers fue use by 2%; remova of a 1/8 nch depost can decrease boer fue use by over 8%.
w;oiler =ule ,. For every 11F that the enterng feedwater temperature s ncreased, the
boers
fue use s reduced by 1%.
,.2&

;%)%(=%( Boi!er ,ater.Ase Best Practices
Boers and steam generators are not ony used n comfort heatng appcatons, they are
aso used
n nsttutona ktchens, or n factes where arge amounts of process steam are used. These
systems
use varyng amounts of water dependng on the sze of the system, the amount of steam used,
and the
amount of condensate returned.
To mantan optma equpment performance and mnmzed water use, the foowng
gudenes
are suggested:
Insta meters on boer system make up nes to track system water use and trend.
Insta meters on make-up nes to recrcuatng cosed water oop heatng systems so that
eaks
can be easy detected.
Boer bowdown s the perodc or contnuous remova of water from a boer to remove
accumuated dssoved sods and/or sudges and s a common mechansm to reduce
contamnant
bud-up. Proper contro of bowdown s crtca to boer operaton. Insumcent bowdown
may
ead to emcency reducng deposts on heat transfer surfaces. Excessve bowdown wastes
water,
energy, and chemcas. The Amercan Socety of Mechanca Engneers (ASME 1994) has
deveoped a consensus on operatng practces for boer feedwater and bowdown that s
reated to
operatng pressure, whch appes for both steam purty and deposton contro.
Consder obtanng the servces of a water treatment specast to prevent system scae,
corroson
and optmze cyces of concentraton. Treatment programs shoud ncude perodc checks
of
boer water chemstry and automated chemca devery to optmze performance and
mnmze
water use.
Deveop and mpement a routne nspecton and mantenance program to check steam
traps and
steam nes for eaks. Repar eaks as soon as possbe.
Deveop and mpement a boer tunng program to be competed a mnmum of once per
operatng year.
Provde proper nsuaton on ppng and on the centra storage tank.
Deveop and mpement a routne nspecton and mantenance program on condensate
pumps.
Reguary cean and nspect boer water and re tubes. Reducng scae budup w mprove
heat
transfer and the energy emcency of the system.
Empoy an expanson tank to temper boer bowdown dranage rather than cod water
mxng.
Mantan your condensate return system. By recycng condensate for reuse, water suppy,
chemca use, and operatng costs for ths equpment can be reduced by up to 70 percent.
A
condensate return system aso heps ower energy costs as the condensate water s aready
hot and
needs ess heatng to produce steam than water from other make-up sources.
Insta an automatc bowdown system based on boer water quaty to better manage the
treatment of boer make-up water.
,.2'
;%)%(( 6ase 4tudies
-ombustion E*ciency of a >atural 5as ;oiler (OIT 2001)
A study of combuston emcency of a 300 hp natura-gas-red heatng boer was competed.
Fue
gas measurements were taken and found a temperature of 400F and a percentage of oxygen of
6.2%.
An emcent, we-tuned boer of ths type and sze shoud have a percent oxygen readng of
about 2%
- correspondng to about 10% excess ar. Ths extra oxygen n the ue gas transates nto excess
ar
(and ts heat) traveng out of the boer system - a waste of energy.
The cacuated savngs from brngng ths boer to the recommended oxygen/excess ar eve
was
about $730 per year. The cost to mpement ths acton ncuded the purchase of an nexpensve
combuston anayzer costng $500. Thus, the cost savngs of $730 woud pay for the
mpementaton
cost of $500 n about 8 months. Added to these savngs s the abty to tune other boers at the
ste
wth ths same anayzer.
;%)%() Boi!er 6hec@!ist' 4ap!e Boi!er Maintenance Log' and
,ater 7ua!it" Test
,.2(
2escription -omments
Maintenance 6requency
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
Boer use/sequencng Turn oh/sequence unnecessary
boers
X
Overa vsua
nspecton
Compete overa vsua
nspecton to
be sure a equpment s
X
Foow manufacturers
recommended procedures
n
ubrcatng a
Compare temperatures wth
tests
performed after annua ceanng
X
Check steam pressure Is varaton n steam pressure as
expected under dherent oads?
Wet
steam may be produced f the
pressure
X
Check unstabe water
eve
Unstabe eves can be a sgn of
contamnates n feedwater,
overoadng
of boer, equpment mafuncton
X
Check burner Check for proper contro and
ceanness
X
Check motor condton Check for proper functon
temperatures
X
Check ar temperatures
n
Temperatures shoud not exceed
or
X
Boer bowdown Verfy the bottom, surface and
water
coumn bow downs are
X
Boer Checkst (contd)
,.2*
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
Boer ogs Keep day ogs on:
Type and amount of fue used
Fue gas temperature
Makeup water voume
Steam pressure, temperature,
and
amount generated
Look for varatons as a method
of faut
X
Check o ter
assembes
Check and cean/repace o
ters and
X
Inspect o heaters Check to ensure that o s at
proper
X
Check boer water
treatment
Conrm water treatment system
s
X
Check ue gas
temperatures
and composton
Measure ue gas composton
and
temperatures at seected rng
postons
- recommended O2% and CO2%
Fue O2% CO2%
Natura gas 1.5 10
No. 2 fue o 2.0 11.5
No. 6 fue o 2.5 12.5
Note: percentages may vary due
X
Check a reef vaves Check for eaks X
Check water eve
contro
Stop feedwater pump and aow
contro to stop fue ow to
burner.
Do not aow water eve to drop
beow
X
Check pot and burner
assembes
Cean pot and burner foowng
manufacturers gudenes.
Examne for
mnera or corroson budup.
X
Check boer operatng
characterstcs
Stop fue ow and observe ame
faure.
Start boer and observe
X
Inspect system for
water/
steam eaks and
Look for: eaks, defectve vaves
and
traps, corroded ppng, condton
X
Inspect a nkages on
combuston ar dampers
and
fue vaves
Check for proper settng and
tghtness
X
Inspect boer for ar
eaks
Check damper seas X
Check bowdown and
water
Determne f bowdown s
adequate to
X
Fue gases Measure and compare ast
months
readngs ue gas composton
X
Boer Checkst (contd)
,.2+
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
Combuston ar suppy Check combuston ar net to
boer
room and boer to make sure
X
Check fue system Check pressure gauge, pumps,
ters
and transfer nes. Cean ters
X
Check bets and
packng
Check bets for proper tenson.
Check
X
Check for ar eaks Check for ar eaks around
access
X
Check a bower bets Check for tghtness and
mnmum
X
Check a gaskets Check gaskets for tght seang,
repace
f do not provde tght sea
X
Inspect boer nsuaton Inspect a boer nsuaton and
casngs
for hot spots
X
Steam contro vaves Cabrate steam contro vaves
as
X
Pressure
reducng/reguatng
Check for proper operaton
vaves
X
Perform water quaty
test
Check water quaty for proper
chemca baance
X
Cean water sde
surfaces
Foow manufacturers
recommendaton
on ceanng and preparng water
X
Cean re sde Foow manufacturers
recommendaton
on ceanng and preparng re
X
Inspect and repar
refractores on re sde
Use recommended matera and
procedures
X
Reef vave Remove and recondton or
repace
X
Feedwater system Cean and recondton feedwater
pumps. Cean condensate recevers
and
deaeraton system
X
Fue system Cean and recondton system
pumps,
ters, pot, o preheaters, o
X
Eectrca systems Cean a eectrca termnas.
Check
eectronc contros and repace
X
Hydrauc and
pneumatc
Check operaton and repar as
necessary
X
Fue gases Make ad|ustments to gve
optma ue
gas composton. Record
X
Eddy current test As requred, conduct eddy
current test
X
,.2,
Boers Checkst (contd)
,.30
,.31
Sampe Water Ouaty Test Form
Date Softene
r
Feedwater Boer Water Test Condensat
e
Lbs
products
Operato
r
Tota
Hardnes
s
TDS
or
Tota
Hardnes
s
pH Br.
No.
O-
Ak
TDS
or
SO2 SO3 Poy or
PO4
pH TDS
or
;%)%(* Re$erences
ASME 1994. #onsenss &perating Practic es for #ontrol of Feed9aterI<oiler $ater #hemistry
in
Modern Indstrial <oilers, Amercan Socety of Mechanca Engneers, New York, New York.
Combuston Anayss Bascs. 2004. An &vervie9 of Measrements, Methods and #alclations
Fsed in
#om,stion Analysis. TSI Incorporated, Shorevew, Mnnesota.
DOE. 2002. "Improve Your Boers Combuston Emcency, Tp Sheet #4." In Energy Tips, DOE/
GO 102002-1 506, Omce of Industra Technooges, U.S. Department of Energy, Washngton, D.C.
DOE. 2009. 2009 <ildings Energy 8ata <oo-. Prepared by Oak Rdge Natona Laboratory for the
Omce of Energy Emcency and Renewabe Energy, U.S. Department of Energy, Washngton, D.C.
Avaabe at: http://budngsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/ .
Doty, S. and Turner WC. 2009. Energy Management Dand,oo-. Seventh Edton, Farmont Press,
Lburn, Georga.
Dyer D. 1991. Mapes, Gennon Boer Emcency Improvement, Boer Emcency Insttute, Auburn,
Aabama, Ffth Edton.
Dyer, D.F. and G. Mapes. 1988. <oiler E%ciency Improvement7 Boer Emcency Insttute, Auburn,
Aabama.
Eckern H. 2006. "Measurng and Improvng Combuston Emcency." In Bational IA# $e,cast
"ectre Series 200M, "ectre 27 U.S. Department of Energy, Industra Assessment Center at
North
Carona Unversty, USDOE SAVE ENERGY NOW. Avaabe URL:
http://ac.rutgers.edu/ectures2006/arch_ectures.php .
EPA. 2003. $ise *les for Indstrial Energy E%ciency N A Tool Oit For Estimating Energy Savings
and
>reenhose >as Emissions *edctions. EPA 231-R-98-014, U.S. Envronmenta Protecton Agency,
Washngton, D.C.
EPA. 2006. Deating and #ooling System Fpgrades. U.S. Envronmenta Protecton Agency,
Washngton, D.C. Avaabe URL: http://www.energystar.gov .
Nakoneczny, G.|. |uy 1, 2001. <oiler Fitness Srvey for #ondition Assessment of Indstrial
<oilers,
BR-1635, Babcock & Wcox Company, Charotte, North Carona.
Nes, R.G. and R.C. Rosaer. 1998. D:A# Systems and #omponents Dand,oo-. Second Edton.
McGraw-H, New York.
NTT. 1996. <oilers) An &perators $or-shop. Natona Technoogy Transfer, Inc. Engewood,
Coorado.
OIT. 2001. Modern Indstrial Assessments) A Training Manal7 Industra Assessment Manua from
the Omce of Productvty and Energy Assessment at the State Unversty of New |ersey, Rutgers,
for
the U.S. Department of Energy Omce of Industra Technoogy.
,.32
The Natona Board of Boer and Pressure Vesse Inspectors (NBBPVI). Apr 15, 2001a. School
<oiler Maintenance Programs) Do9 Safe are The #hildren7 Natona Board BULLETIN, Fa 1997,
Coumbus, Oho. |On-ne report|. Avaabe URL: http://www.natonaboard.org/Pubcatons/Buetn/
FA97.pdf.
The Natona Board of Boer and Pressure Vesse Inspectors (NBBPVI). Apr 15, 2001b. Is
preventive maintenance cost eHective6 Natona Board BULLETIN, Summer 2000, Coumbus,
Oho.
|Onne report|. Avaabe URL: http://www.natonaboard.org/Pubcatons/Buetn/SU00.pdf.
The Natona Board of Boer and Pressure Vesse Inspectors (NBBPVI). Apr 15, 2001c. 4JJJ
Incident *eport7 Natona Board BULLETIN, Summer 2000, Coumbus, Oho. |Onne report|.
Avaabe URL: http://www.natonaboard.org/Pubcatons/Buetn/SU00.pdf .
Wamson-Thermoo Company. |uy 12, 2001. >SA >as Fired Steam <oilers) <oiler Manal7
Part Number 550-110-738/0600, Wamson-Thermoo, Mwaukee, Wsconsn. |Onne report|.
Avaabe URL: http://www.wamson-thermoo.com/pdf_es/550-110-738.pdf .
,.33
;%* 4tea Traps
;%*%( &ntroduction
Steam traps are automatc vaves that reease condensed steam (condensate) from a steam
space
whe preventng the oss of ve steam. They aso remove non-condensabe gases from the steam
space. Steam traps are desgned to mantan steam energy emcency for performng specc
tasks such
as heatng a budng or mantanng heat for process. Once steam has transferred heat through a
process and becomes hot water, t s removed by the trap from the steam sde as condensate
and ether
returned to the boer va condensate return nes or dscharged to the atmosphere, whch s a
wastefu
practce (Gorek and Bandes 2001).
;%*%) T"pes o$ 4tea Traps (DOE 2001a)
Steam traps are commony cassed by the physca process causng them to open and cose.
The
three ma|or categores of steam traps are 1) mechanca, 2) thermostatc, and 3)
thermodynamc. In
addton, some steam traps combne characterstcs of more than one of these basc categores.
;%*%)%( Mechanica! 4tea Trap
The operaton of a mechanca steam trap s drven by the dherence n densty between
condensate and steam. The denser condensate rests on the bottom of any vesse contanng the
two uds. As addtona condensate s generated, ts eve n the vesse w rse. Ths acton s
transmtted to a vave va ether a "free oat" or a oat and connectng evers n a mechanca
steam
trap. One common type of mechanca steam trap s the nverted bucket trap shown n Fgure
9.3.1.
Steam enterng the submerged bucket causes t to rse upward and sea the vave aganst the
vave
seat. As the steam condenses nsde the bucket or f condensate s predomnatey enterng the
bucket,
the weght of the bucket w cause t to snk and pu the vave away from the vave seat. Any ar
or
other non-condensabe gases enterng the bucket w cause t to oat and the vave to cose.
Thus,
the top of the bucket has a sma hoe to aow non-condensabe gases to escape. The hoe must
be
reatvey sma to avod excessve steam oss.
Fgure 9.3.1. Inverted bucket steam trap
,.3&
;%*%)%) Therostatic 4tea Trap
As the name mpes, the operaton of a thermostatc steam trap s drven by the dherence
n
temperature between steam and sub-cooed condensate. Vave actuaton s acheved va
expanson
and contracton of a bmetac eement or a qud-ed beows. Bmetac and beows
thermo-
statc traps are shown n Fgures 9.3.2 and 9.3.3. Athough both types of thermostatc traps
cose
when exposure to steam expands the bmetac eement or beows, there are mportant
dherences
n desgn and operatng characterstcs. Upstream pressure works to open the vave n a
bmetac
trap, whe expanson of the bmetac eement works n the opposte drecton. Note that
changes n the downstream pressure w ahect the temperature at whch the vave opens or
coses.
In addton, the nonnear reatonshp between steam pressure and temperature requres
carefu
desgn of the bmetac eement for proper response at dherent operatng pressures.
Upstream and
downstream pressures have the opposte ahect n a beows trap; an ncrease n upstream
pressure
tends to cose the vave and vce versa. Whe hgher temperatures st work to cose the
vave,
the reatonshp between temperature and beows expanson can be made to vary
sgncanty by
changng the ud nsde the beows. Usng water wthn the beows resuts n neary dentca
expanson as steam temperature and pressure ncrease, because pressure nsde and outsde
the
beows s neary baanced.
Fgure 9.3.2. Bmetac steam trap
Fgure 9.3.3. Beows steam trap
In contrast to the nverted bucket trap, both types of thermostatc traps aow rapd purgng
of ar at startup. The nverted bucket trap rees on ud densty dherences to actuate ts
vave.
Therefore, t cannot dstngush between ar and steam and must purge ar (and some steam)
through a sma hoe. A thermostatc trap, on the other hand, rees on temperature dherences
to actuate ts vave. Unt warmed by steam, ts vave w reman wde open, aowng the ar
to easy eave. After the trap warms up, ts vave w cose, and no contnuous oss of steam
through a purge hoe occurs. Recognton of ths decency wth nverted bucket traps or other
smpe mechanca traps ed to the deveopment of oat and thermostatc traps. The
condensate
reease vave s drven by the eve of condensate nsde the trap, whe an ar reease vave s
drven by the temperature of the trap. A oat and thermostatc trap, shown n Fgure 9.3.4, has
a
,.3'
Fgure 9.3.4. Foat and thermostatc steam trap
oat that contros the condensate vave and a thermostatc eement. When condensate enters
the
trap, the oat rases aowng condensate to ext. The thermostatc eement opens ony f there s
a
temperature drop around the eement caused by ar or other non-condensabe gases.
;%*%)%* Therod"naic 4tea Traps
Thermodynamc trap vaves are drven by dherences n the pressure apped by steam and
condensate, wth the presence of steam or condensate wthn the trap beng ahected by the
desgn of
the trap and ts mpact on oca ow veocty and pressure. Dsc, pston, and ever desgns are
three
types of thermodynamc traps wth smar operatng prncpes; a dsc trap s shown n Fgure
9.3.5.
When sub-cooed condensate enters the trap, the ncrease n pressure fts the dsc oh ts vave
seat
and aows the condensate to ow nto the chamber and out of the trap. The narrow net port
resuts n a ocazed ncrease n veocty and decrease n pressure as the condensate ows
through
the trap, foowng the rst aw of thermodynamcs and the Bernou equaton. As the condensate
enterng the trap ncreases n temperature, t w eventuay ash to steam because of the
ocazed
pressure drop |ust descrbed. Ths ncreases the veocty and decreases the pressure even
further,
causng the dsc to snap cose aganst the seatng surface. The moderate pressure of the ash
steam
on top of the dsc acts on the entre dsc surface, creatng a greater force than the hgher
pressure
steam and condensate at the net, whch acts on a much smaer porton on the opposte sde of
the
dsc. Eventuay, the dsc chamber w coo, the ash steam w condense, and net condensate
w
agan have adequate pressure to ft the dsc and repeat the cyce.
Fgure 9.3.5. Dsc steam trap
,.3(
;%*%)%3 Other 4tea Traps
Another type of steam trap s the xed orce steam trap. Fxed orce traps contan a set
orce
n the trap body and contnuay dscharge condensate. They are sad to be sef-reguatng. As
the rate of condensaton decreases, the condensate temperature w ncrease, causng a
throttng
n the orce and reducng capacty due to steam ashng on the downstream sde. An
ncreased
oad w decrease ashng and the orce capacty w become greater (Gorek and Bandes
2001).
Orce steam traps functon best n stuatons wth reatvey constant steam oads. In
stuatons
where steam oads vary, the orce trap ether s aowng steam to escape or condensate to
back
up nto the system. Varyng oads, such as those found n most steam heatng systems, are
usuay
not good canddates for orce steam traps. Before an orce trap s speced, a carefu
anayss of
approprateness s recommended - preferaby done by someone not seng orce steam
traps!
;%*%* 4a$et" &ssues
When steam traps cause a backup of condensate n a steam man, the condensate s
carred
aong wth the steam. It owers steam quaty and ncreases the potenta for water hammer.
Not
ony w energy be wasted, equpment can be destroyed. Water hammer occurs as sugs of
water are
pcked up at hgh speeds n a poory desgned steam man, n ppe cos, or where there s a ft
after
a steam trap. In some systems, the ow may be at 120 feet per second, whch s about 82
mph. As
the sug of condensate s carred aong the steam ne, t reaches an obstructon, such as a
bend or a
vave, where t s suddeny stopped. The ehect of ths mpact can be catastrophc. It s
mportant to
note that the damagng ehect of water hammer s due to steam veocty, not steam pressure.
It can
be as damagng n ow-pressure systems as t can n hgh. Ths can actuay produce a safety
hazard,
as the force of water hammer can bow out a vave or a straner. Condensate n a steam
system can
be very destructve. It can cause vaves to become wredrawn (worn or ground) and unabe to
hod
temperatures as requred. Ltte beads of water n a steam ne can eventuay cut any sma
orces
the steam normay passes through.
Wredrawng w eventuay cut enough The use of Fgure 9.3.6 s ustrated va the foowng
of the meta n a vave seat that t exampe. Inspecton and observaton of a trap ed to the
|udgment that t had faed n the fuy open poston and was
bowng steam. Manufacturer data ndcated that the actua
orce dameter was 3/8 nch. The trap operated at 60 psa
Bandes 2001). and was energzed for 50% of the year. Boer emcency was
estmated to be 75%. Cacuaton of annua energy oss for
ths exampe s ustrated beow.
Estmatng steam oss usng Fgure 9.3.6.
Assume: 3/8-nch dameter orce steam trap, 50%
Montorng and evauaton bocked, 60 psa saturated steam system, steam system
equpment does not save any energy energzed 4,380 h/yr (50% of year), 75% boer emcency.
Usng Fgure 9.3.6 for 3/8-nch orce and 60 psa steam,
faed and whether faure has occurred steam oss = 2,500 mon Btu/yr.
Assumng trap s 50% bocked, annua steam oss estmate =
fang n an open poston aow steam 1,250 mon Btu/yr.
to pass contnuousy, as ong as the Assumng steam system s energzed 50% of the year, energy
system s energzed. The rate of energy oss = 625 mon Btu/yr.
oss can be estmated based on the sze Assumng a fue vaue of $5.00 per mon cubc feet (1
of the orce and system steam pressure mon Btu boer nput).
usng the reatonshp ustrated n Annua fue oss ncudng boer osses = |(625 mon Btu/yr)/(75% emcency)
($5.00/mon Btu)| = $4,165/yr.
,.3*
prevents adequate cosure, producng
eakage n the system (Gorek and
;%*%3 6ost and Energ"
E$$icienc" (DOE 2001a)
drecty, but dentes traps that have
n an open or cosed poston. Traps
Fgure 9.3.6. Ths gure s derved
Fgure 9.3.6. Energy oss from eakng steam traps.
from Grashof s equaton for steam dscharge through an orce (Avaone and Baumester 1986)
and
assumes the trap s energzed (eaks) the entre year, a steam eak energy s ost, and that
makeup
water s avaabe at an average temperature of 60F. Boer osses are not ncuded n Fgure
9.3.6, so
must be accounted for separatey. Thus, ad|ustments from the raw estmate read from ths gure
must
be made to account for ess than fu-tme steam suppy and for boer osses.
The maxmum steam oss rate occurs when a trap fas wth ts vave stuck n a fuy opened
poston. Whe ths faure mode s reatvey common, the actua orce sze coud be any
fracton of
the fuy opened poston. Therefore, |udgment must be apped to estmate the orce sze
assocated
wth a specc mafunctonng trap. Lackng better data, assumng a trap has faed wth an
orce sze
equvaent to one-haf of ts fuy-opened condton s probaby prudent.
;%*%3%( Other 6osts
Where condensate s not returned to the boer, water osses w be proportona to the energy
osses noted above. Feedwater treatment costs (.e., chemca to treat makeup water) w aso
be proportonatey ncreased. In turn, an ncrease n make-up water ncreases the bowdown
requrement and assocated energy and water osses. Even where condensate s returned to the
boer,
steam bypassng a trap may not condense pror to arrvng at the deaerator, where t may be
vented
aong wth the non-condensabe gases. Steam osses aso represent a oss n steam-heatng
capacty,
whch coud resut n an nabty to mantan the ndoor desgn temperature on wnter days or
reduce
producton capacty n process heatng appcatons. Traps that fa cosed do not resut n energy
or water osses, but can aso resut n sgncant capacty reducton (as the condensate takes up
ppe
cross-sectona area that otherwse woud be avaabe for steam ow). Of generay more crtca
concern s the physca damage that can resut from the rreguar movement of condensate n a
two-
phase system, a probem commony referred to as "water hammer."
,.3+
;%*%5 Maintenance o$ 4tea Traps
Consderng that many Federa stes have hundreds f not thousands of traps, and that one
mafunctonng steam trap can cost thousands of doars n wasted steam per year, steam trap
mantenance shoud receve a constant and dedcated ehort.
Excudng desgn probems, two of the most common causes of trap faure are overszng
and drt.
Overszng causes traps to work too hard. In some cases, ths can resut n bowng of ve
steam.
As an exampe, an nverted bucket trap can ose ts prme due to an abrupt change n
pressure.
Ths w cause the bucket to snk, forcng the vave open.
Drt s aways beng created n a steam system. Excessve bud-up can cause puggng or
prevent a
vave from cosng. Drt s generay produced from ppe scae or from over-treatng of
chemcas
n a boer.
;%*%5%( 6haracteristics o$ 4tea Trap
Fai!ure (Gorek and Bandes 2001)
wMec%anical Stea' 5rap 6Inverted
uc(et
Stea' 5rap7 - Inverted bucket traps
have
a "bucket" that rses or fas as steam
and/
or condensate enters the trap body.
When
steam s n the body, the bucket rses
cosng
a vave. As condensate enters, the
bucket
snks down, openng a vave and aowng the
condensate to dran. Inverted bucket traps are
deay suted for water-hammer condtons but
may be sub|ect to freezng n ow temperature
cmates f not nsuated. Usuay, when
ths
trap fas, t fas open. Ether the bucket oses
ts prme and snks or mpurtes n the system
may prevent the vave from cosng.
Checkst Indcatng Possbe Steam
Trap Faure
Abnormay warm boer room.
Condensate receved ventng steam.
Condensate pump water sea fang
prematurey.
Overheatng or underheatng n condtoned
space.
Boer operatng pressure dmcut to mantan.
Vacuum n return nes dmcut to mantan.
Water hammer n steam nes.
Steam n condensate return nes.
Hgher than norma energy b.
Inet and outet nes to trap neary the same
temperature.
w5%er'ostatic Stea' 5rap 6i'etallic and ello8s Stea' 5raps7 - Thermostatc
traps have, as
the man operatng eement, a metac corrugated beows that s ed wth an acoho
mxture
that has a bong pont ower than that of water. The beows w contract when n contact
wth
condensate and expand when steam s present. Shoud a heavy condensate oad occur,
such as n
start-up, the beows w reman n a contracted state, aowng condensate to ow
contnuousy.
As steam buds up, the beows w cose. Therefore, there w be moments when ths trap
w
act as a "contnuous ow" type whe at other tmes, t w act ntermttenty as t opens
and
coses to condensate and steam, or t may reman totay cosed. These traps ad|ust
automatcay
to varatons of steam pressure but may be damaged n the presence of water hammer.
They can
fa open shoud the beows become damaged or due to partcuates n the vave hoe,
preventng
adequate cosng. There can be tmes when the tray becomes pugged and w fa cosed.
,.3,
w5%er'od$na'ic Stea' 5rap 6*isc Stea' 5rap7 - Thermodynamc traps have a dsc that
rses
and fas dependng on the varatons n pressure between steam and condensate. Steam w
tend
to keep the dsc down or cosed. As condensate buds up, t reduces the pressure n the upper
chamber and aows the dsc to move up for condensate dscharge. Ths trap s a good genera
type trap where steam pressures reman constant. It can hande superheat and "water
hammer"
but s not recommended for process, snce t has a tendency to ar-bnd and does not hande
pressure uctuatons we. A thermodynamc trap usuay fas open. There are other
condtons
that may ndcate steam wastage, such as "motor boatng," n whch the dsc begns to wear
and
uctuates rapdy, aowng steam to eak through.
wOt%er Stea' 5raps 65%er'ostatic and Float Stea' 5rap and Ori9ce Stea' 5rap7 -
Foat
and thermostatc traps consst of a ba oat and a thermostatc beows eement. As
condensate
ows through the body, the oat rses or fas, openng the vave accordng to the ow rate.
The
thermostatc eement dscharges ar from the steam nes. They are good n heavy and ght
oads
and on hgh and ow pressure, but are not recommended where water hammer s a possbty.
When these traps fa, they usuay fa cosed. However, the ba oat may become damaged
and
snk down, fang n the open poston. The thermostatc eement may aso fa and cause a
"fa
open" condton.
For the case of xed orce traps, there s the possbty that on ght oads these traps w
pass
ve steam. There s aso a tendency to waterog under wde oad varatons. They can
become
cogged due to partcuate budup n the orce and at tmes mpurtes can cause eroson
and
damage the orce sze, causng a bow-by of steam.
Genera Requrements for Safe and Emcent Operaton of Steam Traps
(Cmate Technoogy Intatve 2001)
1. Every operatng area shoud have a program to routney check steam traps for proper operaton.
Testng frequency depends on oca experences but shoud at east occur yeary.
2. A traps shoud be numbered and ocatons mapped for easer testng and record-keepng. Trap
suppy and return nes shoud be noted to smpfy soaton and repar.
3. Mantenance and operatona personne shoud be adequatey traned n trap testng technques.
Where utrasonc testng s needed, specay traned personne shoud be used.
4. Hgh mantenance prorty shoud be gven to the repar or mantenance of faed traps. Attenton to
such a tmey mantenance procedure can reduce faures to 3% to 5% or ess. A faed open trap
can mean steam osses of 50 to 100 b/hr.
5. A traps n cosed systems shoud have atmospherc vents so that trap operaton can be vsuay
checked. If trap headers are not equpped wth these, they shoud be moded.
6. Proper trap desgn shoud be seected for each specc appcaton. Inverted bucket traps may be
preferred over thermostatc and thermodynamc-type traps for certan appcatons.
7. It s mportant to be abe to observe the dscharge from traps through the header. Athough severa
dherent technques can be used, the most fooproof method for testng traps s observaton.
Wthout proper tranng, utrasonc, acoustca, and pyrometrc test methods can ead to erroneous
concusons.
8. Traps shoud be propery szed for the expected condensate oad. Improper szng can cause steam
osses, freezng, and mechanca faures.
9. Condensate coecton systems shoud be propery desgned to mnmze frozen and/or premature
trap faures. Condensate ppng shoud be szed to accommodate 10% of the traps fang to
open.
,.&0
;%*%8 Per$orance Assessent
Methods
Steam trap performance assessment s bascay concerned wth answerng the foowng
two
questons: 1) Is the trap workng correcty or not? 2) If not, has the trap faed n the open or
cosed
poston? Traps that fa open resut n a oss of steam and ts energy. Where condensate s not
returned, the water s ost as we. The resut s sgncant economc oss, drecty va ncreased
boer
pant costs, and potentay ndrecty, va decreased steam heatng capacty. Traps that fa
cosed
do not resut n energy or water osses, but can resut n sgncanty reduced heatng capacty
and/or
damage to steam heatng equpment.
There are three basc methods for evauatng a steam trap that are commony dscussed n
the
terature: sght, sound, and temperature. Because of the chaenges assocated wth steam
trap
assessment, at east two of the three methods shoud be used to ncrease the chances of
correcty
dentfyng the condton of a steam trap.
Sight Method
The sght method s usuay based on a vsua observaton of the ud downstream of the
trap.
Ths s possbe f there s no condensate recovery system or f test vaves have been nstaed
to aow
a momentary dscharge of the downstream ud from the condensate recovery system. In
ether case,
the steam trap evauator must be abe to dstngush between "ash" steam, whch s
characterstc of
a propery workng trap, and "ve" steam, whch s characterstc of a trap that has faed open
and
s eakng or bowng a sgncant amount of steam. Fash steam s created when a porton of
the
condensate ashes to vapor upon expanson to atmospherc pressure. Fash steam s
characterzed
by a reatvey azy, bowy pume. Lve steam, on the other hand, w form a much sharper,
hgher
veocty pume that may not be mmedatey vsbe as t exts the test vave or steam trap.
The
dherence between ve steam and ash steam s ustrated n Fgure 9.3.7.
Fgure 9.3.7. Lve steam (eft) versus ash steam (rght)
Sght gasses can aso be used for a vsua observaton, but have some drawbacks that
must
be overcome or avoded. Frst, steam and condensate are both expected to exst upstream
and
downstream of the trap (ve steam on the upstream sde and ash steam on the downstream
sde).
Second, the vew through a sght gass tends to deterorate over tme because of nterna or
externa
foung. Thrd, both steam and condensate w appear as cear uds wthn the ppe. In
response to
the rst and thrd concerns, sght gasses have been deveoped wth nterna features that
aow the
proporton of steam and condensate to be dented.
,.&1
Sound Method
Mechansms wthn steam traps and the ow of steam and condensate through steam traps
generate sonc (audbe to the human ear) and supersonc sounds. Proper stenng equpment,
couped wth the knowedge of norma and abnorma sounds, can yed reabe assessments of
steam
trap workng condton. Lstenng devces range from a screwdrver or smpe mechancs
stethoscope
that aow stenng to sonc sounds to more sophstcated eectronc devces that aow
"stenng" to
sonc or sonc and utrasonc sounds at seected frequences. The most sophstcated devces
compare
measured sounds wth the expected sounds of workng and non-workng traps to render a
|udgment on
trap condton.
!emperature Method
Measurng the temperature of the steam trap s generay regarded as the east reabe of the
three basc evauaton technques. Saturated steam and condensate exst at the same
temperature, of
course, so ts not possbe to dstngush between the two based on temperature. St,
temperature
measurement provdes mportant nformaton for evauaton purposes. A cod trap (.e., one that
s
sgncanty cooer than the expected saturated steam temperature) ndcates that the trap s
ooded
wth condensate, assumng the trap s n servce. A ooded trap coud mean severa thngs, but
barrng measurement durng startup, when oodng can be expected, generay ndcates a
probem
that needs to be addressed. Downstream temperature measurement may aso yed usefu cues
n
certan crcumstances. For exampe, the temperature downstream of a trap shoud drop oh
reatvey
qucky f the trap s workng propery (mosty condensate mmedatey past the trap). On the
other hand, the temperature downstream of the trap w be neary constant f sgncant steam
s
gettng past the trap. Care must be taken not to use ths technque where other traps coud
ahect
downstream condtons, however. Temperature measurement methods, ke sound measurement,
vary
tremendousy n the degree of sophstcaton. At the ow-end, spttng on the trap and watchng
the
szze provdes a genera ndcaton of temperature. For the more gentee, a squrt botte ed
wth
water w serve the same purpose. Aternatvey, a gove-covered hand can provde a smar
eve
of accuracy. More sophstcated are varous types of temperature senstve crayons or tapes
desgned
to change coor n dherent temperature ranges. Thermometers, thermocoupes, and other
devces
requrng contact wth the trap oher better precson. Fnay, non-contact (.e., nfrared)
temperature
measurng devces (sensng thermometers and cameras) provde the precson of thermometers
and
thermocoupes wthout requrng physca contact. Non-contact temperature measurement makes
t
easer to evauate traps that are reatvey dmcut or dangerous to access cosey.
Automated 2iagnostics
In recent years a number of manufacturers have devsed sef-dagnosng steam trap routnes.
In
most cases these are based on absence or presence of condensate n the trap as measured by
ether
temperature and/or conductvty. These systems can be connected to an energy management
and
contro system to notfy factes stah of condton or faure. Whe the remote and sef
dagnosng
aspects of these systems s qute attractve, the vendor shoud make the facty manager aware
that
once the sensng eement s compromsed, the system may be outputtng ncorrect nformaton
and
thus ead to a fase sense of securty. Whe these systems hod great promse, the user needs to
be
aware that they are another tem that needs to be mantaned for proper functon.
,.&2
Recommended tme schedue for testng steam traps
Process steam traps: Every 3 months
Hgh pressure steam traps: Every 6 months
Low to medum pressure steam traps: Every 6
months
At an absoute mnmum, a steam
traps shoud be surveyed and tested
at east once per year
Budng heatng steam traps: Twce a heatng season
;%*%9 Diagnostic E?uipent
Thermography - An nfrared thermometer or camera aows for an accurate, non-contact
assessment of temperature. Appcatons for steam traps ncude testng for proper functon
and
nsuaton assessments around the traps. More nformaton on thermography can be found
n
Chapter 6.
Utrasonc anayzer - Steam traps emt very dstnct sound patterns; each trap type s sad
to have
a partcuar sgnature. These sounds are not audbe to the unaded ear. Usng an utrasonc
detector, the anayst s abe to soate the frequency of sound beng emtted by the steam
trap,
compare t to trended sound sgnatures, and make an assessment. Changes n these
utrasonc
wave emssons are ndcatve of changes n steam trap functon. More nformaton on
utrasonc
anayss can be found n Chapter 6.
;%*%: Re!evant Operationa!/Energ" E$$icienc" Measures
steam trap operaton and contro. The foowng secton focuses on the most prevaent O&M
recommendatons havng the greatest energy mpacts at Federa factes. These
recommendatons
are aso some of the most easy mpemented for boer operators and O&M contractors.
Steam !rap Measure) Cost Evauaton of Faed Steam Trap
Tabe 9.3.1 beow can be used to approxmate the energy oss from a faed-open steam
trap
(DOE 2006).
Tabe 9.3.1. Steam trap dscharge rate
O
&M Best Practices Guide, Release 3.0
,.&3
!rap Ori4ce
2iameter
#in.(
Steam ?oss #lb:hr(
Steam /ressure #psig(
15 100 150 300
1/32 0.85 3.3 4.8 -
1/16 3.40 13.2 18.9 36.2
1/8 13.7 52.8 75.8 145
3/16 30.7 119 170 326
V 54.7 211 303 579
3/8 123 475 682 1,303
Estimated Annual Energy Savings. The annua energy savngs, whch coud be reazed by
reparng a faed steam trap, can be estmated as foows (DOE 2006).
where
DR = dscharge rate of steam, b/hr
H = annua hours of operaton, hours
reparng a
faed steam trap, can be estmated as foows:
where
FCS = average fue cost of steam, $/1,000 b of steam
It shoud be noted that ths cost savngs cacuaton assumes on-ste personne have
benchmarked
the fue cost of steam producton. Ths w dspay how much the ste s payng to produce steam,
on
a $/1,000 b of steam bass.
Steam !rap =eplacement Energy Savings and Economics Eample
Eample Synopsis
A steam system audt reveas a faed steam trap n a steam ne pressurzed to 100 psg. The
steam
trap has an orce dameter of 1/8 of an nch and resuts n a oss rate of 52.8 b/hr (see Tabe
9.3.1).
The ne s energzed 8,000 hrs/yr and the current fue costs are $10/1,000 b of steam.
,.&&
;%*%:%( 4tea Trap ,ater.Ase Best Practices
The predomnant mpact steam traps have on water use reates to proper functon. A steam
trap that s faed open couped to dstrbuton system wth a eaky or non-exstent condensate
return w be osng water, va condensed steam, at a sgncant rate. Whether faed open or
cosed
an mpropery functonng steam trap mpacts the entre system by ntroducng nemcency.
Any
nemcency resuts n a ess-than-optma operaton eadng to ncreased resource use - water s
one of
those resources.
;%*%; 6ase 4tudies
GP,F Event at a Ma7or =esearch 5overnment 6acility (DOE 2001b)
On October 10, 1986, a condensate-nduced water hammer at a ma|or research
government
facty n|ured four steamtters-two of them fatay. One of the steamtters attempted to
actvate
an 8-nch steam ne ocated n a manhoe. He notced that there was no steam n ether the
steam
ne or the steam trap assemby and concuded that the steam trap had faed. Steam traps are
devces
desgned to automatcay remove condensate (qud) from steam ppng whe the steam
system
s operatng n a steady state. Wthout shuttng oh the steam suppy, he and another
steamtter
repaced the trap and eft.
Later the rst steamtter, hs supervsor, and
two
other steamtters returned and found the ne hed
a
arge amount of condensate. They cracked open a
gate
vave to dran the condensate nto an 8-nch man.
They
cracked the vave open enough to aow water to pass,
but
ths was too far open to contro the sudden
movement
of steam nto the man after a the condensate had been
removed. A seres of powerfu water hammer
surges
caused the gaskets on two bnd anges n the manhoe
to fa, reeasng hot condensate and steam nto
the
manhoe. A photograph of one faed gasket s shown n
Fgure 9.3.8. A four steamtters suhered externa burns
and steam nhaaton. Two of them ded as a
resut.
Fgure 9.3.8. Faed gasket on bnd ange
A Type A Accdent Investgaton Board determned that the probabe cause of the event was
a
ack of procedures and tranng, resutng n operatona error. Operators had used an n-ne
gate
vave to remove condensate from a steam ne under pressure nstead of drans nstaed for
that
purpose.
The board aso cted severa management probems. There had been no Operatona
Readness
Revew pror to system actvaton. Laboratory personne had not wtnessed a the hydrostatc
and
pressure testng, nor had a test resuts been submtted, as requred by the contract.
Documentaton
for desgn changes was nadequate.
,.&'
GPPG Event at a 5eorgia $ospital (DOE 2001c)
In |une 1991, a vave gasket bew out n a steam system at a Georga hospta. Operators
soated
that secton of the ne and repaced the gasket. The secton was cosed for 2 weeks, aowng
condensate to accumuate n the ne. After the repar was competed, an operator opened the
steam vave at the upstream end of the secton. He drove to the other end and started to open
the
downstream steam vave. He dd not open the bow-oh vave to remove condensate before he
opened
the steam vave. Water hammer ruptured the vave before t was 20% open, reeasng steam and
condensate and kng the operator.
Investgators determned that about 1,900 pounds of water had accumuated at the ow pont
n
the ne ad|acent to the repared vave, where a steam trap had been dsconnected. Because the
ne
was cod, the ncomng steam condensed qucky, owerng the system pressure and acceeratng
the
steam ow nto the secton. Ths swept the accumuated water toward the downstream vave and
may have produced a reatvey sma steam-propeed water sug mpact before the operator
arrved.
About 600 pounds of steam condensed n the cod secton of the ppe before equbrum was
reached.
When the downstream vave was opened, the steam on the downstream sde rapdy
condensed
nto water on the upstream sde. Ths ow pcked up a 75 cubc foot sug of water about 400 feet
downstream of the vave. The sug seaed oh a steam pocket and acceerated unt t ht the
vave,
causng t to rupture.
Investgators concuded that the accdent coud have been prevented f the operator had
aowed
the ppe to warm up rst and f he had used the bow-oh vave to remove condensate before
openng
the downstream vave.
Maintenance of Steam !raps
A steam trap assessment of three VA hosptas ocated n Provdence, RI, Brockton, MA, and
West Roxbury, MA was conducted wth hep of FEMPs SAVEnergy Program. The factes are
served by 15, 40, and 80 psg steam nes. The Provdence system aone ncudes approxmatey
1,100 steam traps.
The assessment targeted steam trap performance and the vaue of steam osses from
mafunctonng traps. The mafunctonng traps were desgnated for ether repar or repacement.
Incuded n ths assessment was a tranng program on steam trap testng.
The cost of the nta steam trap audt was $25,000 for the three factes. Estmated energy
savngs totaed $104,000. The cost of repar and repacement traps was about $10,000. Thus,
the
cost savngs of $104,000 woud pay for the mpementaton cost of $35,000 n about 4 months.
,.&(
;%*%(= 4tea Traps 6hec@!ist
;%*%(( Re$erences
Avaone, E.A. and T. Baumester, edtors. 1986. Mar-s= Standard Dand,oo- for Mechanical
Engineers.
9th ed. McGraw-H, New York.
Cmate Technoogy Intatve. Apr 7, 2001. Steam Systems. CTI Energy Emcency Workshop,
September 19-26, 1999, Yakkach, |apan. Reprnted wth permsson of the Cmate Technoogy
Intatve.
DOE. 2006. "Inspect and Repar Steam Traps, Steam Tp Sheet 1." In Energy Tips, DOE/GO-
102006-2248, Industra Technooges Program, U.S. Department of Energy, Washngton, D.C.
Gorek, B. and A. Bandes. August 15, 2001. Inspect Steam Traps for E%cient System. |Onne
report|.
Avaabe URL: http://www.mantenanceresources.com/ReferenceLbrary/SteamTraps/Inspect.htm. Reprnted
wth permsson of Mr. Bruce Gorek.
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). March 30, 2001a. Steam Trap Performance Assessment.
Federa
Technoogy Aert.
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). March 30, 2001b. 1986 Event at <roo-haven Bational
"a,oratory7
NFS Safety Notes, Issue No. 98-02, November 1998, Omce of Operatng Experence Anayss
and
Feedback, Omce of Nucear and Facty Safety |Onne report|. Avaabe URL: http://ts.eh.doe.gov/
web/oeaf/essons_earned/ons/sn9802.htm .
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). March 30, 2001c. 4JJ4 Event at a >eorgia Dospital. NFS
Safety
Notes, Issue No. 98-02, November 1998, Omce of Operatng Experence Anayss and
Feedback,
Omce of Nucear and Facty Safety |Onne report|. Avaabe URL: http://ts.eh.doe.gov/web/oeaf/
essons_earned/ons/sn9802.htm .
,.&*
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
Test steam traps Day/weeky test
recommended for
hgh-pressure traps (250 psg or
Q
Test steam traps Weeky/monthy test
recommended
for medum-pressure traps (30-
Q
Test steam traps Monthy/annuay test
recommended
Q
Repar/repace steam
traps
When testng shows probems.
Typcay, traps shoud be
repaced
every 3-4 years.
Q
Repace steam traps When repacng, take the tme
to
Q
;%3 6hi!!ers
;%3%( &ntroduction
A cher can be generay cassed as a refrgeraton system that coos water. Smar to an
ar
condtoner, a cher uses ether a vapor-compresson or absorpton cyce to coo. Once cooed,
ched water has a varety of appcatons from space coong to process uses.
;%3%) T"pes o$ 6hi!!ers
;%3%)%( Mechanica! 6opression 6hi!!er (Dyer and Mapes 1995)
The refrgeraton cyce of a smpe mechanca compresson system s shown n Fgure 9.4.1.
The mechanca compresson cyce has four basc components through whch the refrgerant
passes: (1) the evaporator, (2) the compressor, (3) the condenser, and (4) the expanson vave.
The evaporator operates at a ow pressure (and ow temperature) and the condenser operates at
hgh pressure (and temperature).
Fgure 9.4.1. Typca cher pant
The cher cyce begns n the evaporator cos ocated n the cher where the qud
refrgerant
ows over the evaporator tube bundes and evaporates, absorbng heat from the ched water
crcuatng through the tube bunde. The refrgerant vapor, whch s somewhat cooer than the
ched water temperature, s drawn out of the evaporator by the compressor. The compressor
"pumps" the refrgerant vapor to the condenser by rasng the refrgerant pressure (and thus,
temperature). The refrgerant condenses on the coong water cos of the condenser gvng up
ts heat to the coong water. The hgh-pressure qud refrgerant from the condenser then passes
through the expanson devce that reduces the refrgerant pressure (and temperature) to that of
the evaporator. The refrgerant agan ows over the ched water cos absorbng more heat and
competng the cyce. Mechanca compresson chers are generay cassed by compressor
type:
recprocatng, centrfuga, and screw (Dyer and Mapes 1995).
,.&+
w=eciprocating - Ths s a postve dspacement machne that mantans fary constant
voumetrc ow over a wde range of pressure ratos. They are amost excusvey drven by
xed
speed eectrc motors.
w-entrifugal - Ths type of compressor rases the refrgerant pressure by mpartng
momentum to
the refrgerant wth a spnnng mpeer, then stagnatng the ow n a dhuser secton
around the
mpeer tp. They are noted for hgh capacty wth compact desgn. Typca capactes range
from 100 to 10,000 tons.
wScrew - The screw or heca compressor s a postve dspacement machne that has a
neary
constant ow performance characterstc. The machne essentay conssts of two matng
hecay grooved rotors, a mae (obes) and a femae (gues), n a statonary housng. As
the
heca rotors rotate, the gas s compressed by drect voume reducton between the two
rotors. w
;%3%)%) A#sorption 6hi!!er (Dyer and Mapes 1995)
The absorpton and the mechanca compresson cyces have the evaporaton and
condensaton
of a refrgerant n common. In both cyces, the refrgerant evaporates at ow pressure (and ow
temperature) to absorb heat and then condenses at hgher pressure (and hgher temperature)
to re|ect
heat to the atmosphere. Both cyces requre energy to rase the temperature of the refrgerant
for
the heat re|ecton process. In the mechanca compresson cyce, the energy s supped n the
form
of work to the compressor whereas n the absorpton cyce, heat s added (usuay steam) to
rase the
refrgerant temperature.
The absorpton cyce requres two workng uds: a refrgerant and an absorbent. Of the
many
combnatons of refrgerant and absorbent that have been tred, ony thum bromde-water
and
ammona-water cyces are commony used today.
;%3%* Fe" 6oponents (Dyer and Mapes 1995)
;%3%*%( Mechanica! 6opression 6hi!!ers
wEvaporator - Component n whch qud refrgerant ows over a tube bunde and
evaporates,
absorbng heat from the ched water crcuatng through the tube bunde.
w-ompressor - "Pumps" the refrgerant vapor to the condenser by rasng the refrgerant
pressure
(and thus, temperature).
w-ondenser - Component n whch refrgerant condenses on a set of coong water cos
gvng up
ts heat to the coong water.
wEpansion @alve - The hgh-pressure qud refrgerant comng from the condenser
passes
through ths expanson devce, reducng the refrgerants pressure (and temperature) to that
of the
evaporator.
;%3%*%) A#sorption 6hi!!er
The absorpton cyce s made up of four basc components:
wEvaporator - Where evaporaton of the qud refrgerant takes pace.
wAbsorber - Where concentrated absorbent s sprayed through the vapor space and over
condensng water cos. Snce the absorbent has a strong attracton for the refrgerant, the
refrgerant s absorbed wth the hep of the coong water cos. w
,.&,
5enerator - Where the dute souton ows over the generator tubes and s heated by the
steam
or hot water.
-ondenser - Where the refrgerant vapor from the generator reeases ts heat of vaporzaton
to
the coong water as t condenses over the condenser water tube bunde.
;%3%3 4a$et" &ssues (TARAP 2001)
Large chers are most commony ocated n mechanca equpment rooms wthn the budng
they are ar condtonng. If a hazardous refrgerant s used (e.g., ammona), the equpment room
must meet addtona requrements typcay ncudng mnmum ventaton arows and vapor
concentraton montorng.
In many urban code |ursdctons, the use of ammona as a refrgerant s prohbted outrght.
For
arge chers, the refrgerant charge s too arge to aow hydrocarbon refrgerants n chers
ocated n
a mechanca equpment room.
;%3%5 6ost and Energ" E$$icienc" (Dyer and Mapes 1995)
The foowng steps descrbe ways to mprove cher performance, therefore, reducng ts
operatng costs:
=aise chilled water temperature - The
energy nput
requred for any qud cher (mechanca
compresson
or absorpton) ncreases as the temperature
ft
between the evaporator and the condenser
ncreases.
Rasng the ched water temperature w cause
a
correspondng ncrease n the evaporator
temperature
and thus, decrease the requred temperature
ft.
=educe condenser water temperature -
The
ehect of reducng condenser water
temperature
s very smar to that of rasng the ched
water
temperature, namey reducng the temperature
ft
that must be supped by the cher.
On a centrfuga cher, f the ched
water temperature s rased by 2F to
3F, the system emcency can ncrease
by as much as 3% to 5%.
On a centrfuga cher, f the condenser
water temperature s decreased by 2F to
3F, the system emcency can ncrease by
as much as 2% to 3%.
=educing scale or fouling - The heat transfer surfaces n chers tends to coect varous
mnera
and sudge deposts from the water that s crcuated through them. Any budup nsuates the
tubes n the heat exchanger causng a decrease n heat exchanger emcency and thus,
requrng a
arge temperature dherence between the water and the refrgerant.
/urge air from condenser - Ar trapped n the condenser causes an ncreased pressure at
the
compressor dscharge. Ths resuts n ncreased compressor horsepower. The resut has the
same
ehect as scae budup n the condenser.
Maintain adequate condenser water Mow - Most chers ncude a ter n the condenser
water
ne to remove matera pcked up n the coong tower. Bockage n ths ter at hgher oads
w
cause an ncrease n condenser refrgerant temperature due to poor heat transfer.
=educing auiliary power requirements - The tota energy cost of producng ched water
s not
mted to the cost of operatng the cher tsef. Coong tower fans, condenser water
crcuatng
pumps, and ched water crcuatng pumps must aso be ncuded. Reduce these
requrements as
much as possbe.
,.'0
wBse variable speed drive on centrifugal chillers - Centrfuga chers are typcay
drven by
xed speed eectrc motors. Practca capacty reducton may be acheved wth speed
reductons,
whch n turn requres a combnaton of speed contro and prerotaton vanes.
w-ompressor changeouts - In many nstaatons, energy savng measures have reduced
demand to
the pont that exstng chers are tremendousy overszed, forcng the cher to operate at
greaty
reduced oads even durng peak demand tmes. Ths causes a number of probems
ncudng
surgng and poor emcency. Repacng the compressor and motor drve to more cosey
match the
observed oad can aevate these probems.
wBse free cooling - Coong s often requred even when outsde temperatures drop beow
the
mnmum condenser water temperature. If outsde ar temperature s ow enough, the
cher
shoud be shut oh and outsde ar used. If coong cannot be done wth outsde ar, a cher
bypass
can be used to produce ched water wthout the use of a cher.
wOperate chillers at pea1 e*ciency - Pants havng two or more chers can save
energy by oad
management such that each cher s operated to obtan combned peak emcency. An
exampe
of ths s the use of a combnaton of recprocatng and centrfuga compressor chers.
w$eat recovery systems - Heat recovery systems extract heat from the ched qud and
re|ect
some of that heat, pus the energy of compresson, to warm water crcut for reheat and
coong.
wBse absorption chilling for pea1 shaving - In nstaatons where the eectrcty
demand curve s
domnated by the demand for ched water, absorpton chers can be used to reduce the
overa
eectrcty demand.
w=eplace absorption chillers with electric drive centrifugals - Typca absorpton
chers requre
approxmatey 1.6 Btu of therma energy devered to the cher to remove 1 Btu of energy
from
the ched water. Modern eectrc drve centrfuga chers requre ony 0.2 Btu of eectrca
energy to remove 1 Btu of energy from the ched water (0.7 kw/ton).
w!hermal storage - The storage of ce for ater use s an ncreasng attractve opton snce
coong
s requred vrtuay year-round n many arge budngs across the country. Because of
utty
demand charges, t s more economca to provde the coong source durng non-ar
condtonng
perods and tap t when ar condtonng s needed, especay peak perods.
;%3%8 Maintenance o$ 6hi!!ers (Trade Press Pubshng Corporaton 2001)
Smar to boers, ehectve mantenance of chers requres two actvtes: rst, brng the
cher
to peak emcency and second, mantan that peak emcency. There are some basc steps
facty
professonas can take to make sure ther budngs chers are beng mantaned propery.
Among
them are:
Inspectng the cher as recommended by the cher manufacturer. Typcay, ths shoud be
done
at east quartery.
Routne nspecton for refrgerant eaks.
Checkng compressor operatng pressures.
Checkng a o eves and pressures.
Examnng a motor votages and amps.
,.'1

Checkng a eectrca starters, contactors, and reays.
Checkng a hot gas and unoader operatons.
Usng superheat and subcoong temperature readngs to obtan a chers maxmum emcency.
Takng dscharge ne temperature readngs.
A sampe cher operatons og usefu for recordng reevant operatona emcency metrcs s
provde at the end of ths secton foowng the cher mantenance checkst.
;%3%9 Diagnostic Too!s
assessment of temperature. Appcatons for chers ncude nsuaton assessments on ched
water ppng as we as motor/bearng temperature assessments on compressors and
pumpng
systems. More nformaton on thermography can be found n Chapter 6.
wBltrasonic analy3er - Most rotatng equpment and many ud systems emt sound
patterns n
the utrasonc frequency spectrum. Changes n these utrasonc wave emssons are ndcatve
of
changes n equpment condton. Anayzer appcatons for chers ncude compressors,
ched
water pumpng systems (e.g., bearng wear) and refrgerant eak detecton. More nformaton
on
utrasonc anayss can be found n Chapter 6.
;%3%: Avai!a#!e 4o$t-are Too!
-hilled 0ater System Analysis !ool #-0SA!( @ersion %.L
2escription: The DOE Ched Water System Anayss Too (CWSAT) s a software too that s
avaabe at no charge to hep optmze the performance of ndustra ched water systems. The
too
aows the user to propose changes to exstng equpment ncudng chers, pumps, and towers,
and
cacuates how much energy and money the pant can save by mpementng these changes.
The CWSAT uses nputs of the ched water system equpment and operatng parameters to
cacuate the systems energy consumpton. The eve of nput deta s customzed to the
knowedge
of the user. When specc equpment detas are not known, cataog and defaut data are
avaabe
n the CWSAT and can be ready utzed. The CWSAT aows users to anayze the mpacts of
mpementng many system mprovement measures by changng nput data and comparng the
revsed
systems energy consumpton to the users orgnay nputted system.
The too can qucky cacuate the potenta energy savngs opportuntes that exst from
measures
such as ncreasng the ched water temperature, decreasng the condenser water temperature,
repacng the chers, appyng varabe speed contro to the crcuaton pump motors, and
upgradng
the tower motor contros to 2-speed or varabe speed. Dependng on the characterstcs of the
specc ched water system beng anayzed, the too can examne addtona system specc
cost
reducton measures. These measures ncude repacng the cher refrgerant, nstang a
varabe
speed drve on centrfuga compressors, usng free coong, and sequencng cher operaton to
mnmze energy consumpton.
Availability: To downoad CWSAT and earn more about tranng opportuntes, vst the
Industra Technoogy Program Web ste: www1.eere.energy.gov/ndustry/bestpractces .
,.'2
;%3%;% Re!evant Operationa!/Energ" E$$icienc" Measures
There are a number of operatona/energy emcency measures that coud be presented for
proper cher operaton and contro. The foowng secton focuses on the most prevaent O&M
recommendatons havng the greatest energy mpacts at Federa factes.
-hiller Measure RG: Ched Water Temperature Contro
Chers are typcay set to have a ched water
output
temperature n the range of 42F to 45F. If the
maxmum
coong oad on the chers cause the cher to operate at ess
than fu oad, the cher operator coud possby ncrease the
ched water temperature and st meet the coong oads of
the
budng whe savng energy.
O&M !ip)
Increasng cher water
temperature by 1F reduces cher
energy use by 1.7% and 1.2%
for centrfuga and recprocatng
compressors, respectvey.
Lkewse, the energy nput requred for any cher (mechanca compresson or absorpton)
ncreases as the temperature ft between the evaporator and the condenser ncreases.
Rasng the
ched water temperature w cause a correspondng ncrease n the evaporator temperature
and
thus, decrease the requred temperature ft. A decrease n temperature ft equates to a
decrease n
energy use.
The basc ched water contro strateges for chers usng mcroprocessor-based controers
are
presented beow:
*etrn Temperatre. A cher controed by return-water temperature w rey on preset
operatona nstructons based on the return temperature. For exampe, f the return water
temperature ncreases, ndcatng an ncreasng oad, the cher s preprogrammed to respond
wth
greater capacty and thereby mtgatng the ncreased oad.
Spply Temperatre. A cher controed by the suppy-water temperature functons wth a
set
of water temperatures pre-programmed based on cher oadng. For exampe, as a space or
process
cas for greater capacty (.e., a space temperature s ncreasng wth soar oadng) the cher
response s proportona to the ca for added capacty.
#onstant *etrn. If the cher s controed to have a constant return water temperature,
the
cher w moduate ched water suppy temperatures to acheve a certan return water
temperature
over a range of cher oads. In ths case, the cher operator speces the desred ched
water
return temperature, and the cher moduates the ched water suppy temperature
accordngy to
meet ths temperature.
&tside Air. Water cooed chers that are ocated ndoors, usuay requre an outdoor
temperature sensor wred nto the chers contro pane. Most cher manufacturers provde
outsde
ar temperature sensors that are specc to ther chers, and easy be ntegrated nto the
cher
contro pane. In ths case, the cher reads the outdoor wet-bub temperatures and moduates
the
ched water temperature based on predened outdoor ar temperatures and ched-water set-
ponts.
,.'3
Pone Temperatre. Some chers come equpped wth temperature sensors that read nteror
zone temperatures, or they have contros that can be ntegrated nto the budng automaton
system
(BAS). In ths case, the operators can appy ched water reset strateges based on the nteror
zone
temperatures. In each case, the cher w usuay step up the ched water temperature to that
of
the reset vaue, even f the compressor s n the "oh" cyce.
Ched water reset strateges usuay reset the ched water temperature over a range of
about
10F (Webster 2003). Cher operators shoud contact ther oca cher manufacturers for
nformaton on settng approprate ched water temperatures. Manufacturers can provde
gudance
on ched water moduaton at parta oads, and outsde ar temperatures for the partcuar
cher.
Regardess of the contro strategy used to moduate ched water temperatures, the operators
shoud aways keep n mnd the mpacts on the entre ched water system. Care shoud be taken
to
optmze the entre system, rather than |ust appyng ched water reset strateges bndy
(Webster
2003).
It s aso mportant to consder the mpcatons on coong cos and ther abty to reguate
the
ndoor reatve humdty ratos wthn the budng, at hgher ched water temperatures. As the
ched water temperatures are ncreased, the energy/facty managers shoud cosey montor
ndoor
reatve humdty (RH) eves to make sure they are stayng n the 55% to 60% RH range.
Opportuntes wth chers rey on the use of the cher controer and/or the BAS for
dagnoss.
There are stuatons where nether the controer nor the BAS are avaabe or programmed
propery
for use. In these cases, portabe data oggers for evauatng temperatures are most approprate.
In
addton, cher and ched water dstrbuton systems usuay have temperature and pressure
devces
hard-mounted to the system. These devces, provded they are accurate, can be used n system
dagnostcs.
Recognzng that the system emcency can ncrease by as much as 2% to 5% by rasng the
ched
water suppy temperature by 2F to 3F, the annua energy savngs, whch coud be reazed, can
be
estmated as foows:
where
CEU = cher energy use, kW
H = hours of operaton at a gven oad, h
ES = energy savngs, %
,.'&
The annua cost savngs, whch coud be reazed by ncreasng ched water temperatures,
can be
estmated as foows:
where ER = eectrc energy rate, $/kWh
It shoud be noted that ths cost savngs cacuaton does not account for an eectrc peak
demand
reducton. If the facty has a peak demand charge, and the cher operates everyday wth on
operatona schedue that s concdent wth the factes peak demand, then ths cacuaton
coud
underestmates the cost savngs.
-hilled 0ater Supply !emperature Energy Savings and Economics Eample
Eample Synopsis: A water cooed centrfuga cher currenty has a constant 42F suppy
temperature. After nspecton t was determned that the temperature contros can aow
moduaton
up to 45F durng ow oad perods wth an estmated energy savngs of 2.25%. The operators
estmate that the cher can operate at 45F for 3,000 hrs per year, and the cher has an
eectrca
oad of 300 kW when operatng at these ow oad condtons. The average eectrc rate s
$0.10/kWh.
-hiller Measure R%: Condenser Water Temperature Contro
The ehect of reducng condenser water temperature
(water-
cooed chers ony) s very smar to that of rasng the ched
water
temperature on the suppy sde, namey reducng the
temperature ft
that must be supped by the cher. These temperatures can be
reset
downward as outdoor wet-bub temperatures decrease and durng
ow-
oad condtons (Webster 2003).
O&M !ip)
For each 1F decrease n
condenser coong water
temperature, unt optma water
temperature s reached, there
s a correspondng percentage
decrease n cher energy use.
It s mportant to note that the cher operators need to make
sure that the cher s capabe of handng owered condenser water temperatures. Some chers
are
not desgned to hande ower condenser water temperatures and can encounter compressor o
return
probems. As a defalt, site personnel shold al9ays chec- 9ith their local chiller manfactrers
,efore
lo9ering the condenser 9ater temperatres7
,.''
Most chers reach ther maxmum operatng emcency at the desgned peak oad. However,
chers operate at the part-oad condton most of the tme. Resettng the condenser water
temperature normay decreases the temperature ft between the evaporator and the condenser,
thus
ncreasng the cher operatng emcency. Therefore, to reset the condenser water temperature
to the
owest possbe temperature w aow the coong tower to generate cooer condenser water
whenever
possbe. Note that athough owerng the condenser water temperature w reduce cher
energy,
t may ncrease coong tower energy consumpton because the tower fan may have to run onger
to
acheve the ower condenser water temperature. In addton, some oder chers have
condensng
water temperature mtatons. Consut the cher manufacturer to estabsh approprate
gudenes
for owerng the condenser water temperature.
Opportuntes wth chers rey on the use of the cher controer and/or the BAS for
dagnoss.
There are stuatons where nether the controer not the BAS are avaabe or programmed
propery
for use. In these cases, portabe data oggers for evauatng temperatures are most approprate.
In
addton, cher and ched water dstrbuton systems usuay have temperature and pressure
devces
hard-mounted to the system. These devces, provded they are accurate, can be used n system
dagnostcs.
Estimated Annual Energy Savings
Lowerng the condenser water temperature 2F to 3F can ncrease system emcency by as
much as 2% to 3%. The annua energy savngs, whch coud be reazed by reducng condenser
temperatures, can be estmated as foows:
where
CEU = cher energy use, kW w
H = hours of operaton at a gven oad, h w
ES = energy savngs, % w
The annua cost savngs, whch coud be reazed by reducng condenser temperatures, can be
estmated as foows:
where ER = eectrc energy rate, $/kWh
,.'(
It shoud be noted that ths cost savngs cacuaton does not account for an eectrc peak
demand
reducton. If the facty has a peak demand charge, and the cher operates everyday wth on
operatona schedue that s concdent wth the factes peak demand, then ths estmate
sghty
-ondenser !emperature =eset Energy Savings and Economics Eample
Eample Synopsis: A water cooed centrfuga cher currenty has an enterng condenser
temperature of 55F. After nspecton t was determned that the temperature contros can aow
moduaton down to 52F durng ow oad perods. The operators estmate that the cher can
operate at 52F for 3,000 hrs per year, and the cher has an eectrca oad of 300 kW when
operatng
at these ow oad condtons. The average eectrc rate s $0.10/kWh.
;%3%;%( 6hi!!er ,ater.Ase Best Practices
The predomnant mpact chers have on water use reates to proper functon. An nemcent
cher w requre onger hours of operaton to satsfy the oad. It s these addtona hours that
resut n greater water use though evaporaton at the coong tower and any eaks n the system.
Any
nemcency resuts n a ess-than-optma operaton eadng to ncreased resource use - water s
one of
those resources.
;%3%(= 6hi!!ers 6hec@!ist
O
&
M

B
e
s
t
P
r
a
c
ti
ces Guide, Release 3.0
,.'*
2aily 0ee1ly Semi"
Annuall
y
Annuall
y
Cher
use/sequencng
Turn oh/sequence unnecessary
chers
X
Overa vsua
nspecton
Compete overa vsua
nspecton to
be sure a equpment s
X
Check setponts Check a setponts for proper
settng
X
Evaporator and
condenser
Assess evaporator and
condenser co
X
Compressor motor
temperature
Check temperature per
manufacturers
X
Cher Checkst (contd)
,.'+
2aily 0ee1ly Semi"
Annuall
y
Annuall
y
Perform water quaty
test
Check water quaty for proper
chemca baance
X
Leak testng Conduct eak testng on a
compressor
ttngs, o pump |onts and
X
Check a nsuaton Check nsuaton for condton
and
X
Contro operaton Verfy proper contro functon
ncudng:
Hot gas bypass
Lqud n|ecton
X
Check vane contro
settngs
Check settngs per
manufacturers
X
Verfy motor oad mt
contro
Check settngs per
manufacturers
X
Verfy oad baance
operaton
Check settngs per
manufacturers
X
Check ched water
reset
Check settngs per
manufacturers
X
Check cher ockout
setpont
Check settngs per
manufacturers
X
Cean condenser
tubes
Cean tubes at east annuay as
part of
X
Eddy current test
condenser tubes
As requred, conduct eddy
current test
X
Cean evaporator
tubes
Cean tubes at east annuay as
part of
X
Eddy current test
evaporator tubes
As requred, conduct eddy
current test
X
Compressor motor
and
assemby
Check a agnments to
speccaton
Check a seas, provde
X
Compressor o
system
Conduct anayss on o and
ter
Change as requred
Check o pump and seas
Check o heater and
X
Eectrca connectons Check a eectrca connectons/
termnas for contact and
tghtness
X
Water ows Assess proper water ow n
evaporator
X
Check refrgerant
eve
Add refrgerant as requred.
Record
X
;%3%(( 4ap!e 6hi!!er Operation Log
,.',
|ob Name Date
Unt Tag
Mode # Tme
Sera #
Fu Load Desgn
__________deg
F
__________Vots
__________Hert
z
__________RLA
_____PSID_____gp
m
__________deg
F
__________deg
Operatng Condton
Operatng Code
Last Dagnostc
LCHW Setpont
Current Lmt Setpont
Start #
Run Hours
Vots - AB
Vots - AC
Vots - BC
Amps L1
Amps L2
Amps L3
Amps AVG
% of RLA
O Sump Temperature
O Temperature to Bearngs
O Leve
Low O Pressure
Hgh O Pressure
Net O Pressure
Operatng Purge Pressure
Operatng Purge O Leve
Purge Starts
Purge Run Hours
CHW PSID
CHW Temperature n
CHW Temperature out
CHW Temperature Dherenta
CHW Makeup Water
Evaporator Temperature
Evaporator Pressure
CW PSI Dherenta
CW Temperature n
CW Temperature out
CW Temperature Dherenta
Condenser Temperature
Condenser Pressure
Coong Tower Makeup Water
CHW Makeup Water
Operator Intas
;%3%() Re$erences
Dyer, D.F. and G. Mapes. 1995. D:A# E%ciency Improvement7 Boer Emcency Insttute, Auburn,
Aabama.
The Aance for Responsbe Atmospherc Pocy (TARAP). August 3, 2001. Arthr 87 "ittle
*eport, Section ! #hiller7 |Onne report|. Avaabe URL: http://www.arap.org/adtte/7.htm .
Trade Press Pubshng Corporaton. August 6, 2001. Energy Decsons, May 2000, Cher
Preventve Mantenance Checkst. |Onne|. Avaabe URL: http://www.factesnet.com/fn/NS/
NS3n0eb.htm|tcket=1234567890123456789112925988.
Webster T. 2003. #hiller #ontrolsG*elated Energy Saving &pportnities in Federal Facilities. LBNL
47649, prepared by the Unversty of Caforna for Lawrence Berkeey Natona Laboratory,
Berkeey, Caforna.
,.(0
;%5 6oo!ing To-ers
;%5%( &ntroduction
A coong tower (Fgure 9.5.1) s a specazed heat exchanger n whch two uds (ar and
water)
are brought nto drect contact wth each other to ahect the transfer of heat. In a "spray-ed"
tower,
ths s accompshed by sprayng a owng mass of water nto a ran-ke pattern, through
whch an
upward movng mass ow of coo ar s nduced by the acton of a fan (Marey Coong
Technooges
2001a).
Marey Coong Technooges
(2001b).
Fgure 9.5.1. Coong tower
;%5%) T"pes o$ 6oo!ing To-ers
There are two basc types of coong towers, drect or open and ndrect or cosed.
1. Drect or open coong tower (Fgure 9.5.2)
Ths type of system exposes the coong water drecty to the atmosphere. The warm
coong
s sprayed over a n the coong tower to ncrease the contact area, and ar s bown
through the . The ma|orty of heat removed from the coong water s due to evaporaton.
The remanng cooed water drops nto a coecton basn and s recrcuated to the cher
(WSUCEEP 2001).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Hot water from cher
Fow contro vave
Dstrbuton ppes and nozzes
Draft emnators
Centrfuga bower
Make-up water nfeed
Foat vave
Coecton basn
Straner
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Beed water
Cooed water to cher
Fan drve
Drve shaft
Gear box
Propeer fan
Ar ntake ouvers
Note: Items 3 and 5 not shown
n Fgure 9.5.2.
Fgu
re 9.5.2. Drect or open coong tower
Washngton State Unversty
Cooperatve Extenson Energy
Program.
,.(1
2. Indrect or cosed coong tower
An ndrect or cosed coong tower crcuates the water through tubes ocated n the tower. In
ths type of tower, the coong water does not come n contact wth the outsde ar and
represents
a "cosed" system.
;%5%* Fe" 6oponents
A coong tower s a coecton of systems that work together. Foowng s an overvew of how
these systems operate.
Hot water from a ched water system s devered to the top of the coong tower by the con-
denser pump through dstrbuton ppng. The hot water s sprayed through nozzes onto the heat
transfer meda () nsde the coong tower. Some towers feed the nozzes through pressurzed
ppng; others use a water dstrbuton basn and feed the nozzes through gravty.
A cod-water coecton basn at the base of the tower gathers coo water after t has passed
through the heat transfer meda. The coo water s pumped back to the condenser to compete
the
coong water oop.
Coong towers use evaporaton to reease waste heat from a HVAC system. Hot water owng
from the condenser s sowed down and spread out n the heat transfer meda (). A porton of
the
hot water s evaporated n the area, whch coos the buk water. Coong tower s typcay
arranged n packs of thn corrugated pastc sheets or, aternatey, as spash bars supported n a
grd
pattern.
Large voumes of ar owng through the heat transfer meda hep ncrease the rate of
evaporaton
and coong capacty of the tower. Ths arow s generated by fans powered by eectrc motors.
The
coong tower fan sze and arow rate are seected for the desred coong at the desgn
condtons of
hot water, cod water, water ow rate, and wet bub ar temperature.
HVAC coong tower fans may be propeer type or squrre cage bowers, dependng on the
tower desgn. Sma fans may be connected drecty to the drvng motor, but most desgns
requre an
ntermedate speed reducton provded by a power bet or reducton gears. The fan and drve
system
operates n con|uncton wth a starter and contro unt that provdes start/stop and speed contro.
As coong ar moves through the , sma dropets of coong water become entraned and
can
ext the coong tower as carry-over or drft. Devces caed drft emnators are used to remove
carry-
over water dropets. Coong tower drft becomes an annoyance when the dropets fa on peope
and surfaces downwnd from the coong tower. Emcent drft emnators remove vrtuay a of
the
entraned coong water dropets from the ar stream (Suptc 1998).
;%5%3 4a$et" &ssues
Warm water n the coong system s a natura habtat for mcroorgansms. Chemca
treatment
s requred to emnate ths boogca growth. Severa acceptabe bocdes are avaabe from
water
treatment companes for ths purpose. Coong towers must be thoroughy ceaned on a perodc
bass to mnmze bactera growth. Uncean coong towers promote growth of potentay
nfectous
bactera, ncudng Legonea Pneumopha (Suptc 1998).
,.(2
Legonea may be found n water dropets from coong towers, whch may become
arborne and
become a serous heath hazard f nhaed by a human. The ung s a warm and most
envronment,
whch presents perfect condtons for the growth of such a dsease. Common symptoms on
patents
wth egonnares dsease are cough, chs, and fever. In addton, musce aches, headache,
tredness, oss of appette, and, occasonay, darrhea can aso be present. Laboratory tests
may show
decreased functon of the kdneys. Chest x-rays often show pneumona.
;%5%5 6ost and Energ" E$$icienc"
An mpropery mantaned coong tower w produce warmer coong water, resutng n
hgher
condenser temperatures than a propery mantaned coong tower. Ths reduces the emcency
of
the cher, wastes energy, and ncreases cost. The cher w consume 2.5% to 3.5% more
energy
for each degree ncrease n the condenser temperature.
For exampe, f a 100-ton cher costs $20,000 n energy to operate each year, t w cost
you
an addtona $500 to $700 per year for every degree ncrease n condenser temperature.
Thus, for a
5F to 10F ncrease, you can expect to pay $2,500 to $7,000 a year n addtona eectrcty
costs. In
addton, a poory mantaned coong tower w have a shorter operatng fe, s more key to
need
costy repars, and s ess reabe (WSUCEEP 2001).
;%5%8 Maintenance o$ 6oo!ing To-ers
Coong tower mantenance must be an ongong endeavor. Lapses n reguar mantenance
can
resut n system degradaton, oss of emcency, and potentay serous heath ssues.
Genera Requrements for Safe and Emcent Coong Towers Provde:
(Suptc 1998)
1. w Safe access around the coong tower, ncudng a ponts where nspecton and mantenance actvtes
occur.
2. w Fa protecton around nspecton and mantenance surfaces, such as the top of the coong tower.
3. w Lockout of fan motor and crcuatng pumps durng nspecton and mantenance.
4. w Protecton of workers from exposure to boogca and chemca hazards wthn the coong water system.
5. w Coong tower ocaton must prevent coong tower dscharge ar from enterng the fresh ar ntake ducts of
any budng. w
6. w When startng the tower, nspect and remove any accumuated debrs.
7. Baance waterow foowng the tower manufacturers procedure to ensure even dstrbuton of hot water
to a areas of the . Poory dstrbuted water can ead to ar bypass through the and oss of tower
performance. w
8. w Foow your water treatng companys recommendatons regardng chemca addton durng startup and
contnued operaton of the coong system. Gavanzed stee coong towers requre speca passvaton
procedures durng the rst weeks of operaton to prevent "whte rust." w
9. w Before startng the fan motor, check the tghtness and agnment of drve bets, tghtness of mechanca
hod-
down bots, o eve n gear reducer drve systems, and agnment of coupngs. Rotate the fan by hand and
ensure that bades cear a ponts of the fan shroud.
10. w The motor contro system s desgned to start and stop the fan to mantan return cod water temperature.
The fan motor must start and stop no more frequenty than four to ve tmes per hour to prevent motor
overheatng.
11. w Bowdown water rate from the coong tower shoud be ad|usted to mantan between two to four
concentratons of dssoved sods.
,.(3
;%5%9 6oon 6auses o$ 6oo!ing To-ers Poor Per$orance
wScale 2eposits - When water evaporates from the coong tower, t eaves scae deposts on
the surface of the from the mneras that were dssoved n the water. Scae bud-up acts
as
a barrer to heat transfer from the water to the ar. Excessve scae bud-up s a sgn of water
treatment probems.
w-logged Spray >o33les - Agae and sedment that coect n the water basn as we as
excessve sods that get nto the coong water can cog the spray nozzes. Ths causes
uneven
water dstrbuton over the , resutng n uneven arow through the and reduced heat
transfer surface area. Ths probem s a sgn of water treatment probems and cogged
straners.
w/oor Air6low - Poor arow through the tower reduces the amount of heat transfer from the
water to the ar. Poor arow can be caused by debrs at the nets or outets of the tower or n
the . Other causes of poor arow are oose fan and motor mountngs, poor motor and fan
agnment, poor gear box mantenance, mproper fan ptch, damage to fan bades, or
excessve
vbraton. Reduced arow due to poor fan performance can utmatey ead to motor or fan
faure.
w/oor /ump /erformance - An ndrect coong tower uses a coong tower pump. Proper
water ow s mportant to acheve optmum heat transfer. Loose connectons, fang bearngs,
cavtaton, cogged straners, excessve vbraton, and non-desgn operatng condtons resut
n
reduced water ow, reduced emcency, and premature equpment faure (WSUCEEP 2001).
;%5%: Diagnostic Too!s
assessment of temperature. Appcatons for coong towers ncude bearng and eectrca
contact assessments on motor and fan systems as we as hot spots on bet and other drve
systems. More nformaton on thermography can be found n Chapter 6.
wBltrasonic analy3er - Eectrc motor and fan systems emt very dstnct sound patterns
around bearngs and drves (drect or bet). In most cases, these sounds are not audbe to the
unaded ear, or are drown-out by other equpment noses. Usng an utrasonc detector, the
anayst s abe to soate the frequency of sound beng emtted by the bearng or drve.
Changes
n these utrasonc wave emssons are ndcatve of changes n equpment condton-some of
these changes can be a precursor to component degradaton and faure. More nformaton on
utrasonc anayss can be found n Chapter 6.
;%5%:%( 6oo!ing To-er ,ater.Ase Best Practices
As dscussed, coong towers reguate temperature by dsspatng heat from recrcuatng
water
used to coo chers, ar-condtonng equpment, or other process equpment. Heat s re|ected
from
the tower prmary through evaporaton. Therefore, by desgn, coong towers consume
sgncant
amounts of water. The therma emcency and ongevty of the coong tower and equpment used
to
coo depend on the proper management of water recrcuated through the tower (FEMP 2008).
,.(&
Water eaves a coong tower system n any one of four ways:
1. w Evaporation) Ths s the prmary functon of the tower and s the method that transfers
heat
from the coong tower system to the envronment. The quantty of evaporaton s not a
sub|ect
for water emcency ehorts (athough mprovng the energy emcency of the systems you
are
coong w reduce the evaporatve oad on your tower). Evaporatve osses reate to the
speccs
of the system and envronment. In rough terms, for every 10F of water temperature drop
across
the tower, there s an evaporatve oss of approxmatey 1 percent, equatng, on average,
to 2.5 to
4.0 gpm per 100 tons of capacty.
2. w ;lowdown or ;leed"o<: When water evaporates from the tower eaves behnd
dssoved and
suspended substances. If eft unchecked, these chemcas w ead to basn water wth
ncreasng
concentratons of tota dssoved sods (TDS). If the concentraton gets too hgh, the sods
can
come out of souton and cause scae to form wthn the system and/or the dssoved sods
can
ead to corroson probems. Addtona probems may arse by creatng condtons conducve
to bofoung. To medate ths probem, a certan amount of water s removed from the
coong
tower - ths water s referred to as bowdown or beed oh. As ths water s beng removed,
the
same quantty s beng rentroduced and s caed make up. Carefuy montorng and
controng
the quantty of bowdown and make up provdes the most sgncant opportunty to
conserve
water n coong tower operatons.
3. w 2rift: A comparatvey sma quantty of water may be carred from the tower not as
vapor but
as mst or sma dropets. Drft oss s sma compared to evaporaton and bow-down, and s
controed wth bames and drft emnators. Whe estmates of drft osses range we beow
1%
of tower ow rate, on arger towers these osses can add up.
4. w ;asin ?ea1s:OverMows: Propery operated towers shoud not have eaks or overows.
In addton to carefuy controng tower operaton, other water emcency opportuntes
arse
from usng aternate sources of make-up water. Sometmes water from other equpment wthn
a facty can be recyced and reused for coong tower make-up wth tte or no pre-treatment,
ncudng the foowng:
Ar hander condensate (water that coects when warm, most ar passes over the coong
cos
n ar hander unts). Ths reuse s partcuary approprate because the condensate has a
ow
mnera content, and typcay s generated n greatest quanttes when coong tower oads
are the
hghest.
Water used n a once through coong system.
Pretreated emuent from other processes, provded that any chemcas used are compatbe
wth
the coong tower system.
Hgh-quaty muncpa wastewater emuent or recyced water (where avaabe).
,.('
;%5%:%) Operations and Maintenance Opportunities
From an operatona perspectve, the bowdown osses represent the most sgncant water
conservaton opportunty. To maxmze emcency potenta, cacuate and understand your
"cyces of concentraton." Check the rato of conductvty of bowdown and make-up water.
Work wth your coong tower water treatment specast to maxmze the cyces of
concentraton.
Many systems operate at 2 to 4 cyces of concentraton, whe 6 cyces or more may be
possbe.
Increasng your cyces from 3 to 6 w reduce coong tower make-up water by 20 percent,
and
coong tower bowdown by 50 percent. The actua number of cyces you can carry w depend
on your make-up water quaty and coong tower water treatment regmen. Dependng on
your
make-up water, treatment programs may ncude corroson and scang nhbtors, aong wth
boogca foung nhbtors.
Insta a conductvty controer to automatcay contro your bowdown. Workng wth your
water treatment specast, determne the maxmum cyces of concentraton you can safey
acheve, and the resutng conductvty (typcay measured as mcroSemens per centmeter,
uS/cm). A conductvty controer can contnuousy measure the conductvty of the coong
tower water and dscharge water ony when the conductvty set pont s exceeded.
Insta ow meters on make-up and bowdown nes. Check the rato of make-up ow to
bowdown ow. Then check the rato of conductvty of bowdown water and the make-up
water (you can use a handhed conductvty meter f your tower s not equpped wth
permanent
meters). These ratos shoud match your target cyces of concentraton. If both ratos are
not about the same, check the tower for eaks or other unauthorzed draw-oh. If you are not
mantanng target cyces of concentraton, check system components, ncudng conductvty
controer, make-up water vave, and bowdown vave.
Read conductvty and ow meters reguary to qucky dentfy probems. Keep a og of make-
up and bowdown quanttes, conductvty, and cyces of concentraton. Montor trends to spot
deteroraton n performance.
Consder usng acd treatment such as sufurc, hydrochorc, or ascorbc acd, where
approprate.
When added to recrcuatng water, acd can mprove the emcency of a coong system by
controng the scae budup potenta from mnera deposts. Acd treatment owers the pH of
the water, and s ehectve n convertng a porton of the akanty (bcarbonate and
carbonate),
a prmary consttuent of scae formaton, nto more ready soube forms. Make sure that
workers
are fuy traned n the proper handng of acds. Aso note that acd overdoses can severey
damage a coong system. The use a tmer or contnuous pH montorng va nstrumentaton
shoud be empoyed. Addtonay, t s mportant to add acd at a pont where the ow of
water
promotes rapd mxng and dstrbuton. Be aware that owerng pH may mean you may have
to
add a corroson nhbtor.
Seect your water treatment vendor wth care. Te vendors that water emcency s a hgh
prorty
and ask them to estmate the quanttes and costs of treatment chemcas, voumes of
bowdown
water and the expected cyces of concentraton rato. Keep n mnd that some vendors may
be
reuctant to mprove water emcency because t means the facty w purchase fewer
chemcas.
In some cases, savng on chemcas can outwegh the savngs on water costs. Vendors shoud
be
seected based on "cost to treat 1,000 gaons make-up water" and hghest "recommended
system
water cyce of concentraton."
,.((
Consder measurng the amount of water ost to evaporaton. Some water uttes w
provde
a credt to the sewer charges for evaporatve osses, measured as the dherence between
metered
make-up water mnus metered bowdown water.
Consder a comprehensve ar hander co mantenance program. As cos become drty or
foued, there s ncreased oad on the ched water system n order to mantan condtoned
ar
set pont temperatures. Increased oad on the ched water system not ony has an
assocated
ncrease n eectrca consumpton, t aso ncreases the oad on the evaporatve coong
process
whch uses more water.
;%5%:%* Retro$it Opportunities
Insta a sdestream traton system that s composed of a rapd sand ter or hgh-
emcency
cartrdge ter to ceanse the water. These systems draw water from the sump, ter out
sedments
and return the tered water to the tower, enabng the system to operate more emcenty
wth
ess water and chemcas. Sdestream traton s partcuary hepfu f your system s
sub|ect to
dusty atmospherc condtons. Sdestream traton can turn a troubesome system nto a
more
troube-free system.
Insta a make-up water softenng system when hardness (cacum and magnesum) s the
mtng
factor on your cyces of concentraton. Water softenng removes hardness usng an on
exchange
resn, and can aow you to operate at hgher cyces of concentraton.
Insta covers to bock sunght penetraton. Reducng the amount of sunght on tower
surfaces
can sgncanty reduce boogca growth such as agae.
Consder aternatve water treatment optons such as ozonaton or onzaton, to reduce
water and
chemca usage. Be carefu to consder the fe-cyce cost mpact of such systems.
Insta automated chemca feed systems on arge coong tower systems (over 100 ton).
The
automated feed system shoud contro bowdown/beed-oh by conductvty and then add
chemcas based on make-up water ow. These systems mnmze water and chemca use
whe
optmzng contro aganst scae, corroson, and boogca growth.
,.(*
;%5%; 6oo!ing To-ers 6hec@!ist
,.(+
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
Coong tower use/
sequencng
coong
X
Overa vsua
nspecton
Compete overa vsua nspecton
to be
sure a equpment s operatng and
X
Inspect for coggng Make sure water s owng n
tower
X
Fan motor condton Check the condton of the fan
motor
through temperature or vbraton
X
Cean sucton
screen
Physcay cean screen of a
debrs
X
Test water sampes Test for proper concentratons of
dssoved sods, and chemstry.
Ad|ust
bowdown and chemcas as
X
Operate make-up
water
Operate swtch manuay to ensure
proper
X
Vbraton Check for excessve vbraton n
motors,
X
Check tower
structure
Check for oose , connectons,
eaks,
X
Check bets and
pueys
Ad|ust a bets and pueys X
Check ubrcaton Assure that a bearngs are
ubrcated per
X
Check motor
supports
Check for excessve wear and
secure
X
Motor agnment Agnng the motor coupng aows
for
X
Check drft
emnators,
ouvers,
and
Look for proper postonng and
scae
bud up
X
Cean tower Remove a dust, scae, and agae
from
X
Check bearngs Inspect bearngs and drve bets for
wear.
X
Motor condton Checkng the condton of the
motor
X
;%5%(= Re$erences
FEMP 2008. Federa Energy Management Program - Water Best Management Practces.
Avaabe
on ne at URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/water/water_bmp.htm.
Marey Coong Technooges. |uy 6, 2001a. #ooling Information Inde?7 Reprnted wth
permsson
of Marey Coong Technooges.ErrorH >"per!in@ re$erence not va!id% ErrorH >"per!in@ re$erence not
va!id% ErrorH >"per!in@ re$erence not va!id%
Marey Coong Technooges. September 2, 2002b. Sigma F Series7 |Onne report|. Avaabe
URL:
http://www.mareyct.com/sgmafseres.htm . Reprnted wth permsson of Marey Coong Technooges.
Suptc, D.M. Apr 13, 2001. A >ide to Tro,leGFree #ooling To9ers) A ,asic nderstanding of
cooling
to9er operation and maintenance 9ill help -eep a cooling 9ater system rnning in top condition, year
after
year, |une 1998, RSES |ourna. |Onne report|. Avaabe URL: http://www.pace-ncorporated.com/
mant1.htm . Reprnted wth permsson of RSES |ourna.
Washngton State Unversty Cooperatve Extenson Energy Program (WSUCEEP). Apr 24,
2001.
&ptimiCing #ooling To9er Performance, WSUEEP98013 |Onne report|. Reprnted wth
permsson of
Washngton State Unversty Cooperatve Extenson Energy Program.
O
&
M

B
e
s
t
P
r
a
c
ti
c
e
s
G
u
i
d
e
,
R
e
l
ease 3.0
,.(,
;%8 Energ" Manageent/Bui!ding Autoation 4"stes
;%8%( &ntroduction
The ob|ectve of an energy management/budng automaton system (aso know as an energy
management and contro system |EMCS|) s to acheve an optma eve of contro of occupant
comfort whe mnmzng energy use. These contro systems are the ntegratng component to
fans, pumps, heatng/coong equpment, dampers, mxng boxes, and thermostats. Montorng
and
optmzng temperature, pressure, humdty, and ow rates are key functons of modern budng
contro systems.
;%8%) 4"ste T"pes
At the crudest eve of energy management and contro s the manua operaton of energy
usng
devces; the toggng on and oh of basc comfort and ghtng systems based on need. The
earest
forms of energy management nvoved smpe tme cock- and thermostat-based systems;
ndeed,
many of these systems are st beng used. Typcay, these systems are wred drecty to the
end-
use equpment and mosty functon autonomousy from other system components. Progressng
wth technoogy and the ncreasng economc avaabty of mcroprocessor-based systems,
energy
management has qucky moved to ts current state of computer based, dgtay controed
systems.
Drect dgta contro (DDC) systems functon by measurng partcuar system varabes
(temperature, for nstance), processng those varabes (comparng a measured temperature to a
desred setpont), and then sgnang a termna devce (ar damper/mxng box) to respond. Wth
the advent of DDC systems, termna devces are now abe to respond qucker and wth more
accuracy to a gven nput. Ths ncreased response s a functon of the DDC system capabty to
contro devces n a nonnear fashon. Contro that once reed on near "huntng" to arrve at the
desred setpont now s accompshed through sophstcated agorthms makng use of
proportona
and ntegra (PI) contro strateges to arrve at the setpont qucker and wth more accuracy.
;%8%* Fe" 6oponents
The hardware makng up modern contro systems have three necessary eements: sensors,
controers, and the controed devces.
wSensors - There s an ncreasng varety and eve of sophstcaton of sensors avaabe for
use
wth modern contro systems. Some of the more common ncude: temperature, humdty,
pressure, ow rate, and power. Sensors are now avaabe that track ndoor ar quaty, ghtng
eve, and re/smoke.
w-ontrollers - The functon of the controer s to compare a sgna receved from the sensor
to
a desred setpont, and then send out a correspondng sgna to the controed devce for
acton.
Controers may be very smpe such as a thermostat where the sensor and controer are
usuay
co-ocated, to very sophstcated mcroprocessor based systems capabe of powerfu anayss
routnes.
w-ontrolled devices - The controed devce s the termna devce recevng the sgna from
the controer. Amongst others, typca controed devces ncude: ar dampers, mxng boxes,
contro vaves, and n some cases, fans, pumps, and motors.
,.*0
;%8%3 4a$et" &ssues
The ntroducton of outdoor ar s the prmary means for duton of potentay harmfu
contamnants. Because an EMCS has the capabty to contro ventaton rates and outdoor-ar
voumes, certan heath and safety precautons need to be taken to ensure proper operaton
and ar
quaty. Reguar checks of contamnant eves, humdty eves, and proper system operaton
are
recommended.
A modern EMCS s capabe of other contro functons ncudng re detecton and re
suppresson systems. As these systems take on other roes, roes that now ncude
responsbtes for
persona safety, ther operatons and mantenance must be gven the hghest prorty.
;%8%5 6ost and E$$icienc"
Smpy nstang an EMCS does not guarantee that a budng w save energy. Proper
nstaaton and commssonng are prerequstes for optma operaton and reazng potenta
savngs. Whe t s beyond the scope of ths gude to deta a the possbe EMCS savngs
strateges, some of the more common functons are presented beow.
wScheduling - An EMCS has the abty to schedue the HVAC system for nght setback,
hoday/weekend schedues (wth overrde contro), optma start/stop, and mornng warm-
up/
coo-down functons.
w=esets - Controng and resettng temperatures of suppy ar, mxed ar, hot water, and
ched
water optmze the overa systems for emcency.
wEconomi3ers - Controng economzer functons wth an EMCS heps to assure proper
ntegraton and functon wth other system components. Strateges ncude typca ar-sde
functons (.e., economzer use ted to nsde setponts and outsde temperatures) and
nght-tme
ventaton (purge) operatons.
wAdvanced functionality - A more sophstcated EMCS has expended capabtes
ncudng
cher/boer stagng, varabe speed drve contro, zoned and occupancy-based ghtng
contro,
and eectrca demand mtng.
;%8%8 Maintenance
The abty of an EMCS to emcenty contro energy use n a budng s a drect functon of
the
data provded to the EMCS. The od adage garbage n - garbage out coud not hod more truth
than n an EMCS makng decsons based on a host of sensor nputs.
For a number of reasons, the cabraton of sensors s an often overooked actvty. In many
ways, sensors fa nto the same category as steam traps: f t doesnt ook broken - dont x
t.
Unfortunatey, as wth steam traps, sensors out of cabraton can ead to enormous energy
penates.
Furthermore, as wth steam traps, these penates can go undetected for years wthout a
proactve
mantenance program.
,.*1
The foowng s a st of sensors and actuators that w most need cabraton (PECI 1997):
Outsde ar temperature
Mxed ar temperature
Return ar temperature
Dscharge or suppy ar temperature
Co face dscharge ar temperatures
Ched water suppy temperature
Condenser enterng water temperature
Heatng water suppy temperature
Wet bub temperature or RH sensors
Space temperature sensors
Are You Cabrated?
Answer the foowng questons to determne
f your system or equpment needs cabraton
(PECI 1997): w
1. Are you sure your sensors and actuators were
cabrated when orgnay nstaed?
2. Have your sensors or actuators been cabrated
snce?
3. Have temperature compants come from areas
that ought to be comfortabe?
4. Are any systems performng erratcay?
5. Are there areas or equpment that repeatedy have
comfort or operatona probems?
Economzer and reated dampers
Coong and heatng co vaves
Statc pressure transmtters
Ar and water ow rates
Termna unt dampers and ows. w
Sensor and actuator cabraton shoud be an ntegra part of a mantenance programs. w
;%8%9 Diagnostic E?uipent
-alibration - A energy management systems rey on sensors for proper feedback to
ad|ust to emcent condtons. The accuracy wth whch these condtons are reached s a
drect functon of the accuracy of the sensor provdng the feedback. Proper and persstent
cabraton actvtes are a requrement for emcent condtons.
;%8%: Re!evant Operationa!/Energ" E$$icienc" Measures
EMCS/BAS operaton and contro. The foowng secton focuses on the most prevaent O&M
recommendatons havng the greatest energy mpacts at Federa factes.
EM-S Measure RG: HVAC Schedung, Temperature/Pressure Setponts
Ste energy/facty managers shoud have a goa of matchng HVAC schedung to the actua
tenant schedues wthn a budngs. The budng operators shoud cosey montor tenant
schedues
and ad|ust the HVAC schedues accordngy to meet changng schedues throughout the year.
,.*2
The constructon of the budng, ncudng the types of wndows, nsuaton, and overa
orentaton, contrbutes to ts abty to retan condtoned ar. Ths couped wth the nterna
heatng and coong oads n the budng w dctate when the HVAC system shoud be cyced
durng the day.
2irect 2igital -ontrol #22-( Optimal Start:Stop
Most DDC systems have optma start-stop programs wth software agorthms that assess
ndoor and outdoor temperatures and, based on adaptve earnng, the DDC system w
actvate the
budngs HVAC system at dherent tmes each day. Ths technoogy s one of the most energy-
emcent HVAC contro programs avaabe and shoud be utzed whenever possbe. Other
DDC
systems have the abty to program preset start-stop tmes for the budngs HVAC system. In
ths
case, the budng operators shoud try to start the HVAC system as cose to the tenants arrva
as
possbe. The operators shoud aso consder appyng dherent start tmes based on average
outdoor
ar temperatures versus tmes of extreme outdoor ar temperatures.
22- $oliday Scheduling
If the budng has a DDC contro system, t w typcay come equpped wth a hoday
schedung feature. Budng operators shoud utze ths feature to turn oh the budngs HVAC
system durng unoccuped perods and hodays. In addton to unoccuped perods and
hodays,
many DoD factes, such as barracks, tranng factes, and mess has, w go unoccuped for
perods of tme when troops are depoyed, therefore they shoud have schedung ad|usted
accordngy.
It shoud be noted that f the budng s ocated n a humd cmate, the HVAC system shoud
be put nto standby mode and turned on to mantan the humdty mts and unoccuped
setback
temperatures wthn the facty.
Budng operators shoud perodcay revew ther DDC codes to make sure the HVAC
schedues
matches the tenant schedues as cosey as possbe. If the budng operators have to
mpement
overrdes to hande extreme weather condtons or speca occupancy crcumstances, these
overrdes
shoud be recorded and removed as soon as possbe.
In budngs wth eectromechanca and pneumatc contros, the budng operators shoud
at a
mnmum appy a start-stop schedue based on hstorc data reatng to the amount of tme t
takes to
condton the budng. In genera, when the HVAC system s turned oh, the budng operators
need
to ensure that a of the HVAC fans and pumps are turned oh. Athough t mght be necessary
to
contnuousy operate the budng chers and boers, the budngs fans and pumps can be
turned oh
when the HVAC system s not operatng.
!emperature and /ressure Setpoints
Temperature setponts n budngs can typcay be programmed usng the proportona
ntegra
(PI) contro oop. If the PI contro oop s used, the ste must ensure that the throttng range s
not
too sma (DDC Onne 2006b). The throttng range reates to the gap between the heatng
setpont
and coong setpont. The arger ths gap s, the ess energy the ste w use to condton the
nteror
ar. Gudenes on ndoor temperature setponts for energy emcency target the heatng season
setpont at between 68F - 72F and the coong season setpont at between 72F - 78F. The
optma
seasona setpont (baancng therma comfort wth energy emcency) w be a functon of type
of
actvty takng pace n the space and the ambent reatve humdty.
,.*3
Whe some factes target 68F heatng and 78F coong setponts, they are not operated at
these temperatures because of occupant compants. Regardess of the chosen setponts, facty
managers shoud strve to have the argest throttng range (or dead-band gap) between the two
setponts. Ths ensures that the HVAC system w not sghty overcoo the budng, causng the
budng to mmedatey go nto heatng mode, and then sghty overheat the budng, causng t
to go back nto coong mode. Ths type of constant cycng s nemcent, hard on equpment, and
causes the budng to constanty "hunt" for the rght temperature.
As prevousy mentoned, the budng operators shoud aso mpement a nghttme or
unoccuped setback temperature. The unoccuped setback for heatng shoud be 5F to 10F
cooer
than the occuped setpont, and the unoccuped setback for coong shoud be 5F to 10F
warmer
than the occuped setpont. In humd cmates, the underyng actvator of the system shoud be
the
reatve humdty ratos. As ong as these ratos are met, the nteror temperatures shoud be
aowed
to oat over the preset unoccuped setponts.
The temperature setpont methodoogy s aso vad for eectromechanca and pneumatc
contros. The ony dherence may be n the aowabe contro ponts - two are typca wth
eectromechanca systems.
/ressure Setpoints
A key eement of any ehectve HVAC O&M program s the proper
settng and the persstence of a HVAC contro parameters. Beow
s a set of questons ste stah shoud be askng when assessng how
settngs and setponts may have changed over tme (PECI 1999).
factes, many ar-sde statc
Have occupancy patterns or space ayouts changed? Are HVAC
and ghtng st zoned to emcenty serve the spaces?
Have temporary occupancy schedues been returned to orgna
settngs?
Have atered equpment schedues or ockouts been returned to
orgna settngs?
Is equpment short-cycng?
Are tme-cocks checked monthy to ensure proper operaton?
s encountered, the ste shoud Are seasonay changed setponts reguary examned to ensure
proper ad|ustment?
sure the VAV fans are operatng Have any changes n room furnture or equpment adversey ahected
thermostat functon? (Check thermostat settngs or other contros that
occupants can access.)
Are new tenants educated n the proper use and functon of
thermostats and ghtng contros?
one of the fans s not operatng
or controng propery. Ths coud aso be caused by a faed statc pressure sensor, faed net
vane
contros, sppng bets or breached ductwork. In any case, the budng operator shoud
determne
the desgn ar-sde statc pressure setpont for the partcuar ar-handng unt to ensure the
current
operaton s as cose to ths vaue as possbe. The operator shoud dentfy the ocaton of the
statc
pressure gauges - they shoud be nstaed about 2/3 of the way down the ongest stretch of
ductwork.
In DDC contro systems, some HVAC operators encourage unoccuped pressure setpont
reductons to be mpemented n con|uncton wth the unoccuped temperature setpont changes.
Ths ohers greater energy savngs n VAV systems by aowng for a arger dead-band
temperature
range and ess ar to be crcuated through the budng.
,.*&
Settng and Setpont: Ouestons to Ask
Based on energy and O&M
audts of a varety of Federa
pressure setponts fa n range of
the 1.9" water coumn (w.c.) to
2.6" w.c. Ths s far hgher than
necessary where most varabe
ar voume (VAV) systems are
ntended to operate n the 1"
to 1.5" w.c. range (Lundstrom
2006). If ths type of operaton
nvestgate the system to make
and controng propery. These
hgh statc pressure readngs can
sometmes be caused by ste stah
ookng to make a quck x when
As stah perform certan mantenance tasks to prepare equpment for heatng or coong
seasons,
they shoud aso revew and ad|ust operatona strateges seasonay.
EM-S Measure R%: HVAC Tune-Up and Mantenance
Some of the most mportant HVAC tune-up and mantenance actvtes a ste shoud
consder
are reated to the foowng: vaves, ters, co ceanngs, sensor cabraton, damper
operaton, bet
system checks, system overrde correcton, and ar/water ow anayss.
@alves
Contro vaves n HVAC systems are used to contro the amount of hot or ched water that
crcuates through heatng or coong cos. Whe a necessary component, contro vaves are
notorous for fang. Unfortunatey, when a contro vave faure occurs, t often goes unnotced
by ste stah because t s dmcut to assess vsuay. Common contro vave
probems/mafunctons
ncude vaves that have been manuay overrdden n the open poston, vaves stuck n a
xed
poston, vaves that are eakng, and vaves that are ncorrecty wred - usuay backwards.
One method of vave dagnoss starts wth the DDC system. Through the DDC system, an
operator w determne f a partcuar heatng co s hot (.e., s beng supped wth hot water).
Ths
w be evdent through the system reported as a temperature at the co. Next, the operator
w
make sure the zone served by ths co s actuay cang for heat; ths s represented n the
system as a
request for servce. If the zone s not cang for heat, yet the co s hot, the operator shoud
examne
the contro vave for ether eakage or manua overrde. Ths same procedure hods true for
coong
cos.
Another method of vave dagnoss agan makes use of the DDC system. In ths scenaro,
the
operator uses the system to fuy cose both the heatng and coong vaves or he can manuay
overrde them. Once done, the operator then revews the ar temperatures on ether sde of
the
heatng/coong cos for whch there shoud not be more than a 2F to 4F temperature
dherence
between the two temperature sensors. If the temperature dherence exceeds ths range, the
operator
shoud consder ether contro vave or temperature sensor mafuncton.
Sensor -alibration
The HVAC temperature, pressure, reatve humdty and CO2 sensors wthn a budng have
certan cabraton mts that they operate wthn. The accuracy of a gven sensor s prmary a
functon of the sensor type, wth accuracy of a sensors usuay degradng over tme.
Accordngy, as a
genera mantenance functon, sensor assessment and cabraton shoud be a routne
functon. Refer
to manufacturers data for the recommendatons of assessment and cabraton.
As wth vaves, damper operaton can be vered usng a DDC contro system. Through ths
system, a facty manager can actvate the damper to the fuy open and then fuy cosed
poston
whe a coeague n the ed veres ths functon. If a partcuar damper s not actuatng as t
shoud, the nkages and actuator shoud be examned for proper connecton and operaton.
Durng
ths process, ed stah shoud aso verfy that a movng parts are propery ubrcated and
seas are n
good shape.
,.*'
Because economzers are dampers that nteract wth outsde ar, budngs where these are
nstaed shoud receve speca attenton. In addton to the above procedure, economzer
dampers
shoud be checked at a hgher frequency to ensure proper moduaton, seang, and sensor
cabraton.
The temperature and/or humdty (.e., enthapy) sensor used to contro the economzers shoud
be
part of a routne cabraton schedue.
;elt"2riven System
Bet-drven systems are common n HVAC fan systems. Bet drves are common because they
are
smpe and aow for drven equpment speed contro, whch s accompshed through the
ad|ustment
of puey sze. Whe bet-drve systems are generay consdered to be emcent, certan bets are
more
emcent than others. Standard bet drves typcay use V-bets that have a trapezoda cross
secton,
and operate by wedgng themseves nto the puey. These V-bets have nta emcences on the
order of 95% to 98%, whch can degrade by as much as 5% over the fe of the system, f the
bets are
not perodcay re tensoned (DOE 2005b).
If the fans currenty have standard V-bets, retrot optons for consderaton ncude cogged-V-
bets or synchronous bets and drves. In both cases, emcency gans on the order of 2% to 5%
are
possbe, dependng on the exstng bet and ts condton. It shoud be noted that cogged-V-bets
do
not requre a puey change as part of the retrot whe the synchronous bet retrot does.
System Overrides
System overrdes that are programmed nto the budngs DDC systems shoud be perodcay
checked. System overrdes are sometmes necessary to hande extreme weather condtons,
occupancy
condtons, or speca events. As these are programmed, a speca note shoud be made of what
was
over-rdden, for what purpose, and when t can be reset. The ste shoud mpement a contnuous
overrde nspecton program to ook at a of the overrdes that have been programmed nto the
DDC
system and to make sure they are removed as soon as possbe.
Simultaneous $eating and -ooling
In dry cmates that do not have a need to smutaneousy heat and coo the ar to contro the
reatve humdty, t s generay advsed that the heatng shoud be dsabed whenever the
coong
system s actvated and vce versa. In pneumatc and eectromechanca systems, the budng
operator may have to manuay overrde the heatng and coong system to accompsh ths.
Wth DDC systems nstaed n areas not requrng dehumdcaton the system shoud be
programmed to ock out the hot-water pumps durng hgh ambent condtons (e.g., outdoor ar
temperatures above 70F) and ock out the ched water pumps durng ow ambent condtons
(e.g.,
outdoor ar temperatures beow 60F to 55F). Ths w ensure that ony the necessary servce s
provded and emnate the wastefu practce of unnecessary smutaneous heatng and coong.
Where smutaneous heatng and coong s requred (e.g., n humd cmatc regons) to
remove
the mosture from the condtoned ar, and then to heat the ar back up to the requred setpont
temperatures, budng operators shoud check for proper operaton. As noted above, checks
shoud
be made to ensure temperature dead-band settng s far enough apart that t does not cause the
HVAC
system to contnuousy "hunt."
,.*(
;%8%; 6ase 4tudies
;ene4t of O&M -ontrols Assessments (PECI 1999)
A 250,000 square-foot omce budng n downtown Nashve, Tennessee, was renovated n
1993. The renovaton ncuded nstang a DDC energy management contro system to contro
the
varabe ar voume (VAV) HVAC system and ghtng and a varabe frequency drve (VFD) for
the ched water system. The budng was not commssoned as part of the renovaton. An
O&M
assessment was performed 3 years ater because the budng was experencng probems and
energy
bs seemed hgher then expected. As a resut of the assessment, a tota of 32 O&M reated
probems
ncudng a ma|or ndoor ar quaty (IAO) decency were dented. It was aso determned
that the
ma|orty of these probems had been present snce the renovaton. Annua energy savngs
from the
recommended O&M mprovements and repars are estmated at $9,300. The smpe payback
for both
the assessment and mpementaton s under 7 months.
5SA:6EM/ /re"-ooling Strategy at the /hiladelphia -ustom $ouse (FEMP 2007)
FEMP performed a study of prospectve oad
management and demand response approaches
for the Genera Servces Admnstratons
(GSA) Phadepha Custom House n eary
2005 (Fgure 9.6.1). GSA adopted the key
recommendaton and, through a few targeted
operatona changes and amost no capta cost,
saved neary $70,000 n demand payments n
2005-2006 and more than $100,000 (amost
15 percent of the factys annua eectrcty
b) n 2006-2007.
GSA pays more than $28 per kowatt
(kW)-two to three tmes the natona
norm-n demand charges for the
570,000
square foot Custom House, and s aso sub|ect
to a demand "ratchet" such that 80 percent of
ts summer peak power draw (.e., ts hghest
snge 30-mnute nterva readng between
|une
and September) becomes ts mnmum
bed
demand for each of the next eght
months
(October through May).
Fgure 9.6.1. Genera Servces Admnstratons Custom
House, Phadepha, PA
Snce the Custom House generay experences a summer peak of about 2,000 kW, ths
means that
GSA s obgated to pay for at east 1,600 kW durng these oh-peak months. However, the
facty s
a conventona Federa omce budng wth a ow oad factor, and barey reaches peaks of
1,000 kW
from December to March. At more than $28 per kW, the Custom House reguary pays ts
utty
(PECO Energy) over $15,000 per month durng those four months (as we as addtona sums
n the
"shouder" months of October, November, Apr, and May) for power t does not even draw.
,.**
Wth ths n mnd, GSA requested that FEMP conduct a study on the potenta to cost-
ehectvey
reduce ts peak demand. The centra component of FEMPs recommendaton was a "precoong"
strategy where GSA woud turn on ts ched water pant very eary n the mornng (as opposed
to
the usua 6 A.M.) on hot summer days. In addton, FEMP recommended that the ched water
vaves n the budngs roughy one thousand permeter nducton unts be trpped to a "fa-
open"
poston durng these eary mornng hours so that the facty woud actuay be somewhat over-
cooed. The dea was to utze the crca 1934 budngs substanta mass as a therma storage
medum, whch coud then absorb heat and provde coo-temperature radaton throughout the
day,
mtgatng the customary afternoon power peak.
GSA adopted ths strategy, and workng wth ther operatons and mantenance contractor
deveoped a mut-part pan to reduce the budngs peak through eary mornng pre-coong and
afternoon "demand-mtng." The key eements are:
If the outsde ar exceeds 70F at 2 A.M., one of the factys two 650-ton chers s turned on
and programmed to produce 42F ched water;
A nducton unt ched water vaves are set to a fu-open poston durng the eary mornng;
At 9 A.M., the ched water temperature s rased to 46F and nducton unt contro reverts to
the tenants (the unts have no re-heat cos but the unt contros can be set towards "warmer"
to
reduce or emnate the ow of ched water through them);
If demand reaches 1,500 kW and s st rsng by 12 noon, the ched water temperature s
rased
agan, to 48F;
Ony one of the two 650-ton chers s aowed to operate at any gven tme.
In the begnnng of summer 2005, the team executed the strategy manuay, usng contro
system
overrdes for cher operaton and beedng the ar out of the pneumatc nes to open the
nducton
unt vaves. Once the team ganed condence n ths strategy, the budngs contros contractor
was
caed n to hep automate t wthn the energy management contro system (nstaed n 2003 as
part
of a Super Energy Savngs Performance Contract).
As a resut, the operatons team was abe to keep the factys peak demand down to 1,766
kW
over the summer (dened by the PECO tarh as |une though September), as opposed to the
2,050 kW
or hgher that woud key have been reached. GSA beneted drecty from the reduced demand
n
the summer, savng an estmated $26,000 (see Tabe 9.6.1) n those four months aone.
,.*+
Tabe 9.6.1. Custom House demand reducton and savngs 2005-2006
GSA reaped even greater savngs from the reduced ratchet charges durng the wnter
months.
The ratchet cause set the mnmum demand charge for the October through May bs at
1,413 kW
(80 percent of the 1,766 kW summer peak). Whe the prevous four summers average peak
was
2,080 kW, FEMP conservatvey estmated that 2,050 kW woud have been 2005s peak draw
(ths s
a conservatve estmate because the summer of 2005 was an unusuay hot one n the md-
Atantc).
Snce 80 percent of 2,050 s 1,640, ths gure was used to estmate the ratchet savngs - .e.,
to
represent what the bed peak woud have been wthout the pre-coong. The 227 kW
reducton
(1640 - 1413) transated to more than $30,000 n savngs for the ve months of December
through
Apr; addtona ratchet reef n October, November, and May made for a tota (ncudng the
$26,000 n drect summer months savngs) of roughy $68,000.
In sum, the Custom Houses pre-coong therma storage experment has been an
enormous
success. The GSA avoded amost $70,000 n demand charges durng the rst year (2005-6).
GSA
concuded at a "essons earned" meetng that the GSA shoud "decare summer 2005s usage
was
ony 0.5 percent hgher, despte the fact that t had 4.3 percent more coong degree days."
Moreover,
a regresson pottng the four prevous summers kWh consumpton aganst the number of
coong
degree days n each reveaed that summer 2005s actua consumpton was 2 percent ess than
what
the mode predcted. The factys summer 2006 usage fe a remarkabe 7.5 percent beow
the
regressons predcton.
,.*,
Month Epected
/ea1
S
#10(
Actual
/ea1
S
#10(
;illed
/ea1
SS
#10(
/ea1
=eductio
n
#10(
10
@alue
|une 2005 1,900 1,766 1,766 134 $3,41
0
|uy 2005 2,050 1,692 1,692 358 $9,10
9
August 2005 2,050 1,692 1,697 353 $8,98
2
September
2005
1,900 1,711 1,711 189 $4,80
9
October 2005 1,640 1,640 1,604 36 $91
6
November
2005
1,640 1,448 1,448 192 $4,88
5
December
2005
1,640 1,015 1,413 227 $5,77
6
|anuary 2006 1,640 992 1,413 227 $6,13
4
February 2006 1,640 961 1,413 227 $6,13
4
March 2006 1,640 953 1,413 227 $6,13
4
Apr 2006 1,640 1,393 1,413 227 $6,13
4
May 2006 1,850 1,646 1,646 204 $5,51
2
Tota Savngs TF',PL
+
S
|une - Sept. 05 and May 06 gures are pro|ected, wthout pre-coong; October through Apr
numbers
represent 80% of pro|ected summer peak maxmum (see orange-shaded ces)
SS
Dec. 05 - Apr 06 gures represent 80% of actua summer peak maxmum (see green-
;%8%(= Bui!ding 6ontro!s 6hec@!ist
,.+0
2aily 0ee1ly Semi"
Annuall
y
Annuall
y
Overa vsua
nspecton
to be
X
Verfy contro
schedues
Verfy n contro software that schedues
are
accurate for season, occupancy,
X
Verfy setponts Verfy n contro software that
setponts are
X
Tme cocks Reset after every power outage X
Check a gauges Check a gauges to make sure
readngs are
X
Contro tubng
(pneumatc
system)
Check a contro tubng for eaks X
Check outsde ar
voumes
Cacuated the amount of outsde
ar
X
Check setponts Check setponts and revew ratona
for
X
Check schedues Check schedues and revew
ratona for
X
Check deadbands Assure that a deadbands are
accurate and
the ony smutaneous heatng and
X
Check sensors Conduct thorough check of a
sensors -
temperature, pressure, humdty,
X
Tme cocks Check for accuracy and cean X
Cabrate sensors Cabrate a sensors: temperature,
pressure,
X
;%8%(( Re$erences
DDC Onne. 2006a. Introdction to 8irect 8igital #ontrol Systems. Chapter 1, Drect Dgta
Contros Onne. Avaabe URL: http://www.ddc-onne.org/ .
DDC Onne. 2006b. #ontrol *esponse. Chapter 2, Drect Dgta Contros Onne. Avaabe URL:
http://www.ddc-onne.org/ .
DOE. 2005b. "Repace V-Bets wth Cogged or Synchronous Bet Drves." In Motor Systems Tp
Sheet #5, DOE/GO-102005-2060, U.S. Department of Energy, Omce of Energy Emcency and
Renewabe Energy, Washngton, D.C.
FEMP 2007. GSAs Coo Coup at the Phadepha Custom House. FEMP Focus, Fa 2007.
U.S. Department of Energy, Federa Energy Management Program. Washngton D.C.
Lundstrom C. 2006. Top *ecommissioning Measres to Maintain E%ciency. EMC Engneers
Inc.,
Energy.
PECI. 1997. Energy Management Systems) A Practical >ide7 Portand Energy Conservaton,
Inc.,
Portand, Oregon.
PECI. 1999. &perations and Maintenance Assessments7 Portand Energy Conservaton, Inc.
Pubshed
by the U.S. Envronmenta Protecton Agency and the U.S. Department of Energy.
,.+1
;%9 Air >and!ing 4"stes
;%9%( &ntroduction
The components of most ar handng systems ncude fans, ductwork, damper assembes,
heatng
and coong cos (or eements), and assocated sensors.
;%9%) T"pes o$ Air >and!ing 4"stes
Most ar handng systems fa nto two broad categores, constant-voume (CV) and varabe-
ar-
voume (VAV). The foowng descrptons provde an overvew of generc system types commony
found n arger commerca and nsttutona budngs (Better Brcks 2008).
Constant Air 0olu'e. Constant ar voume systems provde a constant arow rate to the
zone. The contro varabe s the temperature of the ar supped to the zone. These systems can
be
congured for snge-zone or mut-zone systems and may be congured as a snge duct or two
duct
(dua duct) system.
0ariable Air 0olu'e. VAV systems provde comfort by changng the voume of ar devered
to a
zone based on temperature needs and controed by statc pressure measured n the duct
system. Most
VAV systems are snge duct systems and provde coong and ventaton - when necessary, ar s
heated often at the termna unt.
;%9%* Fe" 6oponents
w6ans - Ths topc w be addressed n Secton 9.8
w-oils - Cos provde the mechansm for heat transfer between the ar stream and the heat-
exchange ud (usuay water, steam or refrgerant). These cos are made of tubes that carry
the
ud and are surrounded by rows of thn ns desgned to ncrease the heat-transfer surface
area.
For maxmum heat transfer, t s mperatve to keep these cos cean and free of obstructons.
w6ilters - Wth the goa of emcent heat transfer and good ar quaty, ters are used to
prevent
partcuate matter or other contamnants from enterng (or re-crcuatng) though an ar
handng
system. Fters are cassed by ASHRAE Standard 52.2 and rated by ther Mnmum Emcency
Reportng Vaue (MERV). By desgn, the arow through a ter bank shoud be as unform
across
the entre ter surface area and, dependng on the ter type and desgn, n the range of 400
to
600 feet per mnute (fpm). Fters are a requred mantenance tem and shoud be changed
based
on system use and contamnant oadng.
w2ampers - To contro and drect the ow of ar through the system, dampers are nstaed at
the
net, the outet, or nterna to the ar handng system. There are a varety of damper types
and
conguratons. Dampers are a notorous source of energy waste va eakage, mafuncton, or
beng
dsabed. Due to ther typca ocaton and chaenges assocated wth proper assessment,
damper
assembes are often not addressed n standard mantenance practces.
w2ucts - The ducts found n most commerca factes are usuay made of gavanzed stee
and
are nsuated to reduce heat transfer and prevent condensaton. Duct connectons from
secton
to secton, or at the termna apparatus, need to be done accordng oca code requrements
and
shoud be checked annuay for ntegrty.
,.+2
;%9%3 6ost and Energ" E$$icienc"
Many ar handng system emcency measures reate to how the system s controed and
are
covered n Secton 9.6 Energy Management and Budng Automaton Systems. Addtona
measures
for consderaton are presented beow.
w6ilters - Ar ters pay a crtca roe n mantanng ndoor ar quaty and protectng the
downstream components of the system from drt that reduces equpment emcency. In the
worse
case, drty ters can resut n suppy ar bypassng the ter and depostng drt on the
heatng/
coong cos rather than on the ter. Ths resuts n drty cos, poor heat transfer, and
genera
nemcency. In addton to the emcency penaty, ceanng a drty co s far more dmcut
and
abor ntensve than repacng ters (DOE 2005).
As a rue, stes shoud routney change ters based on ether the pressure drop across the
ter,
caendar schedung, or vsua nspecton. Schedued ntervas shoud be between 1 and 6
months, dependng on the drt oadng from ndoor and outdoor ar. Measurng the pressure
drop
across the ter s the most reabe way to assess ter condton. In factes wth reguar
and
predctabe drt oadng, measurng the pressure drop across the ter can be used to
estabsh the
proper ter-changng nterva; thereafter, ter changes can be routney schedued. Refer
to
manufacturers data for the recommendatons of pressure drop across specc ters.
w-oil -leaning - Hot water and ched water cos n HVAC systems tend to accumuate
drt and
debrs, smary to HVAC ters. As drt and debrs accumuates, t nhbts the heat
transferred
from the workng ud to the ar stream, thus reducng the emcency of the HVAC system.
Much
ke HVAC ters, the schedued ntervas between ceanngs s a functon of the drt oadng
across the co and s prmary a functon of how much drt s n the ambent ar and what
has
bypassed the ter. Based on the stes perodc nspectons, the gven facty shoud
deveop
approprate ceanng schedues for a of the hot water and ched water cos. Fgure 9.7.1
presents a coong co n great need of mantenance.
w2amper Operation - There are a number of potenta fauts HVAC dampers may be
sub|ect to.
These ncude dampers stuck open or cosed, dampers manuay postoned (.e.,
mechancay
xed n a poston usng wre, boards, etc.), dampers wth mssng vanes, or dampers
operatng
wth poor seas. Fgure 9.7.2 shows one a too common souton to a damper ssue -
somethng
not recommended by ths gudes authors.
;%9%5 Maintenance
Proper mantenance for ar handng systems ncudes schedued ter repacement, co
ceanng,
duct ntegrty evauaton, damper ceanness and functon.
;%9%5%( Diagnostic Too!s
The combnaton of a factys budng automaton system and occupant nteracton can be
very dagnostc of an ar handng systems functon. Repeated cod/warm compant cas,
vadated
through the BAS sensor readngs, can be ndcatve of a poory performng system n need of
mantenance.
,.+3
Fgure 9.7.1. Coong co requrng ceanng
Fgure 9.7.2. Damper quck x - not recommended
;%9%5%) 6ase 4tud"
=etro"-ommissioning of Air"$andling System at the =onald @. 2ellums 6ederal
;uilding
(OuEST 2004)
Durng a Budng Tune-Up (BTU) Program audt at the Ronad V. Deums Federa Budng
n Oakand, program engneers dented severa smpe ways to mprove energy emcency n ts
ar
handng systems yedng more than $65,000 n annua savngs.
The 1.1 mon square foot omce budng was the focus of a thorough retro-commssonng
(R-Cx) audt provded as part of the Oakand Energy Partnershp (OEP) Program. The audt team
found that energy costs coud be cut by mprovng pacement of key ar stream sensors,
addressng ar
damper probems, and reducng pressure setponts.
,.+&
An E*cient ;uilding -an =educe -osts Even More.
Athough the budng was competed n 1994 and has an energy use ntensty of 54
kBtu/sqft-
yr, we beow the average 70 kBtu/sqft-yr for typca omce budngs n Oakand, the tune-up
team
managed to nd numerous cost-ehectve savngs measures.
One of the ndngs of the program was that poor sensor ocatons n the ar handers have
been
wastng over $27,000 per year. By smpy movng sensors to ocatons that are more
representatve of
the ar stream of nterest, the exstng contro agorthms work as they were orgnay
ntended.
In another case, ar was owng through the ducts n the reverse drecton of the ntended
desgn.
Functona testng showed that under certan condtons, ar from one hot deck suppy fan was
owng
up the common suppy shaft and back feedng through the other fan. The R-Cx team
recommended
controng both 5th oor & penthouse fans n unson to prevent ths probem. Expert anayss
requred to dentfy ths probem was pad for by the BTU program and budng owners pad
reatvey
tte to mpement the measures.
The nvestgaton phase of the pro|ect ncuded anayss of trended data ogs and extensve
functona testng of the HVAC equpment. A tota of 12 operatona decences were observed
n the ar handng systems. The probems wth the greatest potenta for energy savngs were
thoroughy anayzed and correctve measures were recommended. The pro|ect team aso
made
specc recommendatons on how to mprove the operaton and comfort of the facty on other
non-
energy reated ssues.
9mprovements Save Energy and 9ncrease -omfort.
Identcaton, documentaton and mpementaton of non-energy measures can often
mprove
occupant comfort, reduce operator workoad and generay mprove the operaton of the
facty.
Exampes of such measures at the Ronad V. Deums Federa Budng ncuded:
Ceanng and cabratng arow-montorng statons on suppy and return fans. Ths
correctve
measure aowed proper trackng of the return fans speed, whch heped mantan the
proper
pressurzaton wthn the budng.
Addng an "auto-zero" cabraton feature to the VAV box contro programs. Ths ensured that
each occupant receved the correct arow n the work area.
Ad|ustng the vave actuators and postoners servng the ched water cos to reduce
huntng
and ncrease co capacty.
,.+'

;%9%8 Air >and!ing 4"ste 6hec@!ists (Better Brcks 2008)
;%9%9 Re$erences
Department of Energy (DOE). 2005. Actions 3o #an Ta-e to *edce #ooling #osts.
PNNL-SA-45361; U.S. Department of Energy, Federa Energy Management Program,
Washngton, D.C.
Better Brcks. 2008. Bottom Lne Thnkng on Energy - Budng Operatons. Northwest Energy
Emcency Aance. Avaabe at URL: http://www.betterbrcks.com .
OuEST 2004. *etroG#ommissioning Process Finds Energy #ost Savings in Air Dandling Systems.
OuEST
- Budng Tune-Up Program. Ouantum Energy Servces & Technooges, Inc., Berkeey, Caforna.
,.+(
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
Overa vsua
nspecton
to be
X
Fters Check ter condton accordng to
system
type and manufacturers
X
System ntegrty Inspect for eakage due to ma|or
connectons and access doors not
beng
propery cosed.
X
Dampers Inspect damper actuator and
nkage for
proper operaton by cycng fuy
X
Fter assembes Inspect ter rack for ntegrty.
Inspect oca
pressure dherenta gauge, tubng, and
X
Cos Inspect co ns for physca
damage, and
comb out any bent ns. Cean cos
f
X
;%: Fans
;%:%( &ntroduction
The Amercan Socety of Heatng, Refrgeratng, and Ar-Condtonng Engneers (ASHRAE)
denes a fan as an "ar pump that creates a pressure dherence and causes arow. The
mpeer does
the work on the ar, mpartng to t both statc and knetc energy, varyng proporton
dependng on
the fan type" (ASHRAE 1992).
;%:%) T"pes o$ Fans (Bodman and Sheton 1995)
The two genera types of fans are axa-ow and centrfuga. Wth axa-ow fans, the ar
passes
through the fan parae to the drve shaft. Wth centrfuga fans, the ar makes a rght ange
turn
from the fan net to outet.
;%:%)%( ACia! Fan
Axa-ow fans can be subdvded based on constructon and performance characterstcs.
/ropeller fan - The basc desgn of propeer fans enhances mantenance to remove dust
and drt
accumuatons. The fan normay conssts of a "at" frame or housng for mountng, a
propeer-
shaped bade, and a drve motor. It may be drect drve (Fgure 9.8.1) wth the whee
mounted
on the motor shaft or bet drven (Fgure 9.8.2) wth the whee mounted on ts own shaft
and
bearngs.
Reprnted wth permsson of The
Insttute of Agrcuture and Natura
Resources, Unversty of Nebraska.
Fgure 9.8.1. Propeer drect-drve fan (front and rear vew).
Fgure 9.8.2. Propeer bet-drve fan (front and rear vew).
,.+*
!ube"aial fans - A tube-axa fan (Fgure 9.8.3) conssts of a tube-shaped housng, a
propeer-
shaped bade, and a drve motor. Vane-axa fans (Fgure 9.8.4) are a varaton of tube-axa
fans,
and are smar n desgn and appcaton. The ma|or dherence s that ar straghtenng vanes
are
added ether n front of or behnd the bades. Ths resuts n a sghty more emcent fan,
capabe
of somewhat greater statc pressures and arow rates.
Fgure 9.8.3. Tube-axa fan
Fgure 9.8.4. Vane axa fan
;%:%)%) 6entri$uga! Fans
Often caed "squrre cage" fans,
centrfuga fans have an entrey Reprnted wth permsson of The
fans operate on the prncpe of
"throwng" ar away from the bade
tps. The bades can be forward
curved, straght, or backward curved.
Centrfuga fans wth backward
curved bades are generay more
emcent than the other two bade
Fgure 9.8.5. Centrfuga fan
where hgh arow rates and hgh
statc pressures are requred. Centrfuga fans wth forward curved bades have somewhat ower
statc
pressure capabtes but tend to be queter than the other bade desgns. Furnace fans typcay
use a
forward curved bade. An advantage of the straght bade desgn s that wth proper desgn t can
be
used to hande drty ar or convey materas. Centrfuga fans are generay ess expensve than
axa
fans and smper n constructon, but generay do not acheve the same emcency.
,.++
dherent desgn (Fgure 9.8.5). These
conguratons. Ths desgn s most
often used for aeraton appcatons
;%:%* Fe" 6oponents
w9mpeller or rotor - A seres of rada bades are attached to a hub. The assemby of the
hub
and bades s caed mpeer or rotor. As the mpeer rotates, t creates a pressure
dherence and
causes arow.
wMotor - Drves the bades so they turn. It may be drect drve wth the whee mounted on
the
motor shaft or bet drven wth the whee mounted on ts own shaft and bearngs. It s
mportant
to note that fans may aso be drven by other sources of motve power such as an nterna
combuston engne, or steam or gas turbne.
w$ousing - Encoses and protects the motor and mpeer.
;%:%3 4a$et" &ssues
Contnuousy movng fresh ar through a conned space s the most ehectve means of
controng
poutant eves and ensurng good ar quaty. Ventaton dutes and dspaces ar
contamnants,
assures that an adequate oxygen suppy s mantaned durng entry, and exhausts contamnants
created
by entry actvtes such as wedng, oxygen-fue cuttng, or abrasve bastng (North Carona
State
Unversty 2001).
;%:%5 6ost and Energ" E$$icienc"
In certan stuatons, fans can provde an ehectve aternatve to costy ar condtonng.
Fans
coo peope by crcuatng or ventatng ar. Crcuatng ar speeds up the evaporaton of
perspraton
from the skn so we fee cooer. Ventatng repaces hot, stuhy, ndoor ar wth cooer, fresh,
outdoor
ar. Research shows movng ar wth a fan has the same ahect on persona comfort as owerng
the
temperature by over 5F. Ths happens because ar movement created by the fan speeds up
the rate
at whch our body oses heat, so we fee cooer. Openng and cosng wndows or doors heps
the fan
move ndoor ar outsde and outdoor ar nsde, ncreasng the emcency of the fan. When t s
hot
outsde, cose wndows and doors to the outsde. In the mornng or evenng, when outdoor ar
s
cooer, pace the fan n front of a wndow or door and open wndows on the opposte sde of the
room.
Ths draws cooer ar through the vng area (EPCOR 2001).
In many appcatons, fan contro represents a sgncant opportunty for ncreased
emcency
and reduced cost. A smpe and ow-cost means of ow contro rees on dampers, ether
before or
after the fan. Dampers add resstance to accompsh reduced ow, whe ncreasng pressure.
Ths
ncreased pressure resuts n ncreased energy use for the ow eve requred. Aternatves to
damper
ow contro methods ncude physca reductons n fan speed though the use of bets and
pueys or
varabe speed controers.
;%:%8 Maintenance o$ Fans
Typcay, fans provde years of troube-free operaton wth reatvey mnma mantenance.
However, ths hgh reabty can ead to a fase sense of securty resutng n mantenance
negect
and eventua faure. Due to ther promnence wthn HVAC and other process systems (wthout
the
fan operatng, the system shuts down), fans need to reman hgh on the mantenance actvty
st.
Most fan mantenance actvtes center on ceanng housngs and fan bades, ubrcatng
and
checkng seas, ad|ustng bets, checkng bearngs and structura members, and trackng
vbraton.
,.+,
;%:%9 Diagnostic Too!s
wBltrasonic analy3er - Ar movng systems emt very dstnct sound patterns around
bearngs
and fan bades. In most cases, these sounds are not audbe to the unaded ear or are drown-
out by
other equpment noses. Usng an utrasonc detector, the anayst s abe to soate the
frequency
of sound beng emtted by the bearng or bades. Changes n these utrasonc wave emssons
are ndcatve of changes n equpment condton-some of these changes can be a precursor
to
component degradaton and faure. More nformaton on utrasonc anayss can be found n
Chapter 6.
w@ibration analy3er - Wthn ar movng systems, there are many movng parts, most n
rotatona moton. These parts generate a dstnct pattern and eve of vbraton. Usng a
vbraton anayzer and sgnature anayss software, the anayst can dscern the vbraton
amptude
of the pont on the equpment beng montored. Ths amptude s then compared wth trended
readngs. Changes n these readngs are ndcatve of changes n equpment condton. More
nformaton on vbraton anayss can be found n Chapter 6.
;%:%: Avai!a#!e 4o$t-are Too!s
6an System Assessment !ool #6SA!(
2escription: Experence has shown that greater energy savngs can be acheved through
system
optmzaton than through component optmzaton. The DOE Fan System Assessment Too (FSAT)
heps users quantfy energy consumpton and energy savngs opportuntes n ndustra fan
systems.
By reducng the engneerng tme assocated wth anayzng fan systems t now becomes easer
to
understand the economc and energy sgncance of changes n both system equpment and
operatng
practces.
FSAT heps users quantfy the dherence between rated performance and nstaed
performance
due to such thngs as:
Hgh duct veocty
Dscharge dampers ocked n poston
Obstructed nets
Incorrecty szed fans
Poor duct geometry
Degraded mpeers.
FSAT s smpe and quck to use, and requres ony basc nformaton about fans and the
motors
that drve them. Wth FSAT, users can cacuate the amount of energy used by a fan system;
determne system emcency; and quantfy the savngs potenta of an upgraded system. The too
aso
provdes a prescreenng ter to dentfy fan systems that are key to oher optmzaton
opportuntes
based on the systems contro, producton and mantenance, and ehect.
FSAT estmates the work done by the fan system and compares that to the estmated energy
nput
nto the system. Usng generc typca performance characterstcs for fans and motors,
ndcatons of
potenta savngs (n energy and doars) are deveoped.
,.,0
Availability: To downoad the Fan System Assessment Too and earn more about DOE
Ouaed
Specasts and tranng opportuntes, vst the Industra Technoogy Program Web ste:
www.eere.
energy.gov/ndustry/bestpractces.
;%:%; Re!evant Operationa!/Energ" E$$icienc" Measures
There are a number of
operatona/energy emcency
measures that coud be presented
for
proper fan operaton and contro.
Ths secton focuses on the most
prevaent O&M
recommendatons
havng the greatest energy mpacts
at Federa factes and ncudes
(DOE 2003, UNEP 2006):
&versiCed Fans: A common
probem n many factes s the
purchase of overszed fans for
ther servce requrements.
These
overszed fans w not operate at
the
most emcent pont and n extreme
cases these fans may operate n
an unstabe manner because of
the pont of operaton on the fan
arow pressure curve.
Overszed
fans generate excess ow
energy,
resutng n hgh arow nose and
ncreased stress on the fan and the
system. Consequenty,
overszed
fans not ony cost more to purchase
and to operate, they create
avodabe
system performance probems.
Possbe soutons ncude, amongst
other repacng the fan,
repacng
the motor, or ntroducng a varabe
speed drve motor.
Fan System Operatona-Emcency Consderatons
(UNEP 2006)
Use smooth, we-rounded ar net cones for fan ar ntake
Avod poor ow dstrbuton at the fan net
Mnmze fan net and outet obstructons
Cean screens, ters and fan bades reguary
Mnmze fan speed
Use ow sp or at bets for power transmsson
Check bet tenson reguary
Use varabe speed drves for arge varabe fan oads
Use energy-emcent motors for contnuous or near contnuous
operaton
Emnate eaks n ductwork
Mnmze bends n ductwork
Turn fans and bowers oh when not needed
Reduce the fan speed by puey dameter modcatons n case of
overszed motors
Adopt net gude vanes n pace of dscharge damper contro
Reduce transmsson osses by usng energy-emcent at bets or
cogged raw-edged V-bets nstead of conventona V-bet systems
Ensure proper agnment between drve and drven system
Ensure proper power suppy quaty to the motor drve
Reguary check for vbraton trend to predct any ncpent
faures ke bearng damage, msagnments, unbaance,
foundaton ooseness.
System *esistance: The fan operates at a pont where the system resstance curve and the
fan
curve ntersects. The system resstance has a ma|or roe n determnng the performance and
emcency of a fan. The system resstance aso changes dependng on the process. For
exampe, the
formaton of the coatngs/eroson of the nng n the ducts, changes the system resstance
margnay.
In some cases, the change of equpment, or duct modcatons, drastcay shft the operatng
pont,
resutng n ower emcency. In such cases, to mantan the emcency as before, the fan has to
be
changed. Hence, the system resstance has to be perodcay checked, more so when
modcatons
are ntroduced and acton taken accordngy, for emcent operaton of the fan.
,.,1
Fan Maintenance: Reguar mantenance of fans s mportant to mantan ther performance
eves.
Mantenance actvtes ncude:
Perodc nspecton of a system components
Bearng ubrcaton and repacement
Bet tghtenng and repacement
Motor repar or repacement
Fan ceanng
Fan #ontrol: Normay, an nstaed fan operates at a constant speed. But some stuatons may
requre a speed change; for exampe, more arow may be needed from the fan when a new run
of
duct s added, or ess arow may be needed f the fan s overszed. There are severa ways to
reduce or
contro the arow of fans. These are summarzed n Tabe 9.8.1.
Tabe 9.8.1. Fan-ow contro comparson (adapted from DOE 2003)
,.,2
!ype of 6an 6low -ontrol Advantages 2isadvantages
Puey change: reduces the
motor/drve
puey sze
Permanent speed decrease
Rea energy reducton
Fan must be abe to hande
capacty
change
Fan must be drven by V-bet
2ampers) reduce the amount
of ow
and ncreases the upstream
pressure,
whch reduces fan output
Inexpensve
Easy to nsta
Provde a mted amount of
ad|ustment
Reduce the ow but not the
energy
consumpton
Hgher operatng and
mantenance
9nlet guide vanes) create
swrs n the
fan drecton thereby essenng
the
ange between ncomng ar and
Improve fan emcency
because
both fan oad and devered
arow are reduced
Cost-ehectve at arows
Less emcent at arows ower
than
80% of fu ow
@ariable Speed 2rive #@S2()
reducng the speed of motor of
the fan
to meet reduced ow
requrements
Mechanca VSDs: hydrauc
cutches, ud coupngs, and
ad|ustabe bets and pueys
Eectrca VSDs: eddy current
cutches, wound rotor motor
controers, and varabe
frequency
drves (VFDs: change motors
rotatona speed by ad|ustng
eectrca frequency of power
Most mproved and emcent
ow
contro
Aow fan speed ad|ustments
over
a contnuous range
For VFDs speccay:
Ehectve and easy ow
contro
Improve fan operatng
emcency
over a wde range of
operatng
condtons
Mechanca VSDs can have
foung
probems
Investment costs can be a
barrer
;%:%(= 6ase 4tudies
;lower for an 9ndustrial Application
The operaton of a centrfuga fan by damper contro s energy nemcent because part of
the
energy supped to the fan s ost across damper. The damper contro has to be mnmzed by
sutaby
optmzng the capacty of the fan to sut the requrement. One of the best methods to
optmze
the capacty of the fan s by reducng the rpm of the fan and operate the bower wth more
damper
openng.
Previous Status. An ar bower was operated wth 30% damper openng. The bower was
bet-drven. The pressure requred for the process was 0.0853 ps. The pressure rse of the
bower was
0.1423 ps and the pressure drop across the damper was 0.0569 ps. Ths ndcates an excess
capacty/
statc head avaabe n the bower.
-nerg$ Saving Project. The rpm of the bower was reduced by 20% by sutaby changng
the
puey. After the reducton n rpm, the damper was operated wth 60% to 70% openng.
The repacement of the puey was taken up durng a non-workng day. No dmcutes were
encountered on mpementaton of the pro|ect.
Financial Anal$sis. The reducton n rpm of the bower and mnmzng the damper contro
resuted n reducton of power consumpton by 1.2 kW. The mpementaton of ths pro|ect
resuted
n an annua savngs of approxmatey $720. The nvestment made was approxmatey $210,
whch
was pad back n under 4 months (Confederaton of Indan Industry 2001).
O
&
M

B
e
s
t
P
r
a
c
ti
c
e
s
G
uide, Release 3.0
,.,3
;%:%(( Fans 6hec@!ist
,.,&
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
System use/
sequencng
equpment
X
Overa vsua
nspecton
to be
X
Observe bets Verfy proper bet tenson and
agnment
X
Inspect puey
whees
Cean and ubrcate where requred X
Inspect dampers Conrm proper and compete
cosure
contro; outsde ar dampers shoud
X
Observe actuator/
nkage contro
Verfy operaton, cean, ubrcate,
ad|ust as
X
Check fan bades Vadate proper rotaton and cean
when
X
Fters Check for gaps, repace when drty
-
X
Check for ar
quaty
anomaes
Inspect for mosture/growth on
was,
cengs, carpets, and n/outsde of
duct-
X
Check wrng Verfy a eectrca connectons are
tght
X
Inspect ductwork Check and refasten oose
connectons,
X
Cos Conrm that ters have been kept
cean,
X
Insuaton Inspect, repar, repace a
compromsed
X
;%:%() Re$erences
Amercan Socety of Heatng, Refrgeratng, and Ar-Condtonng Engneers (ASHRAE). 1992.
ASD*AE D:A# Systems and EEipment, I-P ed, ASHRAE Handbook, Atanta, Georga.
Bodman, G.R. and D.P. Sheton. |uy 2, 2001. :entilation Fans) Types and SiCes7 Insttute of
Agrcuture and Natura Resources, Unversty of Nebraska Cooperatve Extenson, Unversty of
Nebraska, May 1995 |Onne report|. Avaabe URL: http://www.anr.un.edu/pubs/farmbudngs/
g1243.htm . Reprnted wth permsson of the Insttute of Agrcuture and Natura Resources,
Unversty of Nebraska.
Confederaton of Indan Industry. August 2, 2001. *edction of >asi+er Air <lo9er Speed.
Energy
Emcency, Green Busness Centre. Reprnted wth permsson of the Confederaton of Indan
Industry.
EPCOR. August 17, 2001. #ooling 9ith Fans |Onne|. Avaabe URL: http://www.epcor-group.com/
Resdenta/Emcency.htm . Reprnted wth permsson of EPCOR.
Genera Servces Admnstraton. 1995. P,lic <ildings Maintenance >ides and Time
Standards.
Pubcaton 5850, Pubc Budng Servce, Omce of Rea Property Management and Safety.
North Carona State Unversty. August 16, 2001. #on+ned Space :entilation. Appendx D,
Heath
& Safety Manua, Envronmenta Heath & Safety Center |Onne report|. Avaabe URL:
http://www2.ncsu.edu/ncsu/ehs/www99/rght/handsMan/conned/Appx-D.pdf . Reprnted wth permsson
of North Carona State Unversty.
UNEP, 2006. Energy Emcency Gude for Industry, 2006. Unted Natons Envronmenta
Program.
Washngton D.C.
U.S. Department of Energy (U.S. DOE) 2003. Improving Fan System Performance N A
Sorce,oo- for
Indstry. Avaabe on-ne at URL: www1.eere.energy.gov/ndustry/bestpractces/pdfs/fan_sourcebook.pdf .
O
&
M

B
e
s
t
P
r
a
c
ti
c
e
s
G
u
i
de, Release 3.0
,.,'
;%; Pups
;%;%( &ntroduction
Keepng pumps operatng successfuy for ong perods of tme requres carefu pump desgn
seecton, proper nstaaton, carefu operaton, the abty to observe changes n performance
over
tme, and n the event of a faure, the capacty to thoroughy nvestgate the cause of the faure
and
take measures to prevent the probem from recurrng. Pumps that are propery szed and
dynamcay
baanced, that st on stabe foundatons wth good shaft agnment and wth proper ubrcaton,
that
operators start, run, and stop carefuy, and that mantenance personne observe for the
appearance
of unheathy trends whch coud begn actng on and causng damage to, usuay never
experence a
catastrophc faure (Potrowsk 2001).
;%;%) T"pes o$ Pups
The famy of pumps comprehends a arge number of types based on appcaton and
capabtes.
The two ma|or groups of pumps are dynamc and postve dspacement.
Vkng Pump Incorporated.
Fgure 9.9.1. Technoogy tree for pumps.
,.,(
;%;%)%( D"naic Pup 06entri$uga! Pup1 (Pump Word 2001a)
Centrfuga pumps are cassed nto three genera categores:
=adial Mow - a centrfuga pump n whch the pressure s deveoped whoy by centrfuga
force.
Mied Mow - a centrfuga pump n whch the pressure s deveoped party by centrfuga
force
and party by the ft of the vanes of the mpeer on the qud.
Aial Mow - a centrfuga pump n whch the pressure s deveoped by the propeng or
ftng
acton of the vanes of the mpeer on the qud.
;%;%)%) Positive Disp!aceent Pup (Pump Word 2001c)
A postve dspacement pump (Fgure 9.9.2) has an expandng cavty on the sucton sde of
the
pump and a decreasng cavty on the dscharge sde. Lqud s aowed to ow nto the pump as
the
cavty on the sucton sde expands and the qud s forced out of the dscharge as the cavty
coapses.
Ths prncpe appes to a types of postve dspacement pumps whether the pump s a rotary
obe,
gear wthn a gear, pston, daphragm, screw, progressng cavty, etc.
Reprnted wth
permsson of
Pump Word.
Fgure 9.9.2. Rotary obe pump
A postve dspacement pump, unke a centrfuga pump, w
produce the same ow at a gven rpm no matter what the dscharge
pressure s. A postve dspacement pump cannot be operated
aganst a cosed vave on the dscharge sde of the pump, .e., t
does
not have a shut-oh head ke a centrfuga pump does. If a postve
dspacement pump s aowed to operate aganst a cosed dscharge
vave, t w contnue to produce ow whch w ncrease the
pressure n the dscharge ne unt ether the ne bursts or the pump
s severey damaged or both (Pump Word 2001d).
For purposes of ths gude, postve dspacement pumps (Fgure 9.9.3) are cassed nto
two
genera categores and then subdvded nto four categores each:
Pump Word.
Fgure 9.9.3. Postve dspacement pumps.
,.,*
;%;%* Fe" 6oponents
;%;%*%( 6entri$uga! Pup (Pump Word 2001b)
The two man components of a centrfuga pump (Fgure 9.9.4) are the mpeer and the
voute.
The mpeer produces qud veocty and the voute forces the qud to dscharge from the
pump
convertng veocty to pressure. Ths s accompshed by ohsettng the mpeer n the voute and
by
mantanng a cose cearance between the mpeer and the voute at the cut-water. Pease note
the
mpeer rotaton. A centrfuga pump mpeer sngs the qud out of the voute.
of Pump Word.
Fgure 9.9.4. Centrfuga pump.
;%;%*%) Positive Disp!aceent Pups
Snge Rotor (Pump Word 2001d)
- 0ane - The vane(s) may be bades, buckets, roers, or sppers that cooperate wth a dam
to
draw ud nto and out of the pump chamber.
- Piston - Fud s drawn n and out of the pump chamber by a pston(s) recprocatng wthn
a cynder(s) and operatng port vaves.
- Fle:ible Me'ber - Pumpng and seang depends on the eastcty of a exbe member(s)
that may be a tube, vane, or a ner.
- Single Scre8 - Fud s carred between rotor screw threads as they mesh wth nterna
threads on the stator.
Mutpe Rotor (Pump Word 2001d)
- ;ear - Fud s carred between gear teeth and s expeed by the meshng of the gears that
cooperate to provde contnuous seang between the pump net and outet.
- Lobe - Fud s carred between rotor obes that cooperate to provde contnuous seang
between the pump net and outet.
- Circu'<erential Piston - Fud s carred n spaces between pston surfaces not requrng
contacts between rotor surfaces.
-
,.,+
Multiple Screw - Fud s carred between rotor screw threads as they mesh.
Reef Vaves (Pump Word 2001e)
+ote/ A relief valve .Figre J7J751 on the discharge side of a positive displacement pmp is an
a,solte
mst for safetyQ
- Internal #elie< 0alve - Pump manufacturers normay have an opton to suppy an
nterna
reef vave. These reef vaves w temporary reeve the pressure on the dscharge
sde of a
pump operatng aganst a cosed vave. They are normay not fu ported, .e., cannot
bypass
a the ow produced by the pump. These nterna reef vaves shoud be used for pump
protecton aganst a temporary cosng of a vave.
- -:ternal #elie< 0alve - An externa reef vave (RV) nstaed n the dscharge ne wth
a
return ne back to the suppy tank s hghy recommended to provde compete
protecton
aganst an unexpected over pressure stuaton.
of Pump Word.
Fgure 9.9.5. Schematc of pump and reef vave.
;%;%3 4a$et" &ssues (Pompe Spec Incorporated 2001)
Some mportant safety tps reated to mantenance actons for pumps:
Safety appare
- Insuated work goves when handng hot bearngs or usng bearng heater.
- Heavy work goves when handng parts wth sharp edges, especay mpeers.
- Safety gasses (wth sde sheds) for eye protecton, especay n machne shop area.
- Stee-toed shoes for foot protecton when handng parts, heavy toos, etc.
Safe operatng procedures
- Coupng guards: Never operate a pump wthout coupng guard propery nstaed.
- Fanged connectons:
Never force ppng to make connecton wth pump.
Insure proper sze, matera, and number of fasteners are nstaed.
Beware of corroded fasteners.
,.,,
- When operatng pump:
Do not operate beow mnmum rated ow, or wth sucton/dscharge vaves cosed.
Do not open vent or dran vaves, or remove pugs whe system s pressurzed.
Mantenance safety
- Aways ock out power.
- Ensure pump s soated from system and pressure s reeved before any dsassemby of
pump,
remova of pugs, or dsconnectng ppng.
- Pump and components are heavy. Faure to propery ft and support equpment coud
resut
n serous n|ury.
- Observe proper decontamnaton procedures. Know and foow company safety reguatons.
- Never appy heat to remove mpeer.
;%;%5 6ost and Energ" E$$icienc"
Pumps frequenty are asked to operate far
oh
ther best emcency pont, or are perched atop
unstabe base-pates, or are run under
moderate
to severe msagnment condtons, or,
havng
been ubrcated at the factory, are not
gven
another drop of ubrcant unt the bearngs
seze and vbrate to the pont where bots come
oose. When the unt nay stops
pumpng,
new parts are thrown on the machne and the
deteroraton process starts a over agan, wth
no con|ecture as to why the faure
occurred.
The foowng are measures that can
mprove pump emcency: (OIT 1995)
Shut down unnecessary pumps.
Restore nterna cearances f performance has
changed.
Trm or change mpeers f head s arger than
necessary.
Contro by throtte nstead of runnng wde-open or
bypassng ow.
Repace overszed pumps.
Use mutpe pumps nstead of one arge one.
Use a sma booster pump.
Change the speed of a pump for the most emcent
match of horsepower requrements wth output.
drecty ahects the emcency of other system
components. For exampe, an mpropery szed pump can mpact crtca ow rates to equpment
whose emcency s based on these ow rates-a cher s a good exampe of ths.
;%;%8 Maintenance o$ Pups
(Genera Servces Admnstraton 1995)
The mportance of pumps to the day
operaton of budngs and processes necesstates
a proactve mantenance program.
Most pump
mantenance actvtes center on checkng
packng
and mechanca seas for eakage,
performng
preventve/predctve mantenance actvtes
on
bearngs, assurng proper agnment, and
vadatng
proper motor condton and functon.
,.100
The heart beats an average of 75 tmes per
mnute, or about 4,500 tmes per hour. Whe the
body s restng, the heart pumps 2.5 ounces of
bood per beat. Ths amount does not seem ke
much, but t sums up to amost 5 ters of bood
pumped per mnute by the heart, or about 7,200
ters per day. The amount of bood devered by
the heart can vary dependng upon the bodys
need. Durng perods of great actvty, such as
exercsng, the body demands hgher amounts of
bood, rch n oxygen and nutrents, ncreasng
the hearts output by neary ve tmes.
Proper mantenance s vta to achevng
top pump emcency expected fe. Addtonay,
because pumps are a vta part of many HVAC
and process appcatons, ther emcency
Large Horsepower (25 horsepower and above) Pump Emcency Survey
(OIT 1995)
Actons are gven n decreasng potenta for emcency mprovement:
1. w Excessve pump mantenance - ths s often assocated wth one of the foowng:
Overszed pumps that are heavy throtted.
Pumps n cavtaton.
Bady worn pumps.
Pumps that are msapped for the present operaton.
2. w Any pump system wth arge ow or pressure varatons. When norma ows or pressures are ess than 75%
of ther maxmum, energy s probaby beng wasted from excessve throttng, arge bypass ows, or operaton
of unneeded pumps.
3. w Bypassed ow, ether from a contro system or deadhead protecton orces, s wasted energy.
4. w Throtted contro vaves. The pressure drop across a contro vave represents wasted energy, that s
proportona to the pressure drop and ow. w
5. w Fxed throtte operaton. Pumps throtted at a constant head and ow ndcate excess capacty.
6. w Nosy pumps or vaves. A nosy pump generay ndcates cavtaton from heavy throttng or
excess ow. Nosy contro vaves or bypass vaves usuay mean a hgher pressure drop wth a correspondng
hgh energy oss.
7. A mutpe pump system. Energy s commony ost from bypassng excess capacty, runnng
unneeded pumps, mantanng excess pressure, or havng as arge ow ncrement between pumps. w
8. w Changes from desgn condtons. Changes n pant operatng condtons (expansons, shutdowns, etc.) can
cause pumps that were prevousy we apped to operate at reduced emcency. w
9. w A ow-ow, hgh-pressure user. Such users may requre operaton of the entre system at hgh pressure.
10. Pumps wth known overcapacty. w Overcapacty wastes energy because more ow s pumped at a hgher
pressure than requred.
;%;%9 Diagnostic Too!s
assessment of temperature. Appcatons for pumps ncude assessments on bearng
assembes at
the mpeer housng and motor system connectons. More nformaton on thermography
can be
found n Chapter 6.
wBltrasonic analy3er - Fud pumpng systems emt very dstnct sound patterns around
bearngs
and mpeers. In most cases, these sounds are not audbe to the unaded ear, or are drown-
out by
other equpment noses. Usng an utrasonc detector, the anayst s abe to soate the
frequency
of sound beng emtted by the bearng or mpeer. Changes n these utrasonc wave
emssons
are ndcatve of changes n equpment condton-some of these changes can be a
precursor to
component degradaton and faure. More nformaton on utrasonc anayss can be found
n
Chapter 6.
w@ibration analy3er - Wthn a ud pump, there are many movng parts; some n
rotatona
moton and some n near moton. In ether case, these parts generate a dstnct pattern
and
eve of vbraton. Usng a vbraton anayzer and sgnature anayss software, the anayst
can
dscern the vbraton amptude of the pont on the equpment beng montored. Ths
amptude
s then compared wth trended readngs. Changes n these readngs are ndcatve of
changes n
equpment condton. More nformaton on vbraton anayss can be found n Chapter 6.
,.101
;%;%: Avai!a#!e 4o$t-are Too!s
/umping System Assessment !ool (PSAT)
2escription) The Pumpng System Assessment Too (PSAT) software uses data that s
typcay
avaabe or easy obtaned n the ed (e.g., pump head, ow rate, and motor power) to
estmate
potenta energy and doar savngs n ndustra pump systems. The software, deveoped by the
DOE
Industra Technooges Program (ITP), s avaabe at no cost for evauatng ndustra pump
systems.
Use the PSAT prescreenng ter to dentfy areas that are key to oher the greatest savngs.
Look for symptoms assocated wth nemcent energy consumpton:
Throtte-vave contro for the system
Cavtaton nose or damage n the system
Contnuous pump operaton to support a batch process
Constant number of parae pumps supportng a process wth changng demands
Bypass or recrcuaton ne normay open
Hgh system mantenance
Systems that have undergone change n functon.
PSAT assesses current pump system operatng emcency by comparng ed measurements of
the power devered to the motor wth the ud work (ow and head) requred by the appcaton.
It estmates a systems achevabe emcency based on pump emcences (from Hydrauc
Insttute
standards) and performance characterstcs of pumps and motors (based on the MotorMaster+
database, see Secton 9.10.8). Subsequent comparson of the actua and achevabe emcences
dstngushes systems wth ower eves of opportunty from those that warrant addtona
engneerng
anayss.
Availability: To downoad the PSAT and earn more about DOE Ouaed Specasts and
tranng opportuntes, vst the Industra Technoogy Program Web ste: www1.eere.energy.gov/
ndustry/bestpractces .
;%;%; Re!evant Operationa!/Energ" E$$icienc" Measures
proper
pump operaton and contro. Ths secton focuses on the most prevaent O&M recommendatons
havng the greatest energy mpacts at Federa factes and ncudes (DOE 2001, DOE 2004,
BEE 2004):
Pump Seecton
Controng the ow rate by speed varaton
Emnatng ow contro vave
Emnatng by-pass contro
Impeer trmmng
,.102
Pu'p Selection
In seectng a pump, facty managers try to match the system curve supped by the user
wth a
pump curve that satses these needs as cosey as possbe. The pump operatng pont s the
pont
where the pump curve and the system resstance curve ntersect. However, t s mpossbe for
one
operatng pont to meet a desred operatng condtons. For exampe, when the dscharge
vave s
throtted to contro ow, the system resstance curve shfts so does the operatng pont - ths to
a ess-
than emcent pont of operaton.
The emcency of a pump s ahected when the seected pump s overszed. Ths s because
ow
of overszed pumps must be controed wth dherent methods, such as a throtte vave or a
by-pass
ne. These devces provde addtona resstance by ncreasng the frcton. As a resut the
system
curve shfts and ntersects the pump curve at a dherent pont, a pont of ower emcency. In
other
words, the pump emcency s reduced because the output ow s reduced but power
consumpton s
not. Inemcences of overszed pumps can be overcome by, for exampe, the nstaaton of
varabe
speed drves, two-speed drves, operatng the pump at a ower rpm, or nstang a smaer
mpeer or
trmmed mpeer (BEE 2004).
Controlling =o8 rate b$ speed variation
A centrfuga pumps rotatng mpeer generates head. The mpeers perphera veocty s
drecty reated to shaft rotatona speed. Therefore varyng the rotatona speed has a drect
ehect
on the performance of the pump. The pump performance parameters (ow rate, head, power)
w
change wth varyng rotatng speeds. To safey contro a pump at dherent speeds t s
therefore
mportant to understand the reatonshps between the two. The equatons that expan these
reatonshps are known as the "Amnty Laws" these are:
Fow rate (O) s drecty proportona to the rotatng speed
Head (H) s proportona to the square of the rotatng speed
Power (P) s proportona to the cube of the rotatng speed
As can be seen from the above aws, doubng the rotatng speed of the centrfuga pump
w
ncrease the power consumpton by 8 tmes. Conversey a sma reducton n speed w resut
n a very arge reducton n power consumpton. Ths forms the bass for energy conservaton
n
centrfuga pumps wth varyng ow requrements. It s reevant to note that ow contro by
speed
reguaton s aways more emcent than by a contro vave. Ths s because vaves reduce the
ow, but
not the energy consumed by pumps. In addton to energy savngs, other benets coud
ncude:
Increased bearng fe - ths s because bearngs carry the hydrauc forces on the mpeer
(created
by the pressure proe nsde the pump casng), whch are reduced approxmatey wth the
square
of speed. For a pump, bearng fe s proportona to the seventh power of speed.
Vbraton and nose are reduced and sea fe s ncreased, provded that the duty pont
remans
wthn the aowabe operatng range. w
,.103
>sing variable speed drive 60S*7
Controng the pump speed s the most emcent way to contro the ow, because when the
pumps speed s reduced, the power consumpton s aso reduced. The most commony used
method
to reduce pump speed s Varabe Speed Drve (VSD). VSDs aow pump speed ad|ustments over
a contnuous range, avodng the need to |ump from speed to speed as wth mutpe-speed
pumps.
VSDs contro pump speeds use two types of systems:
Mechanca VSDs ncude hydrauc cutches, ud coupngs, and ad|ustabe bets and pueys.
Eectrca VSDs ncude eddy current cutches, wound-rotor motor controers, and varabe
frequency drves (VFDs). VFDs are the most popuar and ad|ust the eectrca frequency of the
power supped to a motor to change the motors rotatona speed. w
For many systems, VFDs oher a means to mprove the pump operatng emcency under
dherent
operatng condtons. When a VFD reduced the RPM of a pump, the head/ow and power curves
move down and to the eft, and the emcency curve aso shfts to the eft. The ma|or advantages
of
VSD appcaton n addton to energy savng are (DOE, 2004):
Improved process contro because VSDs can correct sma varatons n ow more qucky.
Improved system reabty because wear of pumps, bearngs and seas s reduced.
Reducton of capta & mantenance cost because contro vaves, by-pass nes, and
conventona
starters are no onger needed.
Soft starter capabty: VSDs aow the motor the motor to have a ower startup current.
-li'inating =o8 control valve
Another method to contro the ow by cosng or openng the dscharge vave (ths s aso
known as "throttng" the vaves). Whe ths method reduces the ow, t does not reduce the
power
consumed, as the tota head (statc head) ncreases. Ths method ncreases vbraton and
corroson
and thereby ncreases mantenance costs of pumps and potentay reduces ther fetmes. VSDs
are
aways a better souton from an energy emcency perspectve.
-li'inating b$-pass control
The ow can aso be reduced by nstang a by-pass contro system, n whch the dscharge of
the pump s dvded nto two ows gong nto two separate ppenes. One of the ppenes
devers
the ud to the devery pont, whe the second ppene returns the ud to the source. In other
words, part of the ud s pumped around for no reason, and thus s energy nemcent. Because
of ths
nemcency, ths opton shoud therefore be avoded.
I'peller tri''ing
Changng the mpeer dameter gves a proportona change n the mpeers perphera
veocty.
Smar to the amnty aws, the foowng equatons appy to the mpeer dameter:
Fow rate (O) s proportona to the dameter
Head (H) s proportona to the square of the dameter
Power (P) s proportona to the cube of the dameter
,.10&
Changng the mpeer dameter s an energy emcent way to contro the pump ow rate.
However, for ths opton, the foowng shoud be consdered:
Ths opton cannot be used where varyng ow patterns exst.
The mpeer shoud not be trmmed more than 25% of the orgna mpeer sze, otherwse t
eads to vbraton due to cavtaton and therefore decrease the pump emcency.
The baance of the pump has to been mantaned, .e. the mpeer trmmng shoud be the
same
on a sdes.
Changng the mpeer tsef s a better opton than trmmng the mpeer, but s aso more
expensve and sometmes the next smaer mpeer s too sma.
;%;%;%( Pup 4"ste ,ater.Ase Best Practices
The predomnant mpact pumps have on water use reates to proper functon and no
eakage. A
pump operatng at too hgh of a pressure can ead to eak formaton and/or eakage ncrease.
As part
of the day mantenance actvty, pressure vercaton and eakage survey shoud be
competed and
documented.
;%;%(= 6ase 4tud" (DOE 2001)
/ump Optimi3ation for Sewage /umping Station
The town of Trumbu, CT was ookng for a way to ncrease the operatng performance of
one
of ts ten sewage-pumpng statons. The staton conssted of two dentca sewage-handng
pumps
(each wth a 40-hp drect drve motor) vertcay mounted beow ground, handng 340,000
gaons
of raw sewage per day. The system used one pump to hande the entre ow under norma
operaton,
and used the second pump ony n extreme condtons (heavy ranfa). To meet norma oads,
each
pump rarey operated more than 5 mnutes at a tme. The contro system requred two
contnuousy
runnng compressors. A constant pump speed of 1,320 rpm was obtaned usng a wound rotor
and varabe resstance crcut motor contro system. The pumpng system experenced
frequent
breakdowns, occasona oodng, and sewage sps.
After a thorough systems anayss, engneers nstaed an addtona 10-hp pump wth drect
on-ne motor starters and a passve eve contro system wth oat swtches, repacng the od
actve
contro system. The new pump handes the same voume as the orgna 40-hp pumps durng
norma
perods, but runs for onger perods of tme. The ower outow rate reduces frcton and shock
osses
n the ppng system, whch owers the requred head pressure (and thus, the energy
consumpton).
In addton, the exstng pump speed contro was emnated and the motors were wred for
drect on-ne start. Wthout the speed contro, the motors powerng the exstng pumps run at
1,750 rpm nstead of 1,320 rpm, so ther mpeers were trmmed to a smaer dameter. The
exstng
pumps are st used for the nfrequent peak ows that the new smaer pump cannot hande.
Energy
consumpton was further reduced through the emnaton of the two compressors for the
actve
contro system and the two crcuatng pumps for the od motor contro system. The nstaed
cost of
a the added measures was $11,000.
,.10'
#esults. In addton to the annua 17,650 kWh
of eectrcty savngs from modfyng the
pump
unt, sgncant energy savngs aso resuted from
changes made to other energy use sources n the
staton (Fgure 9.9.6). Annua energy consumpton
of the actve eve contro (7,300 kWh/year) and
the
coong water pumps (1,750 kWh/year) was
entrey
emnated. In a, over 26,000 kWh s beng saved
annuay, a reducton of amost 38%, resutng
n
$2,200 n annua energy savngs.
Fgure 9.9.6. Pump system energy use and savngs.
Ths pro|ect aso produced mantenance savngs of $3,600. Mantenance stah no onger needs
to repace two mechanca seas each year. Other benets of the pro|ect savngs ncude
extended
equpment fe due to reduced startng and stoppng of the equpment, ncreased system
capacty, and
decreased nose. Most of the same measures can be utzed at the towns other pumpng
statons, as
we.
The tota annua savngs from the
pro|ect, due to ower energy costs as we as
reduced mantenance and suppes, s $5,800
(Fgure 9.9.7), whch s roughy haf of the
tota retrot cost of $11,000.
Lessons Learned. Severa key
concusons from Trumbus experence are
reevant for vrtuay any pumpng
systems
pro|ect:
Fgure 9.9.7. Retrot cost savngs ($5,800 annuay).
Proper pump seecton and carefu attenton to equpment operatng schedues can yed
substanta energy savngs.
In systems wth statc head, steppng of pump szes for varabe ow rate appcatons can
decrease
energy consumpton.
A "systems" approach can dentfy energy and cost savngs opportuntes beyond the pumps
themseves. w
,.10(
;%;%(( Pups 6hec@!ist
,.10*
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
Pump
use/sequencng
pumps
X
Overa vsua
nspecton
to be
X
ubrcated per
X
Check packng Check packng for wear and repack
as
necessary. Consder repacng
X
Motor/pump
agnment
Agnng the pump/motor coupng
aows
X
Check mountngs Check and secure a pump
mountngs
X
wear.
X
Motor condton Checkng the condton of the motor
anayss
assures ong fe
X
;%;%() Re$erences
Bureau of Energy Emcency, Mnstry of Power, Inda. 2004. Pumps and Pumpng Systems. In:
Energy
Emcency n Eectrca Uttes, Chapter 6.
Genera Servces Admnstraton. 1995. P,lic <ildings Maintenance >ides and Time
Standards7
Pubcaton 5850, Pubc Budng Servce, Omce of Rea Property Management and Safety.
OIT. 1995. Modern Indstrial Assessments) A Training Manal7 Industra Assessment Manua from
for
Potrowsk, |. Apr 2, 2001. ProGActive Maintenance for Pmps. Archves, February 2001,
Pump-Zone.com |Report onne|. Avaabe URL: http://www.pump-zone.com. Reprnted wth
permsson of Pump & Systems Magazne.
Pompe Spec Incorporated. |uy 13, 2001. Safety Tips. Resources |Onne|. Avaabe URL:
http://www.pompespec.com/frameset_e.htm?ressources_e.htm-bodypompespec . Reprnted wth permsson
of Pompe Spec Incorporated.
Pump Word |Onne|. Avaabe URL: http://www.pumpword.com/contents.htm. Reprnted wth
permsson of the Pump Word.
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). May 4, 2001. #ase Stdy) Pmp &ptimiCation for Se9age
Pmping
Station. Federa Management Energy Program |Onne report|. Avaabe URL: http://www.eere.
energy.gov/femp/technooges/eep_centrfuga_pump.cfm .
Vkng Pump, Incorporated. May 25, 2001. *otary Pmp Family Tree. PumpSchoo.com |Onne|.
Avaabe URL: http://www.pumpschoo.com/ntro/pdtree.htm. Reprnted wth permsson of Vkng
Pump, Incorporated.
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) 2001. Omce of Industra Technooges. Pmp "ife #ycle #osts)
A
gide to "## analysis for pmping systems. DOE/GO-102001-1190. 2001. Avaabe URL:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/ndustry/bestpractces/techpubs_motors.htm .
U.S. Department of Energy (US DOE) 2004. Omce of Industra Technooges. :aria,le Speed
Pmping N A >ide to Sccessfl Applications. Executve Summary. 2004.
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/
ndustry/bestpractces/techpubs_motors.htm.
,.10+
;%(= Motors
;%(=%( &ntroduction
Motor systems consume about 70% of a the eectrc energy used n the manufacturng
sector
of the Unted States. To date, most pubc and prvate programs to mprove motor system
energy
emcency have focused on the motor component. Ths s prmary due to the compexty
assocated
wth motor-drven equpment and the system as a whoe. The eectrc motor tsef, however, s
ony
the core component of a much broader system of eectrca and mechanca equpment that
provdes a
servce (e.g., refrgeraton, compresson, or ud movement).
Numerous studes have shown that opportuntes for emcency mprovement and
performance
optmzaton are actuay much greater n the other components of the system-the controer,
the
mechanca system coupng, the drven equpment, and the nteracton wth the process
operaton.
Despte these sgncant system-eve opportuntes, most emcency mprovement actvtes or
programs have focused on the motor component or other ndvdua components (Nade et a.
2001).
;%(=%) T"pes o$ Motors
;%(=%)%( D6 Motors (Naves 2001a)
Drect-current (DC) motors (Fgure 9.10.1) are often used n varabe speed appcatons.
The
DC motor can be desgned to run at any speed wthn the mts mposed by centrfuga forces
and
commutaton consderatons. Many machne toos aso use DC motors because of the ease
wth
whch speed can be ad|usted.
A DC motors, other than the reatvey sma brushess types, use a commutator assemby
on the
rotor. Ths requres perodc mantenance and s party responsbe for the added cost of a DC
motor
when compared to an aternate-current (AC) squrre-cage nducton motor of the same power.
The
speed ad|ustment exbty often |ustes the extra cost (Apogee Interactve 2001a).
;%(=%)%) A6 Motors
(Naves 2001b)
As n the DC motor case, an
AC motor (Fgure 9.10.2) has a
current passed through the
co,
generatng a torque on the
co.
The desgn of an AC motor
s
consderaby more
nvov
ed
than
the
desg
n of a DC motor. The
magnetc ed s produced by
an
eectromagnet powered by the
same AC votage as the motor
co. The cos that produce the
magnetc ed are tradtonay
caed the "ed cos" whe
the
cos and the sod core that
rotates
s caed the "armature."
Fgure 9.10.1. DC motor.
Reprnted wth
permsson of
Dr. R. Naves,
Department of
Physcs and As-
tronomy, Georga
State Unversty.
,.10,
Inducton motor (VPISU 2001) - The nducton motor s a three-phase AC motor and s the
most wdey used machne. Its characterstc features are:
- Smpe and rugged constructon.
- Low cost and mnmum mantenance.
- Hgh reabty and sumcenty hgh emcency.
- Needs no extra startng motor and need not be synchronzed.
Dr. R. Naves, Department
of Physcs and Astronomy,
Georga State Unversty.
Fgure 9.10.2. AC motor
An nducton motor operates on the prncpe of nducton. The rotor receves power due to
nducton from stator rather than drect conducton of eectrca power. When a three-phase
votage s apped to the stator wndng, a rotatng magnetc ed of constant magntude s
produced. Ths rotatng ed s produced by the contrbutons of space-dspaced phase
wndngs
carryng approprate tme dspaced currents. The rotatng ed nduces an eectromotve force
(emf).
Synchronous motor (Apogee Interactve 2001b) - The most obvous characterstc of a
synchronous motor s ts strct synchronsm wth the power ne frequency. The reason the
ndustra user s key to prefer a synchronous motor s ts hgher emcency and the
opportunty
for the user to ad|ust the motors power factor.
A specay desgned motor controer performs these operatons n the proper sequence and
at the
proper tmes durng the startng process.
;%(=%* Fe" 6oponents
;%(=%*%( D6 Motor (The Word Book Encycopeda 1986)
6ield pole - The purpose of ths component s to create a steady magnetc ed n the motor.
For
the case of a sma DC motor (Fgure 9.10.3), a permanent magnet, ed magnet, composes
the
ed structure. However, for arger or more compex motors, one or more eectromagnets,
whch
receve eectrcty from an outsde power source, s/are the ed structure.
,.110
Armature - When current goes through the armature, t becomes an eectromagnet. The
armature, cyndrca n shape, s nked to a drve shaft n order to drve the oad. For the
case of
a sma DC motor, the armature rotates n the magnetc ed estabshed by the poes, unt
the
north and south poes of the magnets change ocaton wth respect to the armature. Once
ths
happens, the current s reversed to swtch the south and north poes of the
armature.
-ommutator - Ths component s found many n DC motors. Its purpose s to overturn the
drecton of the eectrc current n the armature. The commutator aso ads n the
transmsson of
current between the armature and the power source.
;%(=%*%) A6 Motor
=otor
- Inducton motor (VPISU 2001) - Two
types of rotors are used n nducton
motors: squrre-cage rotor and wound
rotor. (Fgure 9.10.4)
A squrre-cage rotor conssts of thck
conductng bars embedded n parae
sots. These bars are short-crcuted at
both ends by means of short-crcutng
rngs. A wound rotor has three-phase, Reprnted wth permsson
of Apogee Interactve.
wound for as many poes as the stator. Fgure 9.10.3. Parts of a drect current motor
The three phases are wred nternay and
the other ends are connected to sp-rngs
mounted on a shaft wth brushes restng on them.
- Synchronous motor - The man dherence between the synchronous motor and the
nducton motor s that the rotor of the synchronous motor traves at the same speed as
the
rotatng magnetc ed. Ths s possbe because the magnetc ed of the rotor s no
onger
nduced. The rotor ether has permanent magnets or DC-excted currents, whch are
forced
to ock nto a certan poston when
confronted wth another magnetc ed.
Stator (VPISU 2001)
- Inducton motor - The stator s made
up of a number of stampngs wth sots
to carry three-phase wndngs. It s
wound for a dente number of poes.
The wndngs are geometrcay spaced
120 degrees apart.
- Synchronous motor - The stator
produces a rotatng magnetc
ed that s proportona to the
frequency supped.
Reprnted
wth
permsson
of Apogee
Interactve.
Fgure 9.10.4. Parts of an aternatng current motor
,.111
doube-ayer, dstrbuted wndng. It s
;%(=%3 4a$et" &ssues (Operators and Consutng Servces Incorporated 2001)
Eectrc motors are a ma|or drvng force n many ndustres. Ther compact sze and versate
appcaton potentas make them a necessty. Motors are chosen many tmes because of the ow
vbraton characterstcs n drvng equpment because of the potenta extended fe of the drven
equpment. The hgher rpm and sma sze of a motor w aso make t a perfect t for many
appcatons.
Motors can be purchased for varyng appcaton areas such as for operatng n a potentay
gaseous or exposve area. When purchasng a motor, be sure to check the casscaton of the
area, you may have a motor that does not meet the casscaton t s presenty n! For exampe,
a
reatvey new ne of motors s beng manufactured wth speca externa coatngs that resst the
eements. These were deveoped because of the chemca pant settng n whch hghy corrosve
atmospheres were deteroratng stee housngs. They are, for the most part, the same motors but
have an epoxy or equvaent coatng.
;%(=%5 6ost and Energ" E$$icienc" (DOE 2001)
An eectrc motor performs emcenty ony when t s mantaned and used propery. Eectrc
motor emcences vary wth motor oad; the emcency of a constant speed motor decreases as
motor
oad decreases. Beow are some genera gudenes for emcent operatons of eectrc motors.
Turn oh unneeded motors - Locate motors that operate needessy, even for a porton of the
tme they are on and turn them oh. For exampe, there may be mutpe HVAC crcuaton
pumps operatng when demand fas, coong tower fans operatng when target temperatures
are
met, ceng fans on n unoccuped spaces, exhaust fans operatng after ventaton needs are
met, and escaators operatng after cosng.
Reduce motor system usage - The emcency of mechanca systems ahects the run-tme of
motors. For exampe, reducng soar oad on a budng w reduce the amount of tme the ar
hander motors woud need to operate.
Szng motors s mportant - Do not assume an exstng motor s propery szed for ts oad,
especay when repacng motors. Many motors operate most emcenty at 75% to 85% of fu
oad ratng. Under-szng or over-szng reduces emcency. For arge motors, facty managers
may want to seek professona hep n determnng the proper szes and actua oadngs of
exstng motors. There are severa ways to estmate actua motor oadng: the kowatt
technque, the amperage rato technque, and the ess reabe sp technque. A three are
supported n the MotorMaster+ software.
Repacement of motors versus rewndng - Instead of rewndng sma motors, consder
repacement wth an energy-emcent verson. For arger motors, f motor rewndng ohers the
owest fe-cyce cost, seect a rewnd facty wth hgh quaty standards to ensure that motor
emcency s not adversey ahected. For szes of 10 hp or ess, new motors are generay
cheaper
than rewndng. Most standard emcency motors under 100 hp w be cost-ehectve to scrap
when they fa, provded they have sumcent run-tme and are repaced wth energy-
emcent modes.
,.112
;%(=%8 Maintenance o$ Motors
Eectrc motors fa for a varety of
reasons. Certan components of motors
degrade wth tme and operatng stress.
Eectrca nsuaton weakens over tme
wth exposure to votage unbaance,
over
and under-votage, votage
dsturbances,
and temperature. Contact between
movng
surfaces causes wear. Wear s ahected by
drt,
mosture, and corrosve fumes and s
greaty
acceerated when ubrcant s
msapped,
becomes overheated or contamnated, or
s
not repaced at reguar ntervas. When
any
components are degraded beyond the pont
of
economca repar, the motors economc fe
s ended.
Strateges to Reduce Motor System Usage
Reduce oads on HVAC systems.
- Improve budng she.
- Manage restoratons better.
- Improve HVAC condtons.
- Check refrgerant charge.
Reduce refrgeraton oads.
- Improve nsuaton.
- Add strp curtans on doors.
- Cabrate contro setponts.
- Check refrgerant charge.
Check ventaton systems for excessve ar.
- Re-sheave fan f ar s excessve.
- Downsze motors, f possbe.
Improve compressed ar systems.
- Locate and repar compressed ar eaks.
- Check ar too ttngs for physca damage.
- Turn oh ar to toos when not n use.
Repar duct eaks.
The best safeguard aganst therma damage s avodng condtons that contrbute to
overheatng. These ncude drt, under and over-votage, votage unbaance, harmoncs, hgh
ambent temperature, poor ventaton, and overoad operaton (even wthn the servce
factor).
Bearng faures account for neary one-haf of a motor faures. If not detected n tme, the
fang
bearng can cause overheatng and damage nsuaton, or can fa catastrophcay and do
rreparabe
mechanca damage to the motor.
Preventatve and predctve mantenance programs for motors are ehectve practces n
manufacturng pants. These mantenance procedures nvove a sequence of steps pant
personne
use to proong motor fe or foresee a motor faure. The techncans use a seres of dagnostcs
such
as motor temperature and motor vbraton as key peces of nformaton n earnng about the
motors.
One way a techncan can use these dagnostcs s to compare the vbraton sgnature found n
the
motor wth the faure mode to determne the cause of the faure. Often faures occur we
before
the expected desgn fe span of the motor and studes have shown that mechanca faures
are
the prme cause of premature eectrca faures. Preventatve mantenance takes steps to
mprove
motor performance and to extend ts fe. Common preventatve tasks ncude routne
ubrcaton,
aowng adequate ventaton, and ensurng the motor s not undergong any type of
unbaanced
votage stuaton.
The goa of predctve mantenance programs s to reduce mantenance costs by detectng
probems eary, whch aows for better mantenance pannng and ess unexpected faures.
Predctve mantenance programs for motors observe the temperatures, vbratons, and other
data to
determne a tme for an overhau or repacement of the motor (Barnsh et a. 2001).
Consut each motors nstructons for mantenance gudenes. Motors are not a the same.
Be carefu not to thnk that what s good for one s good for a. For exampe, some motors
requre a perodc greasng of the bearngs and some do not (Operators and Consutng
Servces
Incorporated 2001).
,.113
Genera Requrements for Safe and Emcency Motor Operaton
(DOE 2001)
1. w Motors, propery seected and nstaed, are capabe of operatng for many years wth a
reasonaby sma amount of mantenance.
2. w Before servcng a motor and motor-operated equpment, dsconnect the power suppy from
motors and accessores. Use safe workng practces durng servcng of the equpment.
3. w Cean motor surfaces and ventaton openngs perodcay, preferaby wth a vacuum ceaner.
Heavy accumuatons of dust and nt w resut n overheatng and premature motor faure.
4. w Facty managers shoud nventory a motors n ther factes, begnnng wth the argest and
those wth the ongest run-tmes. Ths nventory enabes facty managers to make nformed
choces about repacement ether before or after motor faure. Fed testng motors pror to
faure enabes the facty manager to propery sze repacements to match the actua drven
oad. The software mentoned beow can hep wth ths nventory.
;%(=%9 Diagnostic E?uipent
assessment of temperature. Appcatons for motors ncude bearng and eectrca contact
assessments on motor systems and motor contro centers. More nformaton on thermography
can
be found n Chapter 6.
wBltrasonic analy3er - Eectrc motor systems emt very dstnct sound patterns around
bearngs.
In most cases, these sounds are not audbe to the unaded ear or are drown-out by other
equpment noses. Usng an utrasonc detector, the anayst s abe to soate the frequency of
sound beng emtted by the bearng. Changes n these utrasonc wave emssons are
ndcatve
of changes n equpment condton-some of these changes can be a precursor to component
degradaton and faure. More nformaton on utrasonc anayss can be found n Chapter 6.
w@ibration analy3er - The rotatona moton wthn eectrc motors generates dstnct
patterns
and eves of vbraton. Usng a vbraton anayzer and sgnature anayss software, the anayst
can dscern the vbraton amptude of the pont on the motor beng montored. Ths amptude
s then compared wth trended readngs. Changes n these readngs are ndcatve of changes
n
wOther motor analysis - Motor fauts or condtons ncudng wndng short-crcuts, open
cos,
mproper torque settngs, as we as many mechanca probems can be dagnosed usng a
varety
of motor anayss technques. These technques are usuay very specazed to specc motor
types
and expected fauts. More nformaton on motor anayss technques can be found n Chapter
6.
;%(=%: Avai!a#!e 4o$t-are Too!s
MotorMasterU @ersion +.& for Motor =eplace:=ewind 2ecisions
2escription: Deveoped by the DOE Industra Technooges Program, ths software too
handes
everythng from cacuatng the smpe payback on a snge motor purchase to comprehensve,
ntegrated motor system management.
,.11&
MotorMaster+ aows users to create or mport an nventory of n-pant operatng and spare
motors. Motor oad, emcency at the oad pont, annua energy use, and annua operatng
costs can
be determned after takng ed measurements. The software qucky dentes nemcent or
overszed
facty motors and computes the savngs that can be acheved by repacng oder, standard
emcency
motors wth premum emcency modes. The software runs on oca or wde-area networks for
access
by mutpe users.
Some of MotorMaster+ features ncude:
Expanded st of more than 17,000 motors from 14 manufacturers, ncudng Natona
Eectrca
Manufacturers Assocaton (NEMA) Premum emcency medum-votage (>600 vot)
motors.
Improved predctve mantenance testng-factates rapd data entry, sortng by condton,
and
rewnd/repace recommendatons.
Technca data to hep optmze drve systems, such as data on motor part-oad emcency
and
power factor; fu-oad speed; and ocked-rotor, breakdown, and fu-oad torque.
Motor purchasng nformaton, ncudng st prces, warranty perods, cataog numbers,
motor
weghts, and manufacturer addresses.
Capabty to cacuate energy savngs, doar savngs, smpe payback, cash ows, and the
after-
taxes rate of return-on-nvestment for energy programs-takng nto account such
varabes as
oad factor, motor emcency, purchase prce, energy costs, hours of operaton, and utty
rebates.
Availability: To downoad the MotorMaster+ and earn more about DOE Ouaed
Specasts
and tranng opportuntes, vst the Industra Technoogy Program Web ste:
www1.eere.energy.gov/
ndustry/bestpractces .
;%(=%; Re!evant Operationa!/Energ" E$$icient Measures
proper
motor operaton and contro. Ths secton focuses on the most prevaent O&M
recommendatons
havng the greatest energy mpacts at Federa factes and ncudes (DOE 2003, UNEP 2006):
=eplace standard motors with energy e*cient motors. Hgh emcency motors have
been
desgned speccay to ncrease operatng emcency compared to standard motors. Desgn
mprovements focus on reducng ntrnsc motor osses and ncude the use of ower-oss scon
stee,
a onger core (to ncrease actve matera), thcker wres (to reduce resstance), thnner
amnatons,
smaer ar gap between stator and rotor, copper nstead of aumnum bars n the rotor,
superor
bearngs and a smaer fan, etc.
Energy emcent motors cover a wde range of ratngs and the fu oad and emcences are
3% to
7% hgher compared wth standard motors.. As a resut of the modcatons to mprove
performance,
the costs of energy emcent motors are hgher than those of standard motors. The hgher cost
w
often be pad back rapdy through reduced operatng costs, partcuary n new appcatons or
end-
of-fe motor repacements. But repacng exstng motors that have not reached the end of
ther
usefu fe wth energy emcent motors may not aways be nancay feasbe, and therefore t
s
recommended to ony repace these wth energy emcency motors when they fa.
,.11'
Si3ing to variable load. Industra motors frequenty operate under varyng oad condtons
due to process requrements. A common practce n ths stuaton s to seect a motor based on
the
hghest antcpated oad. But ths makes the motor more expensve as the motor woud operate
at fu
capacty for short perods ony, and t carres the rsk of motor under-oadng.
An aternatve s to seect the motor ratng based on the oad duraton curve of a partcuar
appcaton. Ths means that the seected motor ratng s sghty ower than the hghest
antcpated
oad and woud occasonay overoad for a short perod of tme. Ths s possbe as manufacturers
desgn motors wth a servce factor (usuay 15% above the rated oad) to ensure that runnng
motors
above the rated oad once n a whe w not cause sgncant damage.
The bggest rsk s overheatng of the motor, whch adversey ahects the motor fe and
emcency
and ncreases operatng costs. A crtera n seectng the motor ratng s therefore that the
weghted
average temperature rse over the actua operatng cyce shoud not be greater than the
temperature
rse under contnuous fu-oad operaton (100%). Overheatng can occur wth:
Extreme oad changes, such as frequent starts / stops, or hgh nta oads
Frequent and/or ong perods of overoadng
Lmted abty for the motor to coo down, for exampe at hgh attudes, n hot envronments
or
when motors are encosed or drty
9mproving power quality. Motor performance s ahected consderaby by the quaty of
nput
power, whch s determned by the actua vots and frequency compared to rated vaues.
Fuctuaton
n votage and frequency much arger than the accepted vaues has detrmenta mpacts on
motor
performance.
Votage unbaance can be even more detrmenta to motor performance and occurs when the
votages n the three phases of a three-phase motor are not equa. Ths s usuay caused by the
suppy
dherent votages to each of the three phases. It can aso resut from the use of dherent cabe
szes n
the dstrbuton system.
The votage of each phase n a three-phase system shoud be of equa magntude,
symmetrca,
and separated by 120. Phase baance shoud be wthn 1% to avod de-ratng of the motor and
vodng of manufacturers warrantes. Severa factors can ahect votage baance: snge-phase
oads on any one phase, dherent cabe szng, or fauty crcuts. An unbaanced system ncreases
dstrbuton system osses and reduces motor emcency.
Votage unbaance can be mnmzed by:
Baancng any snge phase oads equay among a the three phases
Segregatng any snge phase oads whch dsturb the oad baance and feed them from a
separate
ne/transformer
9mproving maintenance. Most motor cores are manufactured from scon stee or de-
carbonzed
cod-roed stee, the eectrca propertes of whch do not change measuraby wth age. However,
poor mantenance can cause deteroraton n motor emcency over tme and ead to unreabe
operaton. For exampe, mproper ubrcaton can cause ncreased frcton n both the motor and
assocated drve transmsson equpment. Resstance osses n the motor, whch rse wth
temperature,
woud ncrease.
,.11(
Ambent condtons can aso have a detrmenta ehect on motor performance. For exampe,
extreme temperatures, hgh dust oadng, corrosve atmosphere, and humdty can mpar
nsuaton
propertes; mechanca stresses due to oad cycng can ead to msagnment.
Approprate mantenance s needed to mantan motor performance. A checkst of good
mantenance practces woud ncude:
Inspect motors reguary for wear n bearngs and housngs (to reduce frctona osses) and
for
drt/dust n motor ventatng ducts (to ensure proper heat dsspaton.
Check oad condtons to ensure that the motor s not over or under oaded. A change n
motor oad from the ast test ndcates a change n the drven oad, the cause of whch
shoud be
understood
Lubrcate appropratey. Manufacturers generay gve recommendatons for how and when
to ubrcate ther motors. Inadequate ubrcaton can cause probems, as noted above.
Over-
ubrcaton can aso create probems, e.g. excess o or grease from the motor bearngs can
enter
the motor and saturate the motor nsuaton, causng premature faure or creatng a re
rsk
Check perodcay for proper agnment of the motor and the drven equpment. I mproper
agnment can cause shafts and bearngs to wear qucky, resutng n damage to both the
motor
and the drven equpment
Ensure that suppy wrng and termna box are propery szed and nstaed. Inspect
reguary the
connectons at the motor and starter to be sure that they are cean and tght
Provde adequate ventaton and keep motor coong ducts cean to hep dsspate heat to
reduce
excessve osses. The fe of the nsuaton n the motor woud aso be onger: for every
10C
ncrease n motor operatng temperature over the recommended peak, the tme before
rewndng
woud be needed s estmated to be haved.
Multi"speed motors. Motors can be wound such that two speeds, n the rato of 2:1, can
be
obtaned. Motors can aso be wound wth two separate wndngs, each gvng two operatng
speeds
and thus a tota of four speeds. Mut-speed motors can be desgned for appcatons nvovng
constant torque, varabe torque, or for constant output power. Mut-speed motors are sutabe
for
appcatons that requre mted speed contro (two or four xed speeds nstead of
contnuousy
varabe speed). These motors tend to be very economca as ther emcency s ower
compared to
snge-speed motors.
@ariable speed drives #@S2s(. VSDs are aso caed ad|ustabe speed drves and can
change
the speed of a motor and are avaabe n a range from severa kW to 750 kW. They are
desgned to
operate standard nducton motors and can therefore be easy nstaed n an exstng system.
When oads vary, VSDs or two-speed motors can often reduce eectrca energy
consumpton n
centrfuga pumpng and fan appcatons by 50% or more. The basc drve conssts of the
nverter
tsef whch converts the 60 Hz ncomng power to a varabe frequency and varabe votage.
The
varabe frequency w contro the motor speed.
,.11*
;%(=%(= E!ectric Motors 6hec@!ist
,.11+
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
Motor use/
sequencng
motors
X
Overa vsua
nspecton
to be
X
Motor condton Check the condton of the motor
through
temperature or vbraton anayss
X
ubrcated per
X
Check packng Check packng for wear and repack
as
necessary. Consder repacng
X
Motor agnment Agnng the motor coupng aows
for
X
Check mountngs Check and secure a motor
mountngs
X
Check termna
tghtness
Tghten connecton termnas as
necessary
X
Ceanng Remove dust and drt from motor to
factate coong
X
wear.
X
Motor condton Checkng the condton of the motor
anayss
assures ong fe
X
Check for
baanced
Unbaanced power can shorten the
motor
X
Check for over-
votage or under-
votage condtons
Over- or under-votage stuatons
can
shorten the motor fe through
X
;%(=%(( Re$erences
Apogee Interactve. |uy 5, 2001a. #haracteristics of 8irect #rrent Motors7 Eectrca Systems.
Reprnted wth permsson of Apogee Interactve, www.apogee.net .
Apogee Interactve. |uy 5, 2001b. #haracteristics of a Synchronos Motor7 Eectrca Systems
Reprnted wth permsson of Apogee Interactve, www.apogee.net .
Barnsh, T.|., M.R. Muer, and D.|. Kasten. |une 14, 2001. Motor Maintenance) A Srvey of
TechniEes and *eslts. Presented at the 1997 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Emcency n
Industry,
|uy 8-11, 1997, Saratoga Sprngs, New York, Omce of Industra Productvty and Energy
Assessment,
Confederaton of Indan Industry. |uy 15, 2001. *eplacement 9ith #orrect SiCe #om,stion Air
<lo9er
in Oiln. Case Studes. Reprnted wth permsson of Confederaton of Indan Industry.
Nade, S.R., N. Eott, M. Shepard, S. Greenberg, G. Katz, and A.T. de Ameda. Forthcomng
(2001). EnergyGE%cient Motor Systems) A Dand,oo- on Technology, Program, and Policy
&pportnities.
Second Edton. Amercan Counc for an Energy-Emcent Economy. Washngton, D.C.
Naves, R. |uy 8, 2001a. 8# Motor. Eectrcty and Magnetsm, HyperPhyscs, Department of
Physcs and Astronomy, Georga State Unversty |Onne|. Avaabe URL: http://hyperphyscs.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetc/motdc.htm#c1 . Reprnted wth permsson Dr. R. Naves, Department of
Physcs and Astronomy, Georga State Unversty.
Naves, R. |uy 8, 2001b. A# Motor. Eectrcty and Magnetsm, HyperPhyscs, Department of
Physcs and Astronomy, Georga State Unversty |Onne|. Avaabe URL: http://hyperphyscs.
phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetc/motorac.htm . Reprnted wth permsson Dr. R. Naves, Department of
Physcs and Astronomy, Georga State Unversty.
Operators and Consutng Servces Incorporated. May 30, 2001. Electric Motors. Oed
Machnery
Mantenance Onne |Onne|. Avaabe URL: http://www.omachneryforum.com/eectrc.htm .
Reprnted wth permsson of Operators and Consutng Servces Incorporated.
The Word Book Encycopeda. 1986. Motors. Voume 13, Word Book, Inc.
Program.
Washngton, D.C.
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). 2001. >reening Federal Facilities) An Energy,
Environmental, and
Economic *esorce >ide for Federal Facility Managers and 8esigners. 2nd ed., Part V Energy
Systems,
5.7 Eectrc Motors and Drves, Federa Management Energy Program |Onne report|. Avaabe
URL: http://www.nre.gov/docs/fy01ost/29267.pdf .
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). 2003. Fact Sheet) 8etermining Motor "oad and E%ciency.
Avaabe URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/ndustry/bestpractces/pdfs/10097517.pdf .
Vrgna Poytechnc Insttute and State Unversty and Iowa State Unversty (VPISU). |uy 14,
2001. Indction Motor, Powerearn Program funded by the Natona Scence Foundatons and
the
Eectrc Power Research Insttute |Onne|. Reprnted wth permsson of Vrgna Poytechnc
Insttute and State Unversty.
,.11,
;%(( Air 6opressors
;%((%( &ntroduction
Compressed ar, aong wth gas,
eectrcty,
and water, s essenta to most modern
ndustra
and commerca operatons. It runs toos
and
machnery, provdes power for matera handng
systems, and ensures cean, breathabe ar
n
contamnated envronments. It s used by
vrtuay every ndustra segment from
arcraft
and automobes to dares, sh farmng, and
textes.
The Compressed Ar ChaengeTM
The Compressed Ar ChaengeTM s a natona
coaboratve formed n October 1997 to assembe
state-of-the-art nformaton on compressed ar system
desgn, performance, and assessment procedures.
Avaabe from: http://www.knowpressure.org.
A pants expense for ts compressed ar s often thought of ony n terms of the cost of the
equpment. Energy costs, however, represent as much as 70% of the tota expense n producng
compressed ar. As eectrcty rates escaate across the naton and the cost of mantenance and
repar
ncreases, seectng the most emcent and reabe compressor becomes crtca (Kaeser
Compressors
2001a).
;%((%) T"pes o$ Air 6opressors (Dyer and Mapes 1992)
The two genera types of ar compressors are postve dspacement and centrfuga.
;%((%)%( Positive Disp!aceent
=otary screw compressor - The man eement of the rotary screw compressor (Fgure
9.11.1) s
made up of two cose cearance heca-obe rotors that turn n synchronous mesh. As the
rotors
revove, the gas s forced nto a decreasng nter-obe cavty unt t reaches the dscharge
port. In
ubrcated unts, the mae rotor drves the femae and o s n|ected nto the cynder servng
as
a ubrcant, cooant, and as an o sea to reduce back sppage. On non-ubrcated types,
tmng
gears are used to drve the rotors and mutstagng s necessary to prevent gas temperatures
from
gong too hgh.
of The Oed Machnery
Mantenance Onne.
Fgure 9.11.1. Rotary screw compressor
,.120
=eciprocating compressor - A recprocatng compressor (Fgure 9.11.2) s made up of
a
cynder and a pston. Compresson s accompshed by the change n voume as the
pston
moves toward the "top" end of the cynder. Ths compresson may be o-ubrcated or,
n
some cases, t may requre tte or no ubrcaton (o-free) n the cynder.
The cynder n the recprocatng
machnes may be ar cooed or water
cooed. Water coong s used on the
arger unts. Ths coong acton
s
very mportant to ncrease
compressor
fe and to keep mantenance
and
repars ow.
Mutpe stage compressors have
a
mnmum of two pstons. The
rst
compresses the gas to an
ntermedate pressure.
Intercoong
of the gas before enterng the second
stage usuay foows the rst stage
compresson. Two stage unts aow
for more emcent and cooer
operatng
compressors, whch ncreases
compressor fe.
The Energy Emcency Insttute,
Auburn, Aabama.
Fgure 9.11.2. Typca snge actng two-stage compressor
;%((%)%) 6entri$uga! 6opressor
The compresson acton s accompshed when the gas enters the center of rotaton and s
acceerated as t ows n an outward drecton. Ths gas veocty s then transferred nto a
pressure
rse. Part of the pressure rse occurs n the rotor and part n a statonary eement caed the
dhuser.
The rotatng eement can have ether forward curved bades, rada bades, or backward
bades.
The centrfuga compressor w usuay have more than one stage of compresson wth
ntercoong between each stage. One of the drawbacks of ths machne s ts nabty to
dever
part-oad ow at overa emcences as hgh as other types of compressors. Many peope
consder the
centrfuga machne a base-oad machne.
;%((%* Fe" 6oponents (Dyer and Mapes 1992)
Postve Dspacement Ar Compressor
- Cynder - Chamber where the compresson process takes pace by the change n ts
voume
as the pston moves up and down.
- Pston - Component ocated nsde the cynder drecty responsbe for the compresson
of
ar.
- Crankshaft - Converts rotatona moton generated by the motor to undrectona moton
for the pston.
- Connectng rod - Connects the crankshaft wth the pston.
- Inet and exhaust vaves - Contro the amount of ar gong n and out of the cynder.
,.121
Rotary Screw Compressor
- Heca-obe rotors - The man eements of ths type of compressor where two cose
cearance
heca-obe rotors turn n synchronous mesh. As the rotors revove, the gas s forced nto a
decreasng "nter-obe cavty unt t reaches the dscharge port (Fgure 9.11.3).
Centrfuga Compressor
- Rotatng Impeer - Imparts veocty to the ar, whch s converted to pressure.
The Energy Emcency Insttute,
Auburn, Aabama.
Fgure 9.11.3. Heca-obe rotors
;%((%3 4a$et" &ssues (UFEHS 2001)
;%((%3%( Genera! 4a$et" Re?uireents $or 6opressed Air
A components of compressed ar systems shoud be nspected reguary by quaed and
traned
empoyees. Mantenance superntendents shoud check wth state and/or nsurance companes to
determne f they requre ther own nspecton of ths equpment. Operators need to be aware of
the
foowng:
Ar recevers - The maxmum aowabe workng pressures of ar recevers shoud never be
exceeded except when beng tested. Ony hydrostatcay tested and approved tanks sha be
used
as ar recevers.
- Each ar recever sha be equpped wth at east one pressure gauge and an ASME safety
vave
of the proper desgn.
- A safety (sprng oaded) reease vave sha be nstaed to prevent the recever from
exceedng the maxmum aowabe workng pressure.
Ar dstrbuton nes
- Ar nes shoud be made of hgh quaty materas, tted wth secure connectons.
- Hoses shoud be checked to make sure they are propery connected to ppe outets before
use.
- Ar nes shoud be nspected frequenty for defects and any defectve equpment repared
or
repaced mmedatey.
- Compressed ar nes shoud be dented as to maxmum workng pressures (ps) by
taggng or
markng ppene outets.
,.122
Pressure reguaton devces
- Vaves, gauges, and other reguatng devces shoud be nstaed on compressor
equpment n
such a way that cannot be made noperatve.
- Ar tank safety vaves shoud be set no ess than 15 ps or 10% (whchever s greater)
above
the operatng pressure of the compressor but never hgher than the maxmum aowabe
workng pressure of the ar recever.
Ar compressor operaton
- Ar compressor equpment shoud be operated ony by authorzed and traned personne.
- The ar ntake shoud be from a cean, outsde, fresh ar source. Screens or ters can be
used
to cean the ar.
- Ar compressors shoud never be operated at speeds faster than the manufacturers
recommendaton.
- Movng parts, such as compressor ywhees, pueys, and bets that coud be hazardous
shoud
be ehectvey guarded.
;%((%5 6ost and Energ" E$$icienc" (Kaeser Compressors 2001b)
It takes 7 to 8 hp of eectrcty to produce 1 hp worth of ar force. Yet, ths hgh-energy cost
qute
often s overooked. Dependng on pant ocaton and oca power costs, the annua cost of
eectrca
power can be equa to-or as much as two tmes greater than-the nta cost of the ar
compressor.
Over a 10-year operatng perod, a 100-hp compressed ar system that you bought for $40,000
w
accumuate up to $800,000 n eectrca power costs. Foowng a few smpe steps can
sgncanty
reduce energy costs by as much as 35%.
;%((%5%( &denti$" the E!ectrica! 6ost o$ 6opressed Air
To |udge the magntude of the opportuntes that exst to save eectrca power costs n your
compressed ar system, t s mportant to dentfy the eectrca cost of compressed ar. The
chart
beow shows the reatonshp between compressor hp and energy cost. In addton, consder
the
foowng:
Drect cost of pressure - Every 10 psg ncrease of
pressure n a pant system requres about 5% more
power to produce. For exampe: A 520 cubc-
feet-per-mnute (cfm) compressor, deverng ar at
110 pounds per-square-nch-gage (psg), requres about
100 horsepower (hp). However, at 100 psg, ony
95 hp s requred. Potenta power cost savngs (at
10 cents per kWh; 8,760 hr/year) s $3,750/year.
Indrect cost of pressure - System pressure
ahects
ar consumpton on the use or demand sde.
The
ar system w automatcay use more ar at hgher
pressures. If there s no resutng ncrease n
productvty, ar s wasted. Increased ar
consumpton
Kaeser Compressors, Inc.,
Fredercksburg, Vrgna.
,.123
caused by hgher than needed pressure s caed arti+cial demand. A system usng 520 cfm at
110 psg net pressure w consume ony 400 cfm at 80 psg. The potenta power cost
savngs
(520 cfm - 400 cfm = 120 cfm, resutng n 24 hp, at 10 cents/kWh; 8,760 hr/year) s $18,000/
year. Note: Aso remember that the eakage rate s sgncanty reduced at ower pressures,
further reducng power costs.
The cost of wasted ar voume - Each cubc feet per meter of ar voume wasted can be
transated
nto extra compressor horsepower and s an dentabe cost. As shown by Chart 1, f ths
waste s
recovered, the resut w be $750/hp per year n ower energy costs.
Seect the most emcent demand sde - The magntude of the above s soey dependent on
the
abty of the compressor contro to transate reduced arow nto ower eectrca power
consumpton. w
The chart beow shows
the reatonshp between the Genera Notes on Ar Compressors (OIT 1995)
fu oad power requred for Screw ar compressors use 40% to 100% of rated power unoaded.
a compressor at varous ar Recprocatng ar compressors are more emcent, but aso more
demands and common contro expensve.
types. It becomes apparent About 90% of energy becomes heat.
that the on ne-oh ne contro Rue of thumb: roughy 20 hp per 100 cfm at 100 ps.
Use ow-pressure bowers versus compressed ar whenever possbe.
Second, thrd, weekend shfts may have ow compressed ar needs
that coud be served by a smaer compressor.
Outsde ar s cooer, denser, easer to compress than warm nsde ar.
Frcton can be reduced by usng synthetc ubrcants.
Oder compressors are drven by oder ess emcent motors.
the compressor operatng on
dua contro requres 83% of
fu oad power. That s 12% ess energy than when operated on
moduaton contro. If the ar consumpton drops to 50%, the
dherence (dua versus moduaton) n energy consumpton s
ncreased even further, to 24%.
;%((%5%) ,aste >eat Recovered $ro 6opressors
can #e Ased $or >eating (Kaeser Compressors 2001c)
The heat generated by ar compressors can be used ehectvey
wthn a pant for space heatng and/or process water heatng.
Consderabe energy savngs resut n short payback perods.
Process heatng - Heated water s avaabe from unts
equpped wth water-cooed o cooers and after-cooers.
Generay, these unts can ehectvey dscharge the water at
temperatures between 130F and 160F.
Space heatng - Is essentay accompshed by ductng the
heated coong ar from the compressor package to an
area
that requres heatng. If ductwork s used, be carefu not
to
exceed the manufacturers
maxmum back-pressure
aowance.
Kaeser Compressors, Inc.,
Fredercksburg, Vrgna.
,.12&
(dua contro) s superor to
other contros n transatng
savngs n ar consumpton
nto rea power savngs.
Lookng at our exampe of
reducng ar consumpton from
520 cfm to 400 cfm (77%),
When space heatng s used n the wnter, arrangements shoud be made n the ductwork to
return
some of the heated ar to the compressor room n order to mantan a 60F room
temperature.
Ths ensures that the ar dscharged s at comfortabe eves.
;%((%5%* Ase o$ F!o- 6ontro!!ers
Most compressed ar systems operate at artcay hgh pressures to compensate for ow
uctuatons and downstream pressure drops caused by ack of "rea" storage and mpropery
desgned
ppng systems. Even f addtona compressor capacty s avaabe, the tme deay caused by
brngng
the necessary compressor(s) on-ne woud cause unacceptabe pressure drop.
Operatng at these artcay hgh pressures requres up to 25% more compressor capacty
than
actuay needed. Ths 25% n wasted operatng cost can be emnated by reduced eakage and
emnaton of artca demand.
A ow controer separates the suppy sde (compressors, dryers, and ters) from the
demand
sde (dstrbuton system). It creates "rea" storage wthn the recever tank(s) by accumuatng
compressed ar wthout deverng t downstream. The ar pressure ony ncreases upstream of
the
ar recever, whe the ow controer devers the needed ow downstream at a constant,
ower
system pressure. Ths reduces the actua ow demand by vrtuay emnatng artca
demand and
substantay reducng eakage.
;%((%5%3 &portance o$ Maintenance to Energ" 4avings
Leaks are expensve. Statstcs show that the average system wastes between 25% and
35% to
eaks. In a compressed ar system of 1,000 cfm, 30% eaks equas 300 cfm. That transates
nto
savngs of 60 hp or $45,000 annuay.
A formazed program of eak montorng and repar s essenta to contro costs. As a start,
montor a the ow needed durng oh perods.
Equp mantenance personne wth proper eak detecton equpment and tran them on how
to
use t. Estabsh a routne for reguar eak nspectons. Invove both mantenance and
producton
personne.
Estabsh accountabty of ar usage as part of the producton expense. Use ow controers
and
sequencers to reduce system pressure and compressed ar consumpton.
A we-mantaned compressor not ony serves you better wth ess downtme and repars,
but w
save you eectrca power costs too.
;%((%5%5 Lea@ Eva!uation Procedure
Leaks can be a sgncant source of wasted energy n an ndustra compressed ar system,
sometmes wastng 20 to 30% of a compressors output. A typca pant that has not been we
mantaned w key have a eak rate equa to 20 percent of tota compressed ar producton
capacty. On the other hand, proactve eak detecton and repar can reduce eaks to ess than
10 percent of compressor output (DOE 1998, UNEP 2006).
In addton to beng a source of wasted energy, eaks can aso contrbute to other operatng
osses.
Leaks cause a drop n system pressure, whch can make ar toos functon ess emcenty,
adversey
ahectng producton. In addton, by forcng the equpment to run onger, eaks shorten the fe
of
,.12'

amost a system equpment (ncudng the compressor package tsef). Increased runnng tme
can
aso ead to addtona mantenance requrements and ncreased unschedued downtme. Fnay,
eaks can ead to addng unnecessary compressor capacty.
Whe eakage can come from any part of the system, the most common probem areas are:
Coupngs, hoses, tubes, and ttngs
Pressure reguators
Open condensate traps and shut-oh vaves
Ppe |onts, dsconnects, and thread seaants.
Leakage rates are a functon of the suppy pressure and ncrease wth hgher system
pressures.
For compressors that have start/stop or oad/unoad contros, there s an easy way to estmate
the
amount of eakage n the system. Ths method nvoves startng the compressor when there are
no
demands on the system (when a the ar-operated, end-use equpment s turned oh). A number
of
measurements are taken to determne the average tme t takes to oad and unoad the
compressor.
The compressor w oad and unoad because the ar eaks w cause the compressor to cyce on
and oh as the pressure drops from ar escapng through the eaks. Tota eakage (percentage) can
be
cacuated as foows (DOE 1998):
Leakage Percentage (%) = {(T x 100)/(T + t)
where: T = on-oadng tme n mnutes
t = oh-oadng tme n mnutes
Leakage w be expressed n terms of the percentage of compressor capacty ost. The
percentage
ost to eakage shoud be ess than 10 percent n a we-mantaned system. Poory mantaned
systems
can have osses as hgh as 20 to 30 percent of ar capacty and power.
;%((%8 Maintenance o$ Air 6opressors (O Machnery Mantenance Onne 2001)
Mantenance of your compressed ar system s of great mportance and s often eft undone or
haf
done. Negect of an ar system w utmatey "poson" the entre downstream ar system and
cause
probems. Cean dry ar suppes start at the ar compressor package. The sma amount of tme
you
spend mantanng the system s we worth the troube.
;%((%8%( Genera! Re?uireents $or a 4a$e and E$$icient Air 6opressor
Aways turn power oh before servcng.
Compressor o and o ceanness:
- Change the o accordng to manufacturers recommendatons.
- Use a hgh-quaty o and keep the eve where ts supposed to be.
- Sampe the o every month.
,.12(
Condensate contro
- Dran ud traps reguary or automatcay.
- Dran recevng tanks reguary or automatcay.
- Servce ar-dryng systems accordng to manufacturers recommendatons.
Common Causes of Ar Compressor Poor Performance (Kaeser Compressors 2001d)
Probem
Low pressure at
pont
of use
Probabe Cause
Leaks n dstrbuton ppng
Cogged ter eements
Foued dryer heat exchanger
Low pressure at compressor
dscharge
Remeda Acton
Check nes, connectons, and vaves for
eaks; cean or repace ter eements
Cean heat exchanger
Low pressure at For systems wth moduatng oad
compressor dscharge contros, mproper ad|ustment of
ar
capacty contro
Worn or broken vaves
Improper ar pressure swtch
settng
Foow manufacturers recommendaton
for ad|ustment of contro
Check vaves and repar or repace as
requred
Foow manufacturers recommendatons
for settng ar pressure swtch
Water n nes
Lqud o n ar nes
Drt, rust, or scae n
ar nes
Excessve servce to
oad/hour rato
Eevated
compressor
temperature
Faed condensate traps
Faed or underszed compressed
ar
dryer
Fauty ar/o separaton
In the absence of qud
water,norma
agng of the ar nes
System dng too much
Improper pressure swtch settng
Restrcted arow
Cean, repar, or repace the trap
Repar or repace dryer
Check ar/o separaton system; change
separator eement
Insta ters at pont of use
For mutpe compressor systems,
consder sequencng contros to
mnmze compressor de tme; ad|ust
de tme accordng to manufacturers
recommendatons
Read|ust accordng to manufacturers
recommendatons
Cean cooer exteror and check net ter
mats
Restrcted water ow
Low o eve
Restrcted o ow
Excessve ambent temperatures
Check water ow, pressure, and quaty;
cean heat exchanger as needed
Check compressor o eve; add o as
requred
Remove restrcton; repace parts as
requred
Improper ventaton to compressor; check
wth manufacturer to determne maxmum
operatng temperature
,.12*
Keep ar net ters cean.
Keep motor bets tght.
Mnmze system eaks.
;%((%9 Diagnostic Too!s
wBltrasonic analy3er - Compressed gas systems emt very dstnct sound patterns around
eakage
areas. In most cases, these sounds are not audbe to the unaded ear or are drown-out by
other
equpment noses. Usng an utrasonc detector, the anayst s abe to soate the frequency of
sound beng emtted by the ar or gas eak. The utrasonc detector represents an accurate
and
cost-ehectve means to ocate eaks n ar/gas systems. More nformaton on utrasonc
anayss
can be found n Chapter 6.
w@ibration analy3er - Wthn a compressor, there are many movng parts; some n rotatona
moton and some n near moton. In ether case, these parts generate a dstnct pattern and
eve of vbraton. Usng a vbraton anayzer and sgnature anayss software, the anayst can
dscern the vbraton amptude of the pont on the equpment beng montored. Ths
amptude
s then compared wth trended readngs. Changes n these readngs are ndcatve of changes
n
;%((%: Avai!a#!e 4o$t-are Too!s
A9=MasterU 9mproves -ompressed Air System /erformance Software
2escription: AIRMaster+, deveoped by the DOE Industra Technooges Program (ITP),
provdes a systematc approach for assessng the suppy-sde performance of compressed ar
systems.
Usng pant-specc data, the software ehectvey evauates suppy-sde operatona costs for
varous
equpment conguratons and system proes. It provdes usefu estmates of the potenta
savngs
to be ganed from seected energy-emcency measures and cacuates the assocated smpe
payback
perods.
AIRMaster+ ncudes a database of generc or ndustry-standard compressors and creates an
nventory specc to your actua, n-pant ar compressors. Based on user-provded data, the
software
smuates exstng and moded compressed ar system operatons. It can mode part-oad
system
operatons for an unmted number of rotary screw, recprocatng, and centrfuga ar
compressors
operatng smutaneousy wth ndependent contro strateges and schedues.
Powerfu software features factate deveopment of 24-hour metered arow or power data
oad
proes for each compressor; cacuaton of fe-cyce costs; nput of seasona eectrc energy and
demand charges; and trackng of mantenance hstores for systems and components.
AIRMaster+ aso ncudes LogToo, companon software that serves as a data mportaton and
anayss ad. The too heps users mport data that s exported from dherent types of data
oggers;
seect ogger data channes and modfy ther propertes (e.g., name, type, unts, etc.); vew data
vaues
for one or more ogger channes; dspay trend pots wth one or two Y axes; dspay scatter pots;
and
dspay day type pots n the format that s needed for AIRMaster+.
Availability: To downoad AIRMaster+ and earn more about DOE Ouaed Specasts and
tranng opportuntes, vst the Industra Technoogy Program Web ste: www.eere.energy.gov/ndustry/
bestpractces.
,.12+
;%((%; Re!evant Operationa!/Energ" E$$icienc" Measures
compressed ar operaton and contro. The foowng secton focuses on the most prevaent O&M
recommendatons havng the greatest energy mpacts at Federa factes. These
recommendatons
are aso some of the most easy mpemented for boer operators and O&M contractors.
-ompressed Air Measure: Cost Evauaton of Compressed Ar Leakage
Tabe 9.11.4 beow can be used to approxmate the ow rate n cfm of compressed ar eaks
as a
functon of orce sze and ne pressure (DOE 2000).
Tabe 9.11.4. Steam trap dscharge rate
Estimated Annual Energy Savings. The annua energy savngs, whch coud be reazed by
xng
a compressed ar eak, can be estmated as foows:
where
N = number of eaks, no unts
LR = eakage rate, cfm (from the tabe above)
EU = compressor energy use, kW/cfm
H = annua hours of operaton, hours
C = orce edge coemcent, no unts
Estimated Annual -ost Savings. The annua cost savngs, whch coud be reazed by xng
a
compressed ar eak, can be estmated as foows:
where ER = average annua eectrcty rate, $/kWh
O
,.12,
?ea1age =ates for 2i<erent Supply /ressures and Approimate
Ori4ce Si3es #cfm(
/ressure
#psig(
Ori4ce 2iameter #in.(
1/64 1/32 1/16 1/8 V 3/8
70 0.29 1.16 4.66 18.62 74.40 167.80
80 0.32 1.26 5.24 20.76 83.10 187.20
90 0.36 1.46 5.72 23.10 92.00 206.60
100 0.40 1.55 6.31 25.22 100.90 227.00
125 0.48 1.94 7.66 30.65 122.20 275.50
For 9ellGronded ori+ces, mltiply the vales ,y 07J!, and for sharpGedged
ori+ces, mltiply
It shoud be noted that ths cost savngs cacuaton doesnt account for an eectrc peak
demand
reducton. If the facty has a peak demand charge, and the compressor operates everyday wth
an
operatona schedue that s concdent wth the factys peak demand, then ths estmate
sghty
-ompressed Air ?ea1s Energy Savings and Economics
Eample Synopsis
A compressed ar system audt reveas 5 ar eaks, a wth an estmated orce dameter of
1/16
of an nch. The eaks are ocated n a ne pressurzed to 100 psg. The energy use of the
compressor
s 18 kW/100 cfm, and s operated 8,760 hrs per year. The eectrca rate s approxmatey $0.10
per
kWh. (Assumed sharp edged orce, mutper equas 0.61)
-ompressed Air Systems =ules of !humb (EPA 2003)
w-ompressed Air =ule G. Emcency mprovements can reduce compressed air system
energy use by
20% to 50%.
w-ompressed Air =ule %. Emcency mprovements to compressed ar systems can save
approxmatey one-haf percent of a facility=s tota energy use.
w-ompressed Air =ule L. Reparng ar eaks can reduce compressed air system energy use
by 30%
or more.
w-ompressed Air =ule +. Reparng ar eaks can reduce a facility=s tota energy use by
about one-
haf percent, wth an average smpe payback of 3 months.
w-ompressed Air =ule D. It takes approxmatey 2.5 to 5.0 kWh to compress 1,000 ft3 of ar
to 100 ps. Each ps reducton n compressed ar oss from the dstrbuton system (at 100 ps),
reduces a compressors energy use by more than one-haf percent.
,.130
In the absence of cacuatng the cost of a compressed ar eak, Tabe 9.11.5 can be used as
a rough
cost estmate for compressed ar eakage cost (DOE 2003)
Tabe 9.11.5. Compressed ar eaks - cost
per year assumng $0.05/kWh
;%((%;%( Air 6opressor ,ater.Ase Best Practices
In some nstances arger ar compressors w be water cooed usng the practce of "snge-
pass"
or "once-through coong." Snge-pass or once through coong systems provde an opportunty
for
sgncant water savngs. In these systems, water s crcuated ony once through the
compressor
and then s dsposed of to dran. To remove the same heat oad, snge-pass systems use 40
tmes
more water than a coong tower operated at 5 cyces of concentraton. To maxmze water
savngs,
snge-pass coong equpment shoud be ether moded to recrcuate water or f possbe,
shoud be
emnated atogether. Possbe optons to mnmze water usage ncude (FEMP 2008):
Emnate snge pass coong by modfyng equpment to operate on a cosed oop that
recrcuates
the water nstead of dschargng t.
If modcaton of equpment to a cosed oop system s not feasbe, add an automatc
contro to
shut oh the entre system durng unoccuped nght or weekend hours. Ths opton shoud
ony be
consdered where shutdown woud have no adverse mpact on ndoor ar quaty.
Instaaton of a cher or coong tower s aso an economca aternatve. Excess coong
capacty may aready exst wthn the budng that can be utzed.
Fnd another use for the snge-pass emuent, n boer make-up suppy or andscape
rrgaton, and
mpement. Note some equpment emuent may be contamnated such as degreasers and
hydrauc
equpment. Ths emuent must not be used n boers.
;%((%(= 6ase 4tud"
Air -ompressor ?ea1age (OIT 1995)
The cost of compressed ar eaks s the energy cost to compress the voume of the ost ar
from
atmospherc pressure to the compressor operatng pressure. The amount of ost ar depends
on the
ne pressure, the compressed ar temperature and the pont of the eak, the ar temperature
at the
compressor net, and the estmated area of the eak.
A study of a 75-hp compressor that operates 8,520 hours per year was shown to have a
eakage
rate of 24%. The ma|orty of these eaks were due to open, unused nes. The compressor, a
snge-
stage screw type, provdes compressed ar at 115 ps, s 91.5% emcent, and operates wth
eectrcty
costng $14.05 per mon Btu.
,.131
Si3e #in.( -ost /er
Vear
1/16 $523
1/8 $2,095
1/4 $8,382
The study dented eght ma|or eaks rangng n sze from 1/16 to 1/8 nches n dameter. The
cacuated tota annua cost of these eaks was $5,730.
Correctng the eaks n ths system nvoved the foowng:
Repacement of coupngs and/r hoses.
Repacement of seas around ters.
Reparng breaks n compressed-ar nes.
The tota cost of the repars was $460. Thus, the cost savngs of $5,730 woud pay for the
mpementaton cost of $460 n about a month.
;%((%(( Air 6opressors 6hec@!ist
,.132
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
Compressor use/
sequencng
compressors
X
Overa vsua
nspecton
Compete overa vsua nspecton to
be sure
a equpment s operatng and safety
X
Leakage
assessment
Look for and report any system
eakages
X
Compressor
operaton
Montor operaton for run tme and
temperature varance from trended
norms
X
Dryers Dryers shoud be observed for proper
functon
X
Compressor
ventaton
Make sure proper ventaton s
avaabe for
X
Compressor
ubrcant
Note eve, coor, and pressure.
Compare
X
Condensate
dran
Dran condensate from tank, egs,
and/or
X
Operatng
temperature
Verfy operatng temperature s per
manufacturer speccaton
X
Pressure reef
vaves
Verfy a pressure reef vaves are
functonng propery
X
Check bet
tenson
Check bet tenson and agnment for
proper
X
Intake ter pads Cean or repace ntake ter pads as
necessary
X
Ar-consumng
devce check
A ar-consumng devces need to be
nspected on a reguar bass for
eakage.
Leakage typcay occurs n:
Worn/cracked/frayed hoses
Stckng ar vaves
Cynder packng
X
Dran traps Cean out debrs and check operaton X
Motor bearngs Lubrcate motor bearngs to
manufacturers
X
Cher Checkst (contd)
;%((%() Re$erences
DOE. 1998. Improving #ompressed Air System Performance) A Sorce,oo- for Indstry.
Industra
Technooges Program, U.S. Department of Energy, Washngton, D.C.
DOE. 2003. Improving #ompressed Air System Performance. DOE/GO-102003-1822, Industra
Technooges Program, U.S. Department of Energy, Washngton D.C.
Dyer, D.F. and G. Mapes. 1992. Electrical E%ciency Improvement. Energy Emcency Insttute,
Auburn.
EPA. 2003. $ise *les for Indstrial Energy E%ciency N A Tool Oit For Estimating Energy
Savings and
>reenhose >as Emissions *edctions. EPA 231-R-98-014, U.S. Envronmenta Protecton
Agency,
Washngton, D.C.
FEMP 2008. Federa Energy Management Program - Water Best Management Practces.
Avaabe
on ne at URL: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/program/wateremcency_bmp.htm.
Kaeser Compressors, Inc. |uy 29, 2001a. >etting the Most for 3or Money) Types of
#ompressors.
Ar Compressor Gude |Onne Report|. Avaabe URL: http://www.mantenanceresources.com/
ReferenceLbrary/ArCompressors/kaeserpage1.htm .
Kaeser Compressors, Inc. |uy 29, 2001b. Evalating #ompressor E%ciency. Ar Compressor
Gude
|Onne Report|. Avaabe URL: http://www.mantenanceresources.com/ReferenceLbrary/ArCompressors/
kaeserpage7.htm .
Kaeser Compressors, Inc. |uy 29, 2001c. $aste Deat *ecovery and the Importance of
Maintenance.
Ar Compressor Gude |Onne Report|. Avaabe URL: http://www.mantenanceresources.com/
,.133
2aily 0ee1ly Monthl
y
Annuall
y
System o Dependng on use and compressor
sze,
deveop perodc o sampng to
montor
X
Coupngs Inspect a coupngs for proper
functon and
X
Shaft seas Check a seas for eakage or wear X
Ar ne ters Repace partcuate and ubrcant
remova
X
Check
mountngs
Check and secure a compressor
mountngs
X
Kaeser Compressors, Inc. |uy 29, 2001d. >etting the Most for 3or Money) Tro,leshooting. Ar
Compressor Gude |Onne Report|. Avaabe URL: http://www.mantenanceresources.com/
O Machnery Mantenance Onne. |uy 16, 2001. Ar Compressors |Onne|. Avaabe URL:
http://www.omachneryforum.com/ar.htm .
OIT. 1995. Modern Indstrial Assessments) A Training Manal. Industra Assessment Manua from
for
Unversty of Forda Envronmenta Heath and Safety (UFEHS). |uy 26, 2001. #ompressed Air
Safety) >eneral safety reEirements for compressed air |Onne|. Avaabe URL:
http://www.ehs.u.edu/
Genera/Shop/comp_ar.htm .
UNEP, 2006. Energy Emcency Gude for Industry, 2006. Unted Natons Envronmenta Program.
Washngton, D.C.
,.13&
;%() Lighting
;%()%( &ntroduction
Recent studes revea that over 20% of the natons eectrcty consumpton s reated to
varous
types of ghtng products and systems. Advanced energy savng technooges are ready
avaabe to
reduce both the connected oad and energy consumpton, but are ony ehectve f they are
propery
nstaed, cabrated, and mantaned. Improvements n ghtng emcences are so rapd that t
can
be cost-ehectve to mpement upgrades, retrots or redesgns to ghtng systems that are
ony 5 to
10 years od. In addton to everyday mantenance and operaton of ghtng systems, ths
secton
dscusses the mportant ssues of commssonng and reguar reevauaton of system
components wth a
vew toward upgrades.
;%()%) 4"stes and 6oponents
A ghtng system conssts of ght sources, the baasts or other devces that reguate the
power
that drves eectrc ghts, the umnare housng wth components that hod the sources and
drect
and shed the ght, and ghtng contros that manpuate the tme or ntensty of ghtng
systems.
;%()%)%( Light 4ources
Natura ght sources ncude the sun and dayght (ght from the sky). The eectrc ght
sources most common to Federa budngs ncude ncandescent/haogen, uorescent, hgh
ntensty
dscharge, and ght emttng dodes. Characterstcs common to ght sources ncude ther
output,
emcency, fe, coor, and dstrbuton.
A. w 2aylight:Sunlight - Dayght s an acceptabe and desrabe ght source for budng
nterors. It
uses the ght from the sky, or occasonay sunght reected oh budng surfaces. Drect
sunght
shoud generay be sheded, preferaby before t hts the wndows to reduce gare and
therma
gans. In partcuar, drect sun penetraton shoud be kept out of work envronments.
Interor
wndow bnds are amost aways needed to contro sky gare and sun penetraton, even
when
overhangs or ght sheves exst.
B. w Electrical ?amps - The amp s the source of eectrc ght, the devce that converts
eectrc
power nto vsbe ght. Seectng the amp types s at the heart of a hgh-quaty ghtng
pan,
and centra to vsua performance, energy conservaton, and the appearance of a space.
Varous
ght sources have dherent characterstcs, but the basc performance prncpes ncude
the
foowng:
- Lumen output - the amount of ght emtted by a amp
- Emcacy - the emcency of amps n producng ght, measured n umens of ght per watt
of
energy
- Rated amp fe - expected amp fe typcay reported n hours
- Lamp umen deprecaton - the oss of ght output over tme, usuay reported as a
percentage
- Coor temperature (CCT) and coor renderng (CRI) - a numerca vaue reated to the
appearance of the ght and the ob|ects umnated
,.13'
6luorescent lamps
generate
ther ght by usng eectrcty
to excte a conductve vapor
of mercury and an nert gas.
The resutant utravoet ght
strkes a phosphor coatng on
the nsde of the tube, causng
t to gow. The eements used
n the phosphor coatng contro
the amps coor.
Fuorescent amp advantages, dsadvantages, and
approprate uses
Advantages:
Very hgh emcacy - T8/T5 amps are 80 to 98 umens per watt
Fexbe source wth a wde range of coors, (75 to 98 CRI), szes,
and shapes
Very ong amp fe: 20,000 to 30,000 hours
Coo operaton
Low dhused surface brghtness
uorescent amps wth a Dsadvantages:
Requre a compatbe baast
Dmmng requres a more expensve baast
Temperatures can ahect start-up, umen output, and amp fe
Not a pont source f narrow beam dstrbuton s requred
unt T8 amps came on the Approprate Uses:
Fuorescent and compact uorescent amps are approprate for
most of the appcatons that Federa factes managers encounter
n ther budngs
(8/8 of an nch). These are
the workhorse of the commerca ghtng ndustry and have become the standard for omces
and
genera appcatons. Snce they are 22% more emcent than T12s, t s generay aways cost-
ehectve to retrot or repace xtures that use T12 amps n exstng appcatons even before
the exstng T12 amps burn out. The rare excepton mght be ndvdua xtures that are
rarey
used. However, t w be more emcent to repace or upgrade these at the same tme to avod
costy ndvdua repacements at a ater date. T8 amps use the same socket as T12, but not
the
same baast. There s a wde range of T8 desgn optons and good coor rendton. The most
commony used T8 amp s 4-feet-ong and 32-watts (F32T8).
$igh performance or premium !, lamps - Hgh performance T8s are marketed under the
tradenames Utra (GE), Advantage (Phps), or Super T8 (Syvana). These T8 amps provde
hgher emcacy, hgher mantaned umens, and are avaabe n extended fe versons wth a
20% ncrease n amp fe. The mproved performance s acheved n dherent ways by
dherent
products. Some products have reduced wattages (28 to 30 watts) whe achevng the same
umen
output as a standard T8. Others have ncreased umen output (3,100 umens) wthout
ncreasng
the wattage. The ncreased umen output resuts n a brghter amp and potentay more
gare.
Ths can be prevented by usng the ower wattage verson, or by coupng a 3,100 umen amp
wth a reduced output baast (.77 BF). Premum T8s have a hgher nta cost, but the
ncreased
energy emcency and fe make them the recommended ght source for most commerca
uorescent nstaatons ncudng Federa pro|ects.
,.13(
5?@ lamps - Lnear
1-1/2 nch dameter (12/8
of an nch). They are now
consdered obsoete for most
new appcatons. These were
the standard uorescent amps
market n the 1980s.
5A lamps - Lnear uorescent
amps wth a 1 nch dameter
5B lamps - Lnear uorescent amps wth a dameter of 5/8 of an nch. These cannot
repace
T8 amps because they have dherent characterstcs and dherent engths (metrc), socket
conguratons and baasts. T5s are smaer amps than T8s, but have smar emcacy
(umens per
watts). Ther smaer dameter aows for shaower xtures and greater reector contro,
but aso
ncreases the brghtness, mtng ther use to heavy sheded or ndrect xtures.
5BCO #high output( - T5 amps wth approxmatey the same mantaned umens as two
standard T8 amps but ess emcent, wth about 7% to 10% fewer umens per watt. Ths
deveopment aows the desgner to potentay reduce the number of xtures, amps, and
baasts
n an appcaton, makng t ess expensve to mantan. However, the ntense brghtness of
T5HOs mts ther use to prmary ndrect umnares to avod gare. Aso, usng one-amp
rather than two-amp umnares emnates the potenta for two-eve swtchng. Anayss
s requred to demonstrate the benets of usng T5HO amps to ohset ther ower emcacy
and
hgher cost.
-ompact Muorescent lamps #-6?s(
- Fuorescent amps wth a snge base
and bent-tube constructon. Orgnay
desgned for the retrottng of standard
ncandescents, the rst CFLs had a
screw-
type base. Whe screw base amps are
st
avaabe, commerca appcatons
typcay
use amps wth a 4-pn base. Ths
prevents
the future repacement of a screw-
based
CFL wth a much ess emcent
ncandescent
amp. CFL amps have a wde range of
szes
and attractve coors, and can be used
n
most Federa appcatons that formery used
ncandescent.
CFL advantages and dsadvantages
Advantages:
Good substtuton for most ncandescent amps
Hgh emcacy - 56 to 71 umens per watt.
Fexbe source wth a wde range of szes and
shapes, and good coor renderng (82 CRI)
Long amp fe: 10,000 to 12,000 hours
Coo operaton
Dhused surface brghtness
Dsadvantages:
Requre a compatbe baast
Dmmng requres a more expensve baast
$igh 9ntensity 2ischarge #$92( amps Temperatures can ahect start-up, umen output,
aso use a gas-ed tube to generate ght, and amp fe
but use an arc current and vaporzed metas Not a pont source f narrow beam dstrbuton s
requred
There are two man types n current use -
meta hade (MH) and hgh-pressure sodum
(HPS) - and ther characterstcs are determned by the gas. MH provdes a whte ght wth
a
CRI of 65-95, whe HPS emts a yeowsh ght wth a CRI of 22 to 65. Hstorcay, HID
amps
were reegated to outdoor or servce areas, but advances n coor, conguratons, and
emcacy have
made them more attractve for commerca and nteror use.
,.13*
at reatvey hgh temperatures and pressures.
Electrodeless lamps #also called induction lamps( most commony use rado frequency
to
onze mercury vapor at ow-pressures, resutng n exctng the phosphors nsde the enveope
to create a gow, smar to uorescent technoogy. The three ma|or amp manufacturers each
produce a dstnctve amp desgn, the sma reector "Genura" amp by GE, the gobe-shaped
"OL" by Phps, and the hgh-output donut-shaped "Icetron" by Syvana.
9ncandescent:$alogen lamps generate ther ght by heatng a tungsten ament unt t
gows, n the presence of an nert gas such as argon or ntrogen. A haogen amp s a form of
ncandescent amp that ntroduces traces of haogen gas and a quartz enveope to burn hotter
and proong the ament fe. Consequenty, they are whter (3000K rather than 2700K) and
are sghty more energy emcent than standard ncandescents. Haogen shoud be used n
eu of
standard ncandescent, and ow votage shoud be consdered for the tghter, more focused
beam.
However, whenever possbe, the use of more emcent CFL or ceramc meta hade sources
shoud
be expored. Snce ncandescent/haogen amp types are very nemcent (roughy ve tmes
ess
emcent than uorescent), they shoud be used sparngy, or the pro|ect w not meet the
energy
code. See the suggested uses beow.
?ight Emitting 2iodes #?E2s( are made of an advanced sem-conductor matera that emts
vsbe ght when current passes through t. Dherent conductor materas are used, each
emttng a dstnctve waveength of ght. LEDs come n red, amber, bue, green, and a coo
whte. LEDs are begnnng to see extensve use n a varety of appcatons ncudng street/
parkng ot ghtng, supermarket refrgerated dspay case ghtng, and other dspay ghtng
appcatons.
;%()%)%) Ba!!asts' Trans$orers' and Po-er Pac@s
Eectrca devces are
needed to provde the
necessary hgh startng
votage, and then mt and
reguate the current to the
amp durng operatons.
A gas dscharge amps,
ke uorescent and
hgh ntensty dscharge
(HID), requre baasts
(ncandescent amps do
not). Baasts typcay are
desgned to emcenty
operate a specc amp
type, so amps and baasts
are chosen together. The
na baast product Fgure 9.12.1. Fuorescent amp/baast emcacy
seecton s usuay done by
the xture manufacturer, n response to the ghtng desgners mnmum performance
requrements.
In specfyng or evauatng baasts, the basc performance crtera to consder ncude the
foowng:
Baast Factor (BF) - proporton of potenta ght output. Not a measure of emcency.
Lamp-Baast System Emcacy - Mean umens of amps dvded by nput wattage of baast.
Best
measure to evauate system emcency. w
,.13+
Power Factor (PF) - Not ower than 0.90
Tota Harmonc Dstorton (THD) - Not hgher than 20%
Mnmum Startng Temperature - approprate for appcaton
Votage requrements - matchng suppy votage, or mut-votage taps
Maxmum dstance between amp and remotey ocated baast - check wth manufacturer.
;%()%)%* Luinaire >ousing
A umnare s the entre ghtng assemby that ncudes a ght source, a baast to contro
the
power, and a housng wth components necessary for ght dstrbuton and shedng of the
source.
Aspects of the umnare housng reated to budng operatons and mantenance ncude:
Sturdy constructon, not easy moved or damaged or vandazed.
Materas that mantan ther nta characterstcs, ke reectance or shnness (specuarty)
or
ceanness.
Features that make nstaaton, wrng, and eveng easy.
Features that make mantenance easy, ke hnges, fasteners, sef-tappng screws, safety
chans, no
rough edges, easy access to baasts and wrng, ease of ceanng.
Lumnares are most often cassed by the ght source and the dstrbuton of the ght.
Once
the most approprate dstrbuton s seected for a partcuar appcaton, then umnares
wthn that
casscaton can be compared for gare contro, emcency, and overa performance.
Drect 90% to 100% downght
Sem-drect 60% to 90% downght, 10% to 40% upght
Genera dhuse 40% to 60% up and downght
Sem-ndrect 60% to 90% upght, 10% to 40% downght
Indrect 90% to 100% upght
-leaning classi4cation - The recommended ceanng schedues for umnares depends
on the
openness of the xture desgn, the dstrbuton characterstcs mentoned above, and the
drtness of
the envronment.
These condtons are components of the "umnare drt deprecaton" (LDD) factor (see
recoverabe ght osses, Secton 9.12.4.1). The capacty for a umnare to retan drt or dust
fas nto
two categores:
Open/Unventated - Lumnares that are open on the bottom, wth or wthout ouvers or
bames,
and a housng that has no top ventaton apertures that woud provde a steady path for
ar to
move through the xture.
A Other - Lumnares that do not meet the descrpton above, such as bare amps, strp
xtures,
encosed or ensed xtures, or any xtures wth top openngs for ventaton.
,.13,
;%()%)%3 Lighting 6ontro! Devices
There s sedom |ust one way to accompsh the desred contro of ghtng, and a varety of
equpment s avaabe to the ghtng desgner. (Mnmum ghtng contros are requred by code -
see Energy Codes, Secton 9.12.4.4.) A comprehensve strategy uses severa of these contro
devces
n concert, respondng to pro|ect-specc usage patterns:
Manua contros
- Swtches and swtchng patterns
- Manua dmmers
Automatc contros
- Occupancy sensors
- Dayght sensors
- Pre-set contros
- Tme contros
- Centrazed contro management
Manual -ontrols - Manua contros aow the users to seect the ghtng eves best suted
to ther mmedate needs. Task ghts ocated n workstatons shoud have manua contros.
Spaces wth varabe actvtes, such as tranng rooms, mut-purpose rooms, or conference
centers, generay requre manua contros to enabe the users to taor the ght for each
dherent
actvty. Aowng the users to seect a "pre-set" ghtng scene w generay reduce
consumpton.
Wth manua contros, occupancy satsfacton s acheved, but the reducton n energy use s
unpredctabe snce t requres ndvduas to turn oh ther ghts. For ehectve use, the contros
need to be ntutve and abeed. Note that even wth manua contros, the energy standard
st
requres automatc shutoh when spaces are not occuped.
S8itc%es. Swtchng strateges can be used n combnatons to oher mutpe eves of
umnaton, and mutpe mxes of avaabe ght sources. In ts smpest appcaton, open work
areas can have severa zones of umnares, so partay occuped rooms do not need to burn a
the
ghts. Three-way swtches are typcay used n mut-entry and mut-zoned rooms to factate
peope movng from zone to zone. Automatc swtches, (or Sentry-type swtches that reset to the
oh
poston) are approprate for use wth manua-on/automatc-oh occupancy sensors. Another
strategy
s b-eve swtchng - two (or more) ght eves wthn a space can be attaned wth mut-amp
umnares, factory pre-wred for easy connecton to separate swtches, whch aows one amp n
each
xture to be turned oh, ehectvey "dmmng" the ghts. When severa ght sources - e.g.,
overhead
umnares, wa washers, down ghts - are present, each type shoud be swtched separatey.
Manual di''ers. Manua dmmng s most usefu to respond to specc user needs -
dmmng
the conference room ghts for AV presentatons, rasng the ght eve for the ceanng crew,
changng the mood n a cutura space. Manua dmmers can be wa box sders or hand-hed
remote contros. Both ncandescent and uorescent ght sources are dmmabe, and both use
ess
energy when dmmed, athough the energy saved s not aways proportona to the decrease n
ght.
Incandescent amps can be ready dmmed, but uorescent need specazed eectronc dmmng
baasts.
Auto'atic Controls - Automatc contros provde benets n user comfort and energy
conservaton. Automatc contros can dever reabe energy savngs wthout occupant
partcpaton,
and when we desgned, wthout ther notce. In addton, they can make ad|ustments to ght
eves
throughout the day, or n response to specc needs. For safety reasons, ghtng contros shoud
be speced to defaut to fu-on when contro equpment fas. Recommssonng s vauabe for
determnng that a the contros operate and save energy as ntended.
,.1&0
Automatc contros advantages, dsadvantages, and approprate uses
Advantages:
Sumcent energy conservaton possbe
Energy savngs are more predctabe
Aows a comprehensve dayghtng strategy
Subte changes n ght eves can be accompshed wthout occupant partcpaton
w Fexbe for accommodatng changes n use or occupancy over the moderate/ong-term
Dsadvantages:
Contros must be very reabe and predctabe for user acceptance
May requre expertse and/or tranng of mantenance personne
Commssonng s requred and ad|ustments may be necessary when ayouts change
Moderate to hgh nta cost ($0.20/ft2 for schedung, hgher for dayghtng)
Approprate Uses:
Dmmng of eectrc ghtng to support a dayghtng strategy
Rooms wth perods of no occupancy durng the day (for occupancy sensors) or have reguar
operatng hours (tme cocks)
Support spaces and outdoor areas wth predctabe needs
Occupanc$ Sensors. Occupancy sensors turn oh the ghts when
they detect that no occupants are present. The occupancy sensor
ncudes a moton sensor, a contro unt, and a reay for swtchng the
ghts. The sensor and contro unt are connected to the umnare
by ow votage wrng, wth a transformer steppng down the current.
There are three commony used types of occupancy sensors, dened
by how they detect moton: utrasonc, passve nfrared and dua-
technoogy.
wFltrasonic sensors (US) utze a quartz crysta that emts hgh
frequency utrasonc waves throughout the room. Shfts
to
the frequency of the wave (caed Dopper ehect) ndcate that
there s moton/occupancy n the space. US cover the area n a
contnuous manner, and there are no bnd spots n the
coverage,
e.g., a desk behnd a partton. Whe ths makes them
ehectve
at detectng occupancy, t aso makes them more vunerabe
to
"fase-on" readngs caused by tramc n ad|acent corrdors and
ar currents. Therefore, they can be most ehectvey
used n
combnaton wth manua-on swtches (see beow), partcuary
n
dayghted spaces. Manua-on prevents fase-ons and saves
energy
by avodng unnecessary automatc actvaton when dayght
or
sp-ght s sumcent for the actvty.
Release 3.0
Fgure 9.12.2. Wa-box
occupancy sensor uses hdden
nterna dp-swtches to set
manua-on, auto-oh.
,.1&1
HID amp advantages, dsadvantages, and approprate uses
Advantages:
Hgh umen output - up to 1,000 wattage amps avaabe
Medum to hgh emcacy - MH: 51 to 85 umens per watt; HPS: 60 to 115 umens per watt
Long amp fe - MH: 10,000 to 20,000 hours; HPS: 10,000 to 24,000+ hours
Insenstvty to ambent temperatures
50% and 100% b-eve swtchng baasts avaabe
Dsadvantages:
Lamps have a warm-up perod before reachng fu output/coor
If power s nterrupted, amps must coo oh before restrkng (hence unreabe dmmng and unacceptabty for
emergency ghtng). Some HPS amps are avaabe wth nstant restrke.
Inapproprate for many contro strateges ke dayght harvestng, occupancy sensors, or frequent swtchng.
Approprate Uses:
Meta hade amps come n a wde range of shapes and coors, and are sutabe for most ghtng appcatons
where contnuous operaton s requred. "Ceramc" meta hade technoogy provdes coors n the 80 to 98 CRI
range wth a warm coor temperature of 3000K.
Meta hade PAR and sma tubuar amps provde an energy-emcent substtute for many types ncandescent/
haogen reector and tubuar amps
Hgh-pressure sodum (HPS) amps are most often used n roadway and other outdoor appcatons. Lamp fe s
very ong (30,000+ hours), but the CRI s ow (about 22 to 30). Improved whter HPS amps are avaabe wth
a CRI of 65, but as coor mproves, emcacy and fe are sgncanty reduced.
Not a pont source f narrow beam dstrbuton s requred
Eectrodeess amp advantages, dsadvantages, and approprate uses
Advantages:
Very ong fe (100,000 hours) due to ack of eectrodes to deterorate
Good mantaned umen output over fe
Low to hgh ght output avaabe (1,100 to 12,000 umens per amp)
Medum to hgh emcacy (40 to 60 umens/watt)
Dsadvantages:
Not nterchangeabe wth other amps and baasts. No competton.
Ony one manufacturer per amp stye (donut, reector, gobe)
Lmted to dhuse dstrbuton
Lmted wattages and umen output for each stye
Requres magnetc core, whch has shorter fe than the amp
Approprate Uses:
Locatons where mantenance s expensve or dmcut
Repacement reector amp for ncandescent oodght n hgh cengs
Locatons where hgh umen output and dhuse dstrbuton s desrabe (ndrect kosks n hgh cengs)
More nformaton s avaabe from the manufacturers and the Advanced Lghtng Gudenes.
,.1&2
Incandescent/Haogen amp advantages, dsadvantages, and approprate uses
Advantages:
Exceent coor renderng and a warm appearance
Can be focused for use n reector amps
Compact sze
No baast requred
Easy dmmed
Mnma utra-voet emssons for conservaton of ght senstve materas
Dsadvantages:
Low emcacy - Haogen s the best at 13 to 21 umens per watt.
Shorter amp fe than aternatves - Haogen s the best at 3,000 to 6,000 hours
Lamp can get very hot
Low votage transformers may be requred for haogen ghts
Pont source s gary f not sheded.
Approprate Uses:
Hstorc settngs when CFL amps cannot be used
Appcatons n whch coor renderng s extremey mportant (art work, mted reta)
Dspays where the narrowest beam contro s necessary
LED Lamp advantages, dsadvantages, and approprate uses
Advantages:
Impact resstant
Operate best at cooer temperatures so good for outdoor appcatons
Sma sze
Low to medum emcacy, dependng on the coor. Red s hghest, foowed by amber, green, whte, and bue.
A more emcent whte ght can be created by combnng red, green, and bue LEDs. Whte LEDs are currenty
about 30 umens per watt, but emcaces are expected to ncrease steady.
Monochromatc coor for ext sgns, sgnas, and speca ehects
Ehectve for rapd or frequent swtchng appcatons
Dsadvantages:
Rapd umen deprecaton: Whte LEDs may ast 12,000 hours or onger, but "usefu fe" s ony 6,000 hours,
the pont at whch pont ght output has reduced 50%.
Monochromatc coor
Heat budup
Cost
Whte LEDs are st bush and provde ow umens per watt, smar to ncandescent. Both condtons are
expected to mprove rapdy over the next 15 years.
Approprate Uses:
Currenty used prmary n ext sgnage, tramc sgnang, and certan speca ehects
Exceent for pro|ectng words or an mage - as n wak/dont wak sgns or ext sgns. FEMP recommends them
for these uses.
LED sources may have the greatest potenta for technca mprovements and new appcatons n the next 15
years.
,.1&3
wPassive infrared sensors (PIR) respond to the nfrared heat energy of occupants, detectng
moton
at the "human" waveength. They operate on a ne-of-sght bass and do not detect
occupants
behnd parttons or around corners. They aso are ess key to detect moton as the dstance
ncreases. Therefore, they are usefu when a room s sma or t s desrabe to contro ony a
porton of a space. PIR are more susceptbe to fase-oh readngs than fase-ons, so tend to be
more annoyng to occupants than utrasonc sensors.
w8alGtechnology sensors combne two technooges to prevent both fase-ohs and fase-ons.
The
most common one uses both utrasonc and passve nfrared sensng to detect occupancy. The
sensor usuay requres that both US and PIR sense occupancy before turnng on. The ghts
w reman on as ong as ether technoogy detects someone. Hgh quaty occupancy sensors
use the dua technoogy, snce t s more reabe than each of the separate technooges used
ndependenty. Dua-technoogy sensors cost more than sensors usng ether US or PIR aone.
w
Other occupancy sensor features to consder ncude:
Mountng ocaton - Ceng, hgh-wa or corner, or wa box. Room sze and ayout are the
ma|or determnants. Ceng-mounted sensors are the most versate because ther vew s
ess
obstructed. Wa box sensors take the pace of the rooms wa swtch, and they are
economca
and easy to retrot. Wa box sensors are approprate for sma, unobstructed spaces.
On-Oh settngs - Occupancy sensors can automatcay turn on (auto-on) and then
automatcay
turn oh (auto-oh). Or, they can requre the user to turn them on (manua-on) and then
automatcay turn oh. Manua-on sensors save more energy because the ghts do not turn
on when the user does not need them. Auto-on sensors are usefu n appcatons where the
users are not famar wth the ayout and swtch ocatons, or where ndng a swtch woud be
nconvenent.
Senstvty - Most sensors can be ad|usted for the desred degree of actvty that w trgger
a sensor response. The tme-deay (.e., the tme eapsed between the moment a sensor stops
sensng an occupant and the tme t turns oh) can aso be seected. The settng can range
from
30 seconds to 30 mnutes, and the choce becomes a baance between energy conservaton,
user
toerance, and amp fe. We suggest no ess than 15 mnutes f controng nstant start
baasts.
Mutpe eve contro - Occupancy sensors are ehectve for mutpe eve swtchng n spaces
where fu oh s not acceptabe, but occupancy s not contnuous. By usng a two- or three-
eve
baast, or mut-amp xtures wth amps wred separatey, the owest eve may be aowed to
operate at most hours, but when occupancy s sensed, the ght eve ncreases. Ths s a
usefu
energy savng strategy n areas where safety or securty requres some ght at a tmes, such
as certan encosed stars, securty corrdors, restrooms, etc. Of the two strateges, mut-eve
baasts have the advantage of keepng the amp warm, reducng eary burn-outs caused by
frequent swtchng.
*a$lig%t Controls. Dayght contros are photoeectrc devces that turn oh or dm the ghts
n
response to the natura umnaton avaabe. Dependng on the avaabty of dayght, the
hours
of operaton and the space functon, photoeectrcay-controed ghtng can save 10% to 60% of
a budngs ghtng energy. Ths can transate nto even more savngs snce dayght avaabty
concdes wth the hours of the day when peak demand charges appy.
Smooth and contnuous dmmng s the preferred strategy for automated dayghtng contros
n
omces or other work areas, snce t s not dstractng to the workers. The photosensor ad|usts the
ght
eve based on the amount of natura ght sensed by sendng a sgna to the dmmng baast.
The ess
,.1&&
expensve dmmng baasts wth mnmum settngs of 20% of fu
output are approprate for dayght dmmng (EPRI 1997). The
two strateges, "cosed-oop" and "open oop," are based on photo-
sensor ocatons, and the correct sensor ocaton s essenta. In
a "cosed oop" system, the sensor s ocated above a horzonta
surface to detect the ght reectng oh that surface from both
eectrc and dayght sources. Snce the sensor s readng reected
ght, the reectve characterstcs of the surface shoud reman
constant. Consequenty, sensors are ocated over a crcuaton
area, rather than a workstaton where the reectvty of the
workers cothes or desktop contents mght change. In an "open- Fgure 9.12.3. Photosensor and
uorescent dmmng baast for con-
tnuous dayght dmmng.
up the drect umnaton from the eectrc ghts. Sensors can
contro more than one dmmng baast but the umnares beng controed must a have a
smar
orentaton to the natura ght. For exampe, trees n front of severa wndows dene a
separate
ghtng "zone." Tme-deay settngs are used to sow down the response to rapd changes n
natura
ghtng condtons, provdng more steady ghtng.
Swtchng the ghts oh when sumcent natura ghtng s present s a ess expensve
strategy, but
not as acceptabe to the occupants. Ths approach s most commony found n outdoor
appcatons
- controng parkng ot ghtng for exampe. In budngs, a stepped approach to dayght
swtchng
s sometmes empoyed, n whch ony some amps are swtched oh n mut-amp umnares.
Aternatey, dayght swtchng s used n rooms where contnuous occupancy s not common,
such as
corrdors, cafeteras, atra, or copy rooms.
Pre-set Controls. Swtchng, dmmng, or a combnaton of the two functons can be
automatcay preprogrammed so that the user can seect an approprate ghtng envronment
("scene") at the touch of a button. Each scene uses a dherent combnaton of the umnares
n the
room (sometmes dmmed) to provde the most approprate ght for one of severa panned
actvtes
n that room. A "pre-set controer" and wrng pan organzes ths. For exampe, the occupant
of a
conference room coud seect one pre-set scene from a ve-button "scene seector" wa-
mounted n
the room, abeed "Conference," "Presentaton," "Sde Vewng," "Ceanng," and "Oh." Ths
aows
mutpe ghtng systems to be nstaed to meet the varyng needs of separate actvtes, but
prevents
them from a beng used at fu ntensty for every actvty. A pre-set scene shoud be ncuded
for the
ceanng crew, whch shoud use the most energy-emcent ghts that w aow them to do ther
work.
5i'e Controls. Tme cocks are devces that can be programmed to turn ghts on or oh at
desgnated tmes. These are a usefu aternatve to photoeectrc sensors n appcatons wth
very
predctabe usage, such as n parkng ots. Smpe tmers are another opton, turnng the ghts
on
for a speced perod of tme, athough there are mted appcatons where ths s approprate,
e.g., brary stacks. A tme-controed "sweep" strategy s sometmes ehectve. After norma
hours
of occupancy, most of the ghtng s turned oh (swept oh), but f any occupants reman, they
can
overrde the command n |ust ther space. Overrde contros can be wa swtches ocated
wthn
the space or be actvated by teephone or computer. These systems typcay ash the ghts
pror to
turnoh, to gve any remanng occupants ampe tme to take acton. There s usuay more than
one
sweep operaton schedued after hours unt a ghts are turned oh.
,.1&'
oop" system, the sensor s ocated near the wndow n such a way
to ony detect dayght. In both systems, the sensor must not pck
Centrali.ed Control Manage'ent. Automated Budng Management Systems (BMS) are
becomng more common n medum- and arge-szed factes to contro HVAC, eectrca, water,
and
re systems. Incorporatng ghtng contros s a natura step n emcent management, and
centrazed
ghtng contro systems are avaabe that can nterface wth budng mantenance systems whe
provdng data on ghtng operaton. However, n some cases, centrazed systems are not
approprate
for some functons, such as managng the dmmng contros. The technoogca advance that may
change ths s DALI (dgta addressabe ghtng nterface), a communcaton protoco that aows
an
entre ghtng system to be managed wth computer software. Ths s promsng for stuatons
that
requre sophstcated contro and exbty for ghtng reconguraton. The DALI system s beng
desgned based on an nternatona standard so that varous system components are compatbe.
;%()%* 4a$et" &ssues
In deang wth ghtng equpment, the greatest
concern s eectrca shock, foowed by n|ury from fas
from hgh mountng ocatons, adders and fts, and
handng of hazardous waste.
;%()%*%( E!ectrica! and E?uipent 4a$et"
A eectrca equpment shoud be propery grounded,
ncudng umnares, baasts, starters, capactors and
contros, and be n accordance wth the Natona
Eectrc Code (NEC).
Fgure 9.12.4. Repar and rewrng
must be done by a censed eectrcan.
Athough mantenance personne may hande routne mantenance such as changng amps or
ceanng umnares, a troube-shootng and repar must be handed by censed eectrcans.
A
personne must be propery traned and equpped.
A mantenance personne sha be provded wth and nstructed n the use of proper toos and
equpment such as protectve hand toos, fa protecton such as safety bets or harnesses,
hard
hats, gogges, goves, and testng toos.
A mantenance of ghtng equpment must foow the ockout/tagout standard n OSHA
1910.147 - The #ontrol of DaCardos Energy. Ths standard appes to the contro of energy
durng
servcng and/or mantenance of machnes and equpment. Empoyers must utze procedures
"for
amxng approprate ockout devces or tagout devces to energy soatng devces, and to
otherwse
dsabe machnes or equpment to prevent unexpected energzaton, start-up or reease of
stored
energy. The empoyer must be abe to demonstrate that the tag-out devce provdes an
equvaent
eve of safety to the ock-out devce n that partcuar stuaton." Consut the OSHA webste
for
the U.S. Department of Labor at www.osha.gov .
Speca precautons shoud be taken near hgh votages and ghtng components such as HID
capactors that may retan ther eectrc change after the system has been de-energzed. See
OHSA.
A forms of fts, scahods, and adders must meet OSHA standards for constructon and use.
Portabe scahods, teescopng scahods, and personne fts are typcay safer than adders,
by
provdng a rmer footng and space for toos, repacement tems, and ceanng materas.
Ladders
used for ghtng mantenance shoud not be made from materas that conduct eectrcty,
such as
aumnum. Stts are sometmes used for mantenance of ow cengs or ow-mounted
umnares.
,.1&(
;%()%*%) >a+ardous Materia!s >and!ing
Breakage of mercury-contanng amps - Mercury vapor s most hazardous when amps are
operabe. When a uorescent or meta hade amp contanng mercury gas s broken, the
foowng safety procedure s recommended. Cear the areas for 10 mnutes; turn oh AC so
that
mercury vapor does not spread; ush the area wth fresh ar: use an N95 resprator mask
and
gogges and goves to sweep the partces nto a gass |ar. Doube wrap n a paper bag.
Dspose of
as hazardous waste. Cean area and cothes. Dscard goves.
Hazardous waste amps are cassed by the U.S. Envronmenta Protecton Agency (EPA) as
those fang the EPA Toxcty Characterstc Leachng Procedure (TCLP) for ands, and
ncude uorescent, hgh pressure sodum, meta hade, mercury vapor, and neon amps (f
they
contan mercury). The EPA revsed ther rues about mercury-contanng amps n 2000,
aowng
the foowng three optons:
Mercury-contanng amps must pass the TCLP test
Must be treated as hazardous waste n storage, handng, coecton, and transportaton
Must be managed under the unversa waste rue (40 CFR 273), .e., recyced.
The unversa waste rue aows for dsposa of hazardous amps n sma quanttes.
However,
snce the Federa government dsposes of such hgh voumes of waste, ths practce shoud
not
be foowed. Recycng costs about $0.35 to $1.50 per 4-foot amp dependng on quantty
and
ad|unct servces. See www.amprecyce.org for amp dsposa reguatons and sts of recycers.
Hazardous waste and costs are about $0.25 to $0.50 per 4-foot amp, not countng
storage,
coecton, and transportaton fees - costs that are generay more expensve than for
recycng.
Dherent states, (e.g., CA, CT, FL, ME, MI, PA, RI, VT) have more strngent reguatons and
do
not even aow ow-mercury amps (.e., amps passng the TCLP test) n ands.
Magnetc baasts wth PCBs n the capactors can st be found n oder nstaatons, even
though they were banned from beng manufactured or dstrbuted after 1978. A baasts
produced after that date are ceary abeed "No PCBs." PCBs are cassed by the EPA as a
hazardous waste under the Toxc Substances Contro Act of 1976 (TSCA) secton of ther
reguatons, whch requres dsposa of the capactor n a Federay-approved ncnerator.
Baasts
that are not eakng can be recyced. Whether or not the baast s eakng ud, the budng
manager shoud use a quaed dsposa contractor who s aware of a PCB-reated hazards.
The budng manager and the waste or recycng contractor must keep proper
documentaton and
chan of possesson records. Audtng the contractor and revewng the contractors cosure
pan
(for transton of materas f the contractor goes out of busness) s recommended pror to
sgnng
a contract and every few years afterwards.
,.1&*
;%()%3 Energ" E$$icienc"' 4avings' and 6ost
Ways to mantan performance and mprove system emcency through panned mantenance,
response to compants, retrot, and redesgn are descrbed n ths secton.
;%()%3%( P!anned versus Reactive Maintenance
Lghtng systems are ntentonay overdesgned to account for osses n ght output that w
occur over tme. Thus, the nta ght eves are hgher than needed, n order to ensure that the
mantaned ght eves do not fa beow desgn recommendatons over tme. The determnaton
of
overdesgn depends on ght oss factors (LLF) that ncude assumptons for ceanng and
reampng
xtures at reguar ntervas, that s, a program of panned ghtng mantenance.
Lumnares requred = Lghted area x desred mantaned umnance
Inta amp umens x umnare utzaton emcency x LLF
Panned mantenance can mprove the LLF, reducng the number of umnares requred.
Reactve mantenance, .e., repacng amps or baasts when they fa, w not keep umnaton
at the desred eves. Foowng a panned mantenance program s essenta to the success of
any
ghtng system.
A panned mantenance program can reduce the degree of overdesgn, resutng n sgncant
reductons n rst cost of equpment and n energy consumpton. It can aso mprove safety,
securty,
and the vsua appearance of the spaces.
A proactve, panned mantenance program ncudes the foowng:
Ceanng of amps, umnares, and room surfaces at reguar ntervas
Group reampng on a schedued bass of a umnares n an area, wth spot reampng n
between. One ceanng can be performed n con|uncton wth reampng
Inspecton and repar of ghtng equpment at reguar ntervas
Inspecton and re-cabraton of ghtng contros at reguar ntervas
Re-evauaton of ghtng system and potenta upgrades. An upgrade may repace a group
reampng cyce. w
=ecoverable light loss factors #??6( are those that can be fuy or partay returned to
nta
performance by proper mantenance. They ncude the foowng:
wLa'p urnouts 6LO7. "Rated Lamp Lfe" s provded by the manufacturer and represents
the
pont n tme when 50% of a group of amps have burned out under controed testng wth
amps
swtched on 12-hour ntervas. These are usefu n determnng exacty when group reampng
nterva s most economca (typcay at about 70% to 80% of rated amp fe for uorescent,
see
Fgure 9.12.5). Extended fe uorescent amps are avaabe wth 20% to 50% onger rated
fe.
Frequent swtchng of uorescent amps (more than ve on-oh cyces per day) may greaty
reduce
amp fe, uness the cathodes are protected by a "programmed -start" baast.
,.1&+
wLa'p Lu'en *epreciation 6LL*7. Lamp umen deprecaton presents the decrease n
ght
output of a amp over tme. Lamp cataogues provde both "nta umens" and "mean
umens,"
the former measured after 100 hours, and the atter occurrng at 40% of the rated amp
fe. New,
hgh performance T8 amps retan more of ther umen output than other sources (about
92%),
whe HPS retans ony about 70% and meta hade about 65%. Mercury Vapor and LEDs
have
the greatest fa oh n ght output, so athough they have onger rated ves, t makes more
sense
to consder repacng them before the end of ther "usefu" fe.
Lu'inaire *irt *epreciation 6L**7. Drt and dust that settes on amps and umnare not
ony
reduce the output but can aso change the dstrbuton of a umnare (Levn 2002). The
LDD
factor used n ghtng cacuatons depends on
- The type of umnare (open but unventated, and a others)
- The ceanness of the envronment
- The antcpated ceanng schedue
- See the IESNA RP-36-03 ceanng curves and equatons to determne the best ceanng
schedue. In a cean envronment, some encosed and ventated umnares can be
ceaned
every 24 to 30 months, resutng n ess than 10% ght oss (.e., a LDD of 0.9). An open
umnare wthout ventaton woud have to be ceaned every 12 months to keep the
ght
oss at the same eve. In a "drty" envronment, umnares requre ceanng every 6
months
to a year to keep ght osses above 20% (.e., a LDD of 0.8).
w#oo' Sur<ace *irt *epreciation 6#S**7. The reectve characterstcs of the nteror
nshes
can have a arge mpact on the emcency of the ghtng system and the quaty and
comfort of the
ght provded. Lght eves can be better mantaned by reguar ceanng of the work
surfaces. In
exstng factes, ght output, comfort, and ghtng quaty can be mproved by repantng
the
was a ghter coor.
>on"recoverable light loss factors ncude:
Baast osses (the dherence between rated
amp wattage and the actua nput wattage)
Suppy votage varatons
Ambent temperature of umnare and
surrounds
Lumnare surface deteroraton - Permanent
deteroraton of umnare
surfaces can be
mnmzed by the wse speccaton of
nshes
for umnare nterors and reectors.
Fgure 9.12.5. Fuorescent amp mortaty curve
,.1&,
;%()%3%) Response to 6op!aints
Perhaps the greatest cause of ghtng energy waste s contros that do not reduce energy
consumpton because they have faed or are mpropery cabrated, or ghtng contros that have
been over-rdden or dsabed rather than cabrated correcty. For exampe, an empoyee
compans
that the dayght dmmng s too abrupt, or resuts n ght eves that are too ow. Rather than
nvestgatng the probem and xng t, or provdng the empoyee wth an addtona task ght,
ether
the stah cuts the contro wres so the ghts w not dm, or sets the sensor settngs so hgh that
the
ghts w not dm, or the empoyee puts tape over the ght sensor so that the ghts w not dm.
Whe t s possbe that a contro system has been poory desgned and can never be cabrated
we
enough to satsfy the occupants, every ehort shoud be made to work wth the contro
manufacturer
and the system desgner to acheve the proper baance between energy savngs and user
acceptance.
The easy way out of dsabng the ohendng system can have a vast mpact on the energy
savngs, and
may even mpact on coong oads that were desgned on the bass of reduced ghtng
consumpton.
;%()%3%* Retro$it versus Redesign
Retrot s typcay descrbed as repacement of components (amps, baasts, reectors,
enses,
even umnares) n the same housng or ocaton as the orgna ghtng equpment. Redesgn s
typcay descrbed as new umnares n some new ocatons. On the surface, retrot may appear
to be
the cheapest and easest path, but n fact s not aways the most cost-ehectve strategy. Retrot
may
not be the best souton f:
Exstng ghtng quaty s poor
Exstng ght eves are too ow or contrast between brght and dark areas s too hgh
Exstng ghtng does not ght was or work parttons
Exstng umnare ocatons produce umnaton that s not unform
Exstng umnare spacng s too wde and/or parta heght parttons obstruct the ght.
Lumnare spacng or ocatons are napproprate for current or proposed use or furnture
ayouts
Exstng room surfaces or furnture are dark n coor
Retrot optons w narrow the dstrbuton of ght or essen the ght eves on vertca
surfaces.
If "retrot" st seems ke the best opton, consut the IESBA >idelines for Fpgrading
"ighting
Systems in #ommercial and Instittional Spaces (LEM-3-07), avaabe at www.esna.org .
Otherwse, consder redesgnng the ghtng ayouts and reconsderng the types of umnares
f any of the exstng condtons make the space unsutabe for retrot. The trend of
mprovements
n ghtng technooges can create cost-ehectve opportuntes for upgradng the ghtng n
Federa
factes, even f they have been upgraded n the ast 5 to 10 years. For exampe, hgh
performance
T8 amps and baasts coud save 10% to 15% over standard T8s nstaed ony 8 years ago.
At the very east, hgher performance amps shoud be consdered for the next schedued
group
reampng.
Upgrade amps (and baasts) nstead of group reampng
,.1'0
Unform ght dstrbuton foowng maxmum spacng crteron.
Spacng crteron does not account for parta heght parttons.
Ad|usted spacng crteron and mountng heght to accommodate parttons.
Fgure 9.12.6. Lghtng unformty and xture spacng crtera.
,.1'1
When consderng a retrot or redesgn, t s mportant to keep n mnd the mportance of the
quaty of the ghtng n a space. Lghtng quaty s |ust as mportant, and oftentmes more so
than
quantty of umnaton. The IESNA Handbook, Nnth Edton, Chapter 10, contans ghtng
desgn gudes for a wde range of space functons. These outne the most mportant quatatve
needs, as we as the recommended ght eves for each functon.
Unformty - There shoud not be a wde range of dherences between the hghest and owest
brghtness n the space. The exstence of parta heght furnture parttons may sgncanty
reduce unformty, requrng a coser spacng or wder dstrbuton of umnares. Avod harsh
shadows or patterns (see Fgure 9.12.6).
Spacng Crteron - Manufacturers provde the maxmum spacng between umnares that
w mantan acceptabe unformty. However, ths "spacng crteron" assumes that a room s
unobstructed. If a room has parta heght furnture parttons, ta es, or other obstructons,
the spacng crteron shoud be reduced by a factor of 0.75 to 0.85.
Lghtng Was and Cengs - The percepton of occupants that the ghtng s too brght,
comfortabe, or too dm s based more on the brghtness of the room surfaces and vertca
parttons than that of the task or desktop. A ghtng system shoud be desgned to dstrbute
ght to the was and cengs as we as the task. A ght coored room can ncrease ght eves
as much as 20% over a dark coored room. Ceanng the wa surfaces mproves emcency,
especay n a "drty" envronment, but repantng a wa wth a ghter coor w show much
greater mprovement.
Gare - Excessve contrasts n ght cause gare. It most often occurs when a brght ght
source (ncudng wndows) nterfere wth the vewng of ess brght ob|ects. Exstng
condtons of gare can be mtgated, or gare prevented n retrots, by some of the foowng
recommendatons:
- Shed the amp from vew wth bames, ouvers, enses, or dhusng overays. Use ony sem-
specuar or whte panted ouvers and reectors.
- Increase the reectances of room surfaces by usng ghter coored pants and fabrcs n a
matte or eggshe nsh.
- Use ow output (hgh-emcency) amps n the ed of vew. T5HO amps are very brght and
best used n ndrect appcatons.
- Decrease the contrast between xtures and cengs by addng upght or seectng
umnares
wth an upght component.
Coor - For amost any task, coor dscrmnaton ads vsbty. L ght sources are typcay
descrbed by ther "correated coor temperature (CCT)" and ther coor renderng ndex
(CRI). For most workpaces, use uorescent amps n the 80 to 85 CRI range, and meta hade
amps at 80 and hgher. For most workspaces, CCT between 3500 and 4100 are acceptabe.
For reference, 3000 Kevn CCT s warm, 3500 K s neutra, and 4100 K and hgher become
ncreasngy coo n appearance. Sunght s n the 4000 to 6000K range, and dayght s n the
5000 to 10,000 K range.
,.1'2
;%()%3%3 Energ" 6odes
The current energy code appcabe to a Federa budngs s 10 CFR 434 ("Energy Code for
New
Federa Commerca and Mut-Famy Hgh Rse Resdenta Budngs"). Ths code s smar n
requrements to the ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1-2001 standard for commerca budngs (ANSI/
ASHRAE/IESNA 2001). It s expected to be upgraded to reference the current standard, whch
has
mts on connected oad up to 30% more strngent. Ths w have a bg mpact on ma|or
renovatons
n Federa factes. The ghtng porton of the energy code has three components -
determnaton
of a whoe pro|ect nteror ghtng power aowance, determnaton of an exteror power
aowance,
and mandatory requrements for ghtng contros and exteror amp emcences.
;%()%5 Maintenance Procedures
;%()%5%( 6oissioning
"Commssonng" s dened as
the entre process of quaty assurance
of a ghtng system that begns
wth
proper desgn and speccatons,
and concudes wth cabraton,
ne
tunng, amng, documentaton,
montorng, and vercaton and
that
the system operates and saves energy
as ntended, and s acceptabe to
the
occupants. Even f a ghtng
system
was carefuy commssoned pror
to
occupancy, certan components of
t
shoud be recommssoned at ntervas
rangng from 2 to 5 years to
ensure
that t s operatng as ntended. In
addton, as tasks or occupants change
wthn the budng, ghtng contros
and even some ght eves may
need
ad|ustment. The specc ghtng
reated recommendatons beow
pertan equay to commssonng
or recommssonng - to the nta
desgn, or to any retrot, upgrade, or
redesgn of the ghtng system.
Lghtng Emcency Consderatons
(UNEP 2006)
Reduce excessve umnaton eves to standard eves
usng
swtchng, deampng, etc. (Know the eectrca ehects
before
dong deampng.)
Aggressvey contro ghtng wth cock tmers, deay tmers,
photoces, and/or occupancy sensors.
Insta emcent aternatves to ncandescent ghtng,
mercury
vapor ghtng, etc. Emcency (umens/watt) of varous
technooges range from best to worst approxmatey as
foows: ow pressure sodum, hgh pressure sodum, meta
hade, uorescent, mercury vapor, ncandescent.
Seect baasts and amps carefuy wth hgh power factor and
ong-term emcency n mnd obsoete uorescent systems to
Compact uorescents and eectronc baasts.
Consder owerng the xtures to enabe usng ess of them.
Consder day ghtng, skyghts.
Consder pantng the was a ghter coor and usng ess
ghtng xtures or ower wattages.
Use task ghtng and reduce background umnaton.
Re-evauate exteror ghtng strategy, type,and contro. w Contro
t aggressvey.
Change ext sgns from ncandescent to LED.
A commssonng pan contans the foowng eements: desgn ntent, desgn features,
cabraton
eves, methods of vercaton, documentaton requrements, schedues, and
checksts.
Estabsh schedues for reampng, ceanng, recabraton, and reevauaton of the ghtng
system.
Intervas for recommssonng shoud be based on the type of equpment. See ghtng
contros beow. w
,.1'3
Specfy that the baasts and ghtng contros be factory pre-set to the greatest extent
possbe.
Ths sha not remove the responsbty from the contractor for ed cabraton f t s needed.
Specfy cabraton eves to the extent they can be known pror to nstaaton.
Amng - Some ghtng equpment s senstve to orentaton, such as spotght, wa washers,
and occupancy sensors. A "pre-amng dagram" can be speced or requested pror to
nstaaton, so that the contractor can make reasonabe ad|ustments to the equpment durng
the
nta nstaaton.
Cabraton - If cabraton settngs were not speced ntay, the facty manager shoud
contact the manufacturer of contro equpment drecty for assstance.
Ensure that the commssonng s compete PRIOR to budng occupancy. E ven a few days of
an mpropery cabrated contro devce can turn occupants aganst the system, resutng n
huge
energy waste.
;%()%5%) 6oon 6auses o$ Poor Per$orance
Some mantenance tems such as swrng amps or noperabe baasts are obvousy n need
of
mmedate attenton and repar (see troubeshootng beow).
Of more serous concern are systems that are mpropery cabrated or not beng mantaned
on a
panned bass resutng n energy waste and/or poor ghtng quaty. These hdden factors
ncude:
Drt accumuaton on umnares or room surfaces that has sgncanty reduced ght output.
Oder amps that have not burned out but output fewer umens than the system desgn
assumptons.
Lamps that are st operatng, but have passed ther "usefu" fe, such as meta hades and
LEDs.
Dmmng or stepped baasts that are mswred or faed by defautng to fu output.
Contros that were never propery cabrated or have faen out of correct cabraton.
Contros or power packs that have faed and defauted to contnuous on.
Moton sensors or ght sensors that have been dsabed by the occupants.
Contros that have been overrdden or dsabed (rather than recabrated) by the budng stah
n
response to compants.
;%()%5%* 6!eaning
The ntent of ceanng amps, umnares, and room surfaces s to return them to ther orgna
condton recoverng any nterm osses n ght output. It s mportant to use the proper ceanng
compounds and strateges, so that umnare surfaces are not damaged. Dherent surfaces
requre
dherent ceanng compounds. In eu of manufacturers nstructons, the foowng represents
some
gudance.
,.1'&
Never cean amps that are operatona or st hot.
Use very md soaps and ceaners, foowed by a cean rnse on most surfaces. Sver ms
requre
the mdest 0.5 % souton and a soft damp coth. Avod strong akane ceaners or
abrasves
ceaners.
Gass ceaners may be used on porcean or gass but the atter requres an addtona cear
rnse.
To avod statc charge on pastcs, use ant-statc ceanng compounds. Do not dry-wpe
pastc
after a rnse, as ths w create an eectrostatc charge. Drp-dryng creates streaks.
Vacuumng s
the best method for dryng pastcs.
;%()%5%3 Lap and Ba!!ast Trou#!eshooting
The most common probems assocated wth amps and baasts are:
Lamps w not ght or start erratcay or sowy.
Premature faure or amp fe shorter than expected.
Deposts, dscooraton, dark spots, or streaks of the amps.
Bnkng, swrng, utterng, sprang, unexpected dmmng.
Lght output or coor degradaton sooner that expected.
Bsterng/bugng on the bub.
Lamp cycng on and oh.
Baast nose.
The Iumnatng Engneerng Socety of North Amerca (IESNA) and the nterNatona
Assocaton of Lghtng Management Companes (NALMCO) have deveoped a |ont pubcaton
tted *ecommended Practice for Planned Indoor "ighting Maintenance (IESNA/NALMCO RP-36-
03).
It contans troubeshootng gudance for ncandescent, uorescent, and HID amps and
baasts. Ths
matera s excerpted from troubeshootng gudes orgnay pubshed n Illminations, a
NALMCO
pubcaton. It s avaabe eectroncay or as a pubcaton at www.esna.org.
O
&
M
Be
st
Pr
ac
tices Guide, Release 3.0
,.1''

;%()%5%5 Lighting 6ontro!s 6a!i#ration and Trou#!eshooting
-alibration
Evauate ghtng contros annuay to determne f they are n need of recabraton see
Fgure 9.12.7. Seek advce from manufacturers of contros. Document a settngs and dates of
recabraton. Seek the optmum baance between energy savngs and occupant satsfacton. For
some strateges, ke dayghtng contros, cabratons strateges vary wdey by manufacturer.
Fgure 9.12.7. Cabratons for contros
!roubleshooting
Occupanc$ sensors turn lig%ts DonE 8%en t%e$ are not needed. Is the sensor
respondng to
movement n the corrdor outsde the omce, currents from the ar dhusers, or t s causng the
ghts
to burn even when dayght s sumcent or preferred. Utrasonc sensors are more prone to fase
on,
but ess prone to fase ohs, because they are more senstve to subte movement ke occupants
typng
or wrtng.
Start wth ad|ustng (reducng) the senstvty settng sghty, reducng the sensors senstvty
to
moton, wthout creatng a probem wth fase ohs.
If the occupants are agreeabe, settng the sensor to manua "on" operaton (f t s connected
to,
or ntegra wth, a oca swtch) s the most energy emcent and ncreases amp fe.
Mask the sensor so that t does not "see" moton outsde the room.
,.1'(
Control Type
(a)
Calibration
Notes
Occupancy sensors ceiling-
mounted
Time delay: 15 minutes
Sensitivity: Medium high
1,2
Wall-box occupancy sensors Manual-on Auto-of
Sensitivity: Medium
1,3
Daylight dimming High illuminance before dimming begins
Fade rate: 1 minute
Sensitivity: See manufacturer
4
Daylight switching Time delay: 10 minutes
Dead band: 15 footcandles
Sensitivity: See manufacturer
5
Manual dimming High end trim at 95% (incandescent only) 6
Automatic dimming Time delay
Fade rate
7
Pre-set dimming Time delay
Fade rate
7
Automatic timers
Astronomical time clocks
On and of times, difer for weekends, holidays.
Multiple
settings depend on space function and occupancy.
8
a) Start with these settings and adjust upward and downward as required. (1) Time delays shorter than 15 minutes are likely to shorten lamp life unless programmed
ballasts are installed. (2) Wire ceiling sensors to an automatic or Sentry-type switch for manual on operation. (3) Ensure that occupancy sensors can be set to manual
on without over-riding the automatic of functionality. (4) Set the illuminance level 20% to 30% higher than the designed light level for the electric lighting. Thus,
if 30 footcandles of electric light is provided, lamps should not start to dim until the daylight and electric light together provide 36 to 39 footcandles on the desktop.
(5) Photosensor controlled switching or multi-level switching (sometimes called stepped dimming) is seldom acceptable to occupants in full time work environments.
Set a wide dead-band of at least 15 footcandles to prevent cycling. (6) Slightly reducing the maximum light output of an incandescent lamp extends lamp life. It is
not recommended for halogen lamps and is not efective with fuorescent sources. (7) Settings will depend on specifc application. Time delays and fade rates are
not recommended for pre-sets that are controlled by the occupants (rather than part of an automated program or AV sequence) because if the occupants do not see an
immediate response, they often repeatedly turn lights on and of or try other pre-sets. (8) More energy is saved by tailoring the timeclocks more closely to the specifc
spaces being controlled and by providing more discrete schedules, i.e., one for Saturday and one for Sunday, rather than the same for the weekend.
Occupanc$ sensors turn lig%ts DoFE 8%en occupants are
still in t%e space.
Check to conrm that sensor s not n test mode.
Increase the senstvty settng.
Increase the tme deay, but not onger than 30
mnutes.
Consder repacng nfrared sensor wth more senstve
utrasonc sensors.
Fgure 9.12.8. Ceng occupancy
sensor. w
Evauate the number and dstrbuton of the exstng sensors and verfy f the coverage s
sumcent. (Parta heght parttons and other vertca obstructons must be taken nto
consderaton.) w
*a$lig%ting controls di' t%e lig%ts too 'uc%.
Verfy ght eves. I f they meet desgn crtera, the probem may be one of wndow gare or
excessve contrast. Verfy that bnds are adequate to contro gare. Dhuse shades may be
too
brght when sun hts them.
Maxmze the "fade rate." Dmmng shoud be smooth and contnuous and not perceptbe
to the
occupants. Verfy wth manufacturer that product has a "contnuous" dmmng response,
not a
"threshod" dmmng response. The atter s approprate for spaces ke warehouses, but
not for
omces or spaces wth statonary workers.
Increase tme deay to 10 mnutes so that ghts do not respond to sudden changes ke
coud
movements near the sun, or peope wakng under the photosensor.
Verfy that the photoce s propery ocated over a space that does not change from day to
day,
ke the carpet of ases between cubces or an unadorned wa. A photoce over a desktop
w
respond to the ob|ects on a desk or the occupants cothng, and may dm ghts more on
days that
the occupant wears a whte shrt.
Re-cabrate the photosensor at nght and agan durng hours of dayght. Foow
manufacturers
procedure.
Fluorescent la'ps =ic(er 8%en di''ing ballasts are at t%e lo8est end o< t%e
di''ing range.
Consut the baast manufacturer and verfy wrng s correct.
Repace the baasts.
If the probem s extensve or attrbutabe to the sgna sent by the photosensor, ncrease
the
owest settng, but not hgher than 30%. w
;%()%5%8 Diagnostic Too!s
Unke many HVAC systems and components, ghtng equpment and systems tend to be
fary stabe once nstaed and commssoned. Dagnostcs s, therefore, generay appcabe
ony
perodcay or when budng needs change. However, when ntatng any O&M program or
assessment of budng energy "heath," t s mportant and can be very protabe to evauate
ghtng
condtons and equpment.
,.1'*
Generay, the dagnostcs of ghtng systems nvoves the evauaton of the basc
characterstcs
of ghtng:
Ouaty and quantty of ght.
Equpment types and emcency, condton, and ceanness.
Contro condton/settngs.
Energy usage.
For some of these characterstcs, vsua nspecton and physca testng s approprate and
requres
no speca toos. For others some basc toos can be hepfu.
9lluminance #light( meter - Iumnance meters are often referred to as a "ght meters"
whch
s a generc term that aso ncudes the meters used by photographers (whch s not what s
needed
for budng ghtng). Iumnance meters come n many styes at a range of costs. Most w do an
adequate |ob of evauatng basc ght eves n budng spaces. Lght eves shoud be taken at
the
spaces where the specc tasks are to be performed such as desktops for omce work, haway
oors for
egress, etc.
Lght eves w change over tme as amps age. However, wth modern equpment ths s a
reatvey sght ehect and s not typcay consdered a metrc used to make changes to
equpment or
repace amps. The most mportant measurement of ght eves s an evauaton when systems
are
ntay nstaed, equpment changes are made, or an O&M program s ntated. Lght eves that
are hgher than necessary to provde approprate ghtng or hgher than desgned are an
opportunty
for energy savngs as ght eve and kWh usage are drecty reated.
The requred ght eves (umnance) for budng areas w depend on the expected tasks.
The wdey accepted and referenced quaty and umnance recommendatons are deveoped by
the
Iumnatng Engneerng Socety of North Amerca (IESNA), and can be found n Chapter 10 of the
IESNA Handbook, Nnth Edton. The budng tenants or other reguatory organzatons may aso
have specc requrements for the actvtes to be performed n the budng.
Energy:lighting:occupancy loggers - Measurements of ndvdua ghtng xtures or
panes
can provde specc ghtng power nformaton that f tracked over tme can hep dentfy contros
savngs opportuntes. However, the equpment to support these contnuous measurements can
be
expensve to nsta and mantan. Less costy optons that provde smar usefu resuts are
ndvdua
ghtng oggers than can measure ghtng on/oh schedues for ong perods of tme wth the
capabty
to downoad the data to any computer for anayss. Ths knd of data can dentfy areas where
ghtng
s eft on after hours. Smar occupancy based oggers can speccay dentfy ghtng that
remans
on when spaces are unoccuped. Ths nformaton can be used to dentfy overt spaces as we
as
good appcatons for occupancy sensor contros. These oggers are avaabe from a varety of
sources.
These can be found on the word-wde web or n the report, Porta,le 8ata "oggers 8iagnostic
Tools for
EnergyGE%cient <ilding &perations (PECI 1999).
6lic1er chec1er - For hard-to-reach areas (hgh cengs), t s often dmcut to determne the
type of ghtng nstaed (eectronc, magnetc baast). There s a smpe too avaabe to hep
determne the characterstcs of baast type (and therefore often amp type) nstaed. A common
verson of ths too s a "cker checker" used to determne eectronc versus eectromagnetc
baasts
,.1'+
avaabe from Syvana (1-800-544-4828). It operates ke a smpe toy top and w ndcate
whether
the operatng baast above s a 60 Hz type or eectronc hgh frequency type. Typcay the 60
Hz type
w be operatng T12 technoogy amps. The hgh frequency may be operatng T12 or T8
technoogy.
Solar data - When consderng the appcaton of dayghtng nto budng spaces, t s
mportant to understand the potenta of the budng space and the capabty of the sun n
your
area to provde adequate dayght. Ths nvoves evauatng the tasks n the space,
characterzng
the conguraton of the space ncudng sze and shape of wndows or skyghts, and
assessment
of the soar avaabty n your ocaton. Soar avaabty data s mantaned by the Natona
Oceanographc and Atmospherc Assocaton (NOAA) at www.noaa.gov. Avaabe data ncudes
number of hours of sunshne, number of cear, overcast, and partay coudy days n a number
of ctes
across the Unted States based on weather charts. Exteror umnaton of sun and dayght
can be
found for any U.S. attude through the IESNA dayght avaabty pubcaton or the ASHRAE
handbook. Sun anges can be determned by the Pkngton LOF Sun Ange Cacuator, avaabe
from www.sbse.org/resources/sac/ .
;%()%5%9 Econoics
Operatons and mantenance actvtes and equpment represent rea costs to a facty and
must
be evauated ke any other proposed acton.
Some potenta actons can be evauated usng smpe methods to provde approprate
cost-
ehectveness anayss such as the repacement of ncandescent ext sgns wth reduced-
wattage
LED sgns. The cost of energy saved s easy to cacuate based on the wattage dherence, 24-
hour
operaton, and oca utty rates. The cost of the new ext sgn dvded by the cost savngs
provdes
a smpe measure of the tme requred to pay oh the new sgn wth energy savngs (payback
perod).
Ths s often a that s needed to determne whether the repacement s a good dea.
In other cases, more compcated anayss s requred. Large cost tems such as more
advanced
contro systems may requre onger term nvestment spannng many years. These types of
nvestment
decsons w often requre more comprehensve cost anayss that nvoves more parameters
to
determne ther cost-ehectveness. These often ncude:
Instaaton costs
Equpment fe
Repacement equpment cost
Repacement abor
Interest rate
Fue cost
Fue escaaton rates.
Wth more advanced resutng anayss metrcs such as:
Return on nvestment
Lfe-cyce cost.
,.1',
Software toos are avaabe from many sources to perform ths type of anayss. The Federay
supported Budng Lfe Cyce Cost (BLCC5) too for advanced economc anayss s one such too
that s avaabe from the USDOE at www.eere.energy.gov/femp/nformaton/downoad_bcc.cfm .
;%()%8 Lighting 6hec@!ist
,.1(0
2escription -omments Maintenance 6requency
Vsua nspecton Inspect xtures to dentfy
noperabe
or fauty amps or baasts.
Burned-
Weeky to monthy
Vsua nspecton Inspect xtures and contros to
dentfy excessve drt, degraded
enses,
noperabe or nehectve
Sem-annuay
Cean amps and xtures Lamps and xture reectve
surfaces
shoud be ceaned perodcay
for
6 to 30 months, dependng on
space
and umnare type
Cean was and cengs Cean surfaces aow maxmum
dstrbuton of ght wthn the
space
1 to 3 years, dependng on
drtness of
Repace degraded enses or
ouvers
Repace yeowed, staned, or
broken
As dented
Repant was and repace
cengs
Lghter coored surfaces w
ncrease
ght dstrbuton emcency
As dented or at tenant
change
Repace burned out amps For arger factes consder
group
As needed or on group schedue
Evauate amps and baasts for
potenta upgrade
Rapd change n technoogy
may
resut n sgncant savngs
Every ve years or on group
reampng
schedue
Survey ghtng use/umnaton
eves
Measure ght eves compared
to
tasks needs n typca spaces.
Identfy
Intay and at task/tenant
change
Survey for dayghtng capabty Identfy areas where dayghtng
contros coud be used
One-tme anayss or at tenant
change
Survey for oca contros
capabty
Identfy areas where oca
automatc
Intay and at tasks/tenant
change
;%()%9 Re$erences
10 CFR 434. U.S. Department of Energy. "Energy Code for New Federa Commerca and Mut-
Famy Hgh Rse Resdenta Budngs." F7S7 #ode of Federal *eglations.
40 CFR 273. U.S. Envronmenta Protecton Agency. "Standards for Unversa Waste
Management." F7S7 #ode of Federal *eglations.
Advanced "ighting >idelines, New Budngs Insttute, 2003, avaabe from www.nb.org .
ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA. 2001. Energy Standard for <ildings E?cept "o9G*ise *esidential
<ildings,
ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2001 Amercan Socety of Heatng, Refrgeraton and Ar-
Condtonng Engneers (ASHRAE).
8aylight 8esign N Smart and Simple, Eectrc Power Research Insttute (EPRI) TR-109720, 1997,
avaabe from www.esna.org .
88# "ighting Dand,oo-. 2004. New York Cty Department of Desgn and Constructon.
IESBA >idelines for Fpgrading "ighting Systems in #ommercial and Instittional Spaces (LEM-
3-07),
avaabe at www.esna.org .
Levn, R.E., W.E. Bracket, N. Frank, |. Burke. 2002. "Fed study of umnare drt deprecaton."
Rornal of the IES 31(2):26.
"ighting #ontrols N Patterns for 8esign, Eectrc Power Research Insttute (EPRI) TR-107230,
1996,
avaabe from www.esna.org .
Prepared
for the U.S. Envronmenta Protecton Agency and U.S. Department of Energy by Portand
Energy
Conservaton, Incorporated, Portand, Oregon.
*ecommended Practice for Planned Indoor "ighting Maintenance (IESNA/NALMCO RP-36-03).
|ont pubcaton of the Iumnatng Engneerng Socety of North Amerca (IESNA) and the
nterNatona Assocaton of Lghtng Management Companes (NALMCO), avaabe from
www.esna.org .
Toxc Substances Contro Act. 15 USC Z601 et. seq. (1976).
Program.
Washngton, D.C.
O
&
M
Be
st
Pr
ac
tices Guide, Release 3.0
,.1(1
Chapter 10 O&M Fronters
As od a topc as O&M s, there are a number of new technooges and toos targetng the
ncreased emcency of O&M. As wth most new technoogy ntroducton, these toos are n
varous
stages of commercazaton; for up-to-date nformaton on each too, contact nformaton s
provded
n ths chapter.
As prevousy mentoned, we are not abe to provde a detaed descrpton of a toos and
technooges avaabe. What we do provde are some of the more common toos that are
currenty
commercay avaabe. To ocate addtona resources, the authors recommend contactng
reevant
trade groups, databases, and the word-wde web.
(=%( A6RC >andtoo!/>one"-e!! ><A6 4ervice Assistant
Deveoped by Fed Dagnostc Servces, Inc., the "HVAC Servce Assstant" too was
desgned
to provde advanced dagnostcs for rooftop and packaged HVAC equpment. The too
combnes
a handhed PDA and mutpe pressure/temperature gauges nto a snge too that provdes
expert
dagnostc anayss of HVAC equpment to the servce techncan. Ths unt automates the
detecton
and dagnoss of probems dmcut to dentfy n compressors, heat exchangers, and expanson
vaves,
as we as cacuatng the mpact of the defect on the emcency and capacty of the unt -
expressng
as the potenta energy savngs that can be acheved through ehectve mpementaton of the
suggested dagnoss. The product aso provdes detaed reportng of a actvty performed on
the unt
and can be used to ensure quaty of servce from the contractor/mantenance stah. Some of
the too
features and appcatons are sted beow - for the most current nformaton we suggest
contactng
the company drecty.
5ool <eatures:
Automated data coecton
Integrated faut detecton
Cacuaton and dspay of system emcency and capacty
Detaed Ouaty of Servce and Return on Investment reportng
5ool Applications:
Packaged coong systems ncudng roof-top unts
Spt systems/resdenta and commerca ar condtonng
Coong and heat sde of heat pump systems
Commssonng and tune-ups of a of the above unts
For more nformaton about the HVAC Servce Assstant
Contact Fed Dagnostcs at: (267) 583-6330 Ext 10 or damb@eddagnostcs.com
http://www.eddagnostcs.com/servceassstant.cfm
10.1
O&M 5rontiers
(=%) Decision 4upport $or O&M 0D4OMI1
The DSOM too s a condton-based O&M hardware and software program desgned to provde
facty stah wth ntutve actons to mpement emcent, fe-cyce asset management. DSOM
was
deveoped by researchers at the U.S. Department of Energys Pacc Northwest Natona
Laboratory
(PNNL).
Based on the concept of condton-based management, DSOM focuses on ndng the baance
between hgh-producton rates, machne stress, and faure. DSOM aows onne condton
montorng of equpment and provdes eary warnng sgns of degraded performance. DSOMs
dagnostc capabtes empower the operatons stah to become the rst ne of mantenance.
Moreover, a customzed, ntegrated database, and ntutve access system provde the
nformaton a
stah need to make nformed decsons about how to operate ther pant more ehectvey.
Dramatc
savngs are achevabe because DSOM (1) mproves process emcency, (2) cuts mantenance
costs,
(3) extends equpment fe, and (4) reduces energy consumpton and assocated harmfu
emssons.
The DSOM technoogy was deveoped under government research fundng from the U.S.
Department of Energy. In 1994, t was nstaed at the centra heatng pant of the Marne Corps
Ar Ground Combat Center n Twentynne Pams, Caforna. Impementaton at Twentynne Pams
estabshed proof of prncpe and vercaton of vaue. Recent nstaatons have been competed
at Marne Corp Recrutng Dstrct Parrs Isand, the Aberdeen Provng Grounds and a arge metro-
potan pubc housng pro|ect. Some of the too features and appcatons are sted beow - for
the
most current nformaton we suggest contactng the company drecty.
5ool <eatures:
On-ne condton montorng
Integrated dagnostcs and faut detecton
Rea-tme notcaton of degradaton and nemcency
5ool Applications:
Heatng, ventaton, ar condtonng systems
Centra pants
Snge budng, campus and mutpe budng/process factes
For more nformaton about DSOM
Contact Darre Hatey (509) 375-2136
www.pn.gov/dsom/
(=%* ENFORMAI Porta#!e Diagnostic 4o!utions
ENFORMA Budng Dagnostcs (EBD) utzes data from an exstng budng automaton
system (BAS) to contnuousy and automatcay dentfy energy nemcences and ther nanca
mpacts. EBD has automated the manua performance anayss process wth agorthms desgned
to
dentfy probems often undetected by tradtona methods and/or BAS montorng. Some of the
too
contactng
the company drecty.
10.2
O&M 5rontiers
5ool <eatures:
Automated data coecton va exstng BAS
Integrated faut detecton
Automated notcaton of nemcences and accompanyng dagnostcs
5ool Applications:
Heatng, ventaton, ar condtonng systems
Snge budng, campus and mutpe BAS envronments
For more nformaton about ENFORMA
Contact Archtectura Energy Corporaton at: (303) 444-4149
www.enformadagnostcs.com
(=%3 Per$orance and 6ontinuous Re.6oissioning
Ana!"sis Too! 0PA6RAT1
PACRAT s a versate dagnostc too deveoped by Facty Dynamcs Engneerng to detect
probems wth HVAC equpment. Ths too s desgned to provde automated dagnostc
capabtes
for ar handers, zone dstrbuton systems, chers, hydronc systems, and whoe-budng
energy use.
PACRAT makes use of tme-seres data coected by exstng energy management and contro
systems
(EMCS), utty meters or other data-oggng equpment. Once coected, the data are
processed
makng use of an extensve automaton of expert rues to assess HVAC system performance
(Fredman
and Pette 2001). PACRAT s desgned to cacuate and report devatons from basene
operaton
and estmate the resutng cost of wasted energy. Some of the too features and appcatons are
sted
beow - for the most current nformaton we suggest contactng the company drecty.
5ool <eatures:
Automated data coecton va exstng EMCS, utty meters, or data oggers
Cacuates key system parameters, oads, energy use, ndoor ar quaty, etc.
Dagnoses system probems ncudng poor performance and energy waste.
5ool Applications:
Whoe budng and systems (HVAC) appcatons
Snge budng, mut-budng and campus envronments
For more nformaton about PACRAT
Contact E. Lon Brghtb (410) 290-0900
www.factydynamcs.com
O
10.3
O&M 5rontiers
(=%5 Energ" ECpert
The Energy Expert s a software appcaton makng use of data coected by utty nterva
meters, an EMCS or other data oggng devces, to deveop budng dagnostcs and performance
ndcators. Ths appcaton processes the data and then trans tsef to create a "smart mode" of
a
budng. Once deveoped, ths mode compares day energy use aganst the mode to determne
f
the facty has over-consumed, under-consumed, or used the expected amount of energy. The
Energy
Expert provdes day scorecards to show energy use, cost savngs, oad prong, etc. Some of
the too
contactng
the company drecty.
5ool <eatures:
Automated data coecton va exstng EMCS, utty meters, or data oggers
Deveops data-based budng mode for performance comparson and dagnostcs
Provdes ema/pager notcaton of anomaes
Enterprse ro-up of mutpe factes
5ool Applications:
Whoe budng and system appcatons
Snge budng, mut-budng and campus envronments
For more nformaton about the Energy Expert
Contact Patrck ONe (877) 743-4232
www.energyworkste.com
(=%8 Re$erence
Fredman, H. and M.A. Pette. 2001. #omparative >ide to Emerging 8iagnostic Tools for "arge
#ommercial D:A# Systems. LBNL No. 48629, Lawrence Berkeey Natona Laboratory, Berkeey,
Caforna.
10.&
Chapter 11 Ten Steps to Operatona Emcency
Step G: Strve to increase 'anage'ent a8areness and apprecaton of the operatons and
mantenance program/department.
Consder deveopng a mantenance msson statement and requestng/requrng
management
sgn-oh.
Consder deveopng a mantenance pan and requestng/requrng management sgn-oh.
Begn the deveopment of the OMETA nkages.
- Deveop key ponts of contact wthn other departments that can partcpate n the O&M
msson.
Step %: Commt to begn trac(ing Operations and Maintenance activities.
Need to understand where O&M tme s spent.
Need to understand where O&M doars are spent.
Consder (strongy) purchasng or enhancng a Computerzed Mantenance Management
System and commt to ts mpementaton and use.
Step L: Through trackng begn to identify yor tro,led eEipment and systems.
Make a st of these systems and prortze them.
Step +: Commt to addressing at least one o< t%ese troubled s$ste's.
Begn base-nng/trackng ths system.
- System operatons and hstory.
- System mantenance and hstory.
- System costs, tme to servce, downtme, resutng overtme, etc. w
Step D: Commt to striving <or Operational -Gcienc$ o< t%is s$ste'.
Strve to understand how to propery operate ths system.
- Dene and compete operator tranng needs.
Strve to understand how to propery mantan ths system. w
- Dene and compete mantenance tranng needs. w
Step F: Commt to purc%asing or contracting <or so'e <or'6s7 o< diagnostic4
'etering4 or
'onitoring eHuip'ent.
Step ': Commt to trending t%e collected trac(ing and diagnostic data.
11.1
0en /te-s to O-erational 211icienc$
Take to tme to understand the data.
Look for and deveop "pro|ect opportuntes."
- Deveop approprate cost |ustcaton metrcs.
Step ,: Seect, request fundng for, and co'plete 9rst DOperational -Gcienc$E project.
Start sma, pck a pro|ect that w be a wnner.
Carefuy document a ndngs.
Present success n terms management w understand.
Step P: Strve to %ig%lig%t t%is success " capitali.e on visibilit$ opportunities.
Consder wrtng an nterna success story/case study.
Submt ndng to trade pubcaton or ndustry conference.
Step G&: Commt to c%oosing t%e ne:t piece o< eHuip'ent,,,go to Step I.
Steps 1 and 2 are ONGOING ACTIVITIES!
11.2
Appendx A w
Gossary of Common Terms w
Appendx A
Gossary of Common Terms
Absorption chiller - A refrgeraton machne usng heat as the power nput to generate
ched water.
Ad7ustable speed drive - A means of changng the speed of a motor n a step-ess manner.
In the
case of an AC motor, ths s accompshed by varyng the frequency.
Aerator - A devce nstaed n a faucet or showerhead that adds ar to the water ow, thereby
mantanng an ehectve water spray whe reducng overa water consumpton.
Air changes - Repacement of the tota voume of ar n a room over a perod of tme (e.g., 6
ar
changes per hour).
Ambient temperature - The temperature of the ar surroundng an ob|ect.
;allast - A devce used to suppy the proper votage and mt the current to operate one or
more
uorescent or hgh-ntensty dscharge amps.
;ase - A seected perod of tme wth consumpton eves or doar amounts, to whch a future
usage
or costs are compared.
;lac1water - Water dscharged from toets, urnas, and ktchen snks.
;?-- - Budng Lfe Cyce Costng.
;lowdown - The dscharge of water from a boer or a coong tower sump that contans a
hgh
proporton of tota dssoved sods.
;ritish thermal unit #;tu( - The amount of heat requred to rase the temperature of one
pound of
water 1 degree Fahrenhet at or near 39.2 degrees Fahrenhet.
;uilding commissioning - A systematc process of assurng that a budng facty performs
n
accordance wth desgn ntent and the owners operatona needs. Vercaton and
documentaton
that a budng facty systems perform nteractvey n an emcent manner and that
operatons and
mantenance personne are we traned.
;uilding envelope - The exteror surfaces of a budng that are exposed to the weather, .e.,
was,
roof, wndows, doors, etc.
-avitation - A condton occurrng when the net pressure at the pump s ess than the vapor
pressure of the qud beng pumped, causng the qud to vaporze nto bubbes n the sucton
stream.
The bubbes coapse on enterng the pump housng wth the rotatng mpeer, preventng the
pump
from ehectvey movng the qud. Ths creates the very dstnct sound of marbes beng
shaken n a
tn can. Each pump has ts own characterstc net postve sucton head (NPSH) requred to
prevent
ths condton.
A.1
A--endi A
-ell - The smaest coong tower subdvson wth ndependent ar and water ow. It s encosed
by
exteror was or partton was. Each ce may have one or more fans and one or more
dstrbuton
systems.
-hilled 0ater =eset Schedule - An automated contro ogc that rases or owers the suppy
temperature of the ched water eavng the cher, n response to another varabe such as
outsde ar
temperature.
-elsius #-entigrade( - The temperature at whch the freezng pont of water s 0 degrees and
the
bong pont s 100 degrees at sea eve. w
-entrifugal fan - A devce for propeng ar by centrfuga acton. w
cfm - Cubc feet per mnute usuay refers to the voume of ar beng moved through an ar duct.
w
-hiller - A refrgeraton machne usng mechanca energy nput to drve a centrfuga
compressor to
generate ched water. w
-oe*cient of performance - Rato of tons of refrgeraton produced to energy requred to
operate
equpment. w
-oe*cient of utili3ation - Rato of umens on the work surface to tota umens emtted by the
amps. w
-oils - Cos are used to heat and coo an arstream by transferrng heat from or to another
medum.
They can be bare-tube type or have an extended n surface. Cos may use water, steam,
refrgerant, or
eectrcty as a source for heat transfer. w
-old dec1 - A cod ar chamber formng a part of an ar condtonng system. w
-ombined wastewater - A factys tota wastewater, both graywater and backwater. w
-ompressor - A mechanca devce used to compress a gas. w
-olor rendering inde #-=9( - The coor appearance of an ob|ect under a ght source as
compared
to a reference source. w
-ondensate - Water obtaned by chargng the state of water vapor (.e., steam or mosture n
ar)
from a gas to a qud usuay by coong. w
-ondenser - A heat exchanger whch removes heat from vapor, changng t to ts qud state. In
refrgeraton systems, ths s the component whch re|ects heat. w
-onduction - Method of heat transfer n whch heat moves through a sod. w
-onvection - Method of heat transfer n whch heat moves by moton of a ud or gas, usuay
ar. w
-ooling tower - A devce that coos water drecty by evaporaton. w
2amper - A devce used to mt the voume of ar passng through an ar outet, net, or duct. w
A.2
A--endi A
2egree days - The degree day for any gven day s the dherence between 65 degrees and
the average
day temperature. For exampe, f the average temperature s 50 degrees, the degree days s
65 - 50
= 15 degrees days. When accumuated for a season, degree days measure the severty of the
entre
season.
2emand load - The maxmum contnuous requrement for eectrcty measured durng a
speced
amount of tme, usuay 15 mnutes.
2emand factor - The rato of the maxmum demand of a system to the tota connected oad
on the
system.
2ouble bundle chiller - A condenser usuay n a refrgeraton machne that contans two
separate
tube bundes aowng the opton of re|ectng heat to the coong tower or to another budng
system
requrng heat nput.
2ry bulb temperature - The measure of the sensbe temperature of ar.
Economi3er cycle - A method of operatng a ventaton system to reduce refrgeraton oad.
Whenever the outsde ar condtons are more favorabe (ower heat content) than return ar
condtons, outdoor ar quantty s ncreased.
E*cacy - Rato of usabe ght to energy nput for a ghtng xture or system (umens per
watt)
Energy management system - A mcroprocessor-based system for controng equpment
and
montorng energy and other operatng parameters n a budng.
Energy requirement - The tota yeary energy used by a budng to mantan the seected
nsde
desgn condtons under the dynamc mpact of a typca years cmate. It ncudes raw foss
fue
consumed n the budng and a eectrcty used for ghtng and power. Emcences of
utzaton are
apped and a energy s expressed n the common unt of Btu.
Energy utili3ation inde - A reference whch expresses the tota energy (foss fue and
eectrcty)
used by a budng n a gven perod (month, year) n terms of Btus/gross condtoned square
feet.
Enthalpy - The tota heat content of ar expressed n unts of Btu/pound. It s the sum of the
sensbe
and atent heat.
Evaporator - A heat exchanger n whch a qud evaporates whe absorbng heat.
Evaporation - The act of water or other quds dsspatng or becomng vapor or steam.
Epansion valve - A component of the refrgeraton system that reguates the rate of ow of
qud
refrgerant nto the evaporator.
6an -oil Bnit - A sma termna ar handng unt wth a fan and co(s) to heat and/or coo the
arstream.
6aucet aerator - Ether a devce nserted nto a faucet head or a type of faucet head that
reduces
water ow by addng ar to the water steam through a seres of screens and/or sma hoes
through a
dsk. An aerator produces a ow-ow non-spashng stream of water.
A.3
A--endi A
6ill - The porton of a coong tower that provdes a arge ar-water nterface area for heat
transfer
aowng a sma amount of water to evaporates nto the arstream, coong the remanng water.
6low restrictors - Washer-ke dsks that t nsde faucet or shower heads to restrct water ow.
6lushometer valve toilet - Aso known as a pressure asssted or pressurzed tank toet, a toet
wth
the ush vave attached to a pressurzed water suppy tank. When actvated, the ush vave
suppes
the water to the toet at the hgher ow rate necessary to ush a of the waste through the toet
trap
and nto the sewer.
6oot candle - Iumnaton at a dstance of one foot from a standard cande.
5ravity Mush toilet - A toet desgned wth a rubber stopper that reeases stored water from
the
toets tank. Gravty ow water then s the bow and carres the waste out of the bow, through
the
trap and nto the sewer.
5raywater - Used water dscharged by snks, showers, bathtubs, cothes washng machnes,
and the
ke.
5ross square feet - The tota number of square feet contaned n a budng enveope usng the
oors
as area to be measured.
$eat gain - As apped to HVAC cacuatons, t s that amount of heat ganed by space from a
sources ncudng peope, ghts, machnes, sunshne, etc. The tota heat gan represents the
amount
of heat that must be removed from a space to mantan ndoor comfort condtons. Ths s usuay
expressed n Btus per hour.
$eat loss - The heat oss from a budng when the outdoor temperature s ower than the
desred
ndoor temperature t represents the amount of heat that must be provded to a space to
mantan
ndoor comfort condtons. Ths s usuay expressed n Btu/hour.
$eat pump - A refrgeraton machne possessng the capabty of reversng the ow so that ts
output
can be ether heatng or coong. When used for heatng, t extracts heat from a ow temperature
source.
$eat transmission coe*cient - Any one of a number of coemcents used n the cacuaton of
heat
transmsson by conducton, convecton, and radaton through varous materas and structures.
$i"pot #high potential( !esting - Process of appyng hgh votage to eectrca components to
verfy
a ack of eakage current and unsafe condtons.
$orsepower #hp( - Brtsh unt of power, 1 hp = 746 watts or 42,408 Btus per mnute.
$ot dec1 - A hot ar chamber formng part of a mut-zone or dua duct ar handng unt.
$umidity, relative - A measurement ndcatng the mosture content of the ar.
9A8 - Indoor Ar Ouaty.
9E8 - Indoor Envronmenta Ouaty.
A.&
A--endi A
9mpeller - The rotatng part of a centrfuga pump, compressor, or fan desgned to move a
ud by
rotatona force. It s usuay made up of a dsc wth mutpe vanes attached to t.
9n4ltration - The process by whch outdoor ar eaks nto a budng by natura forces through
cracks
around doors and wndows. w
?atent heat - The quantty of heat requred to ehect a change n state of a substance. w
?ife"cycle cost - The cost of the equpment over ts entre fe ncudng operatng costs,
mantenance costs, and nta cost. w
?ow Mow toilet - A toet that uses 3.5 gaons of water per ush. w
?oad pro4le - Tme dstrbuton of budng heatng, coong, and eectrca oad. w
?umen - Unt of measurement of rate of ght ow. w
?uminaire - Lght xture desgned to produce a specc ehect. w
Ma1eup - Water supped to a system to repace that ost by bowdown, eakage, evaporaton,
etc.
Ar supped to a system to provde for combuston and/or ventaton. w
Megger - Eectronc too that generates hgh votage used n testng nsuaton ntegrty. w
Modular - System arrangement whereby the demand for energy (heatng, coong) s met by
a seres
of unts szed to meet a porton of the oad. w
>otched ;elt - A bet wth teeth (notches) used to mechancay nk two or more rotatng
pueys.
The notches ncrease grp, hep coo the bet and reeve stress as the bet bends around sma
dameter pueys. Ths mproves drve emcency.
Ori4ce plate - Devce nserted n a ppe or duct whch causes a pressure drop across t.
Dependng on
orce sze, t can be used to restrct ow or form part of a measurng devce. w
O=SA! apparatus - A devce for measurng the combuston components of boer or furnace
ue
gasses. w
/iggybac1 operation - Arrangement of ched water generaton equpment whereby
exhaust steam
from a steam turbne drven centrfuga cher s used as the heat source of an absorpton
cher. w
/lenum - A arge duct used as a dstrbutor of ar from a furnace. w
/otable water - Cean, drnkabe water; aso known as "whte" water. w
/ower factor - Reatonshp between KVA and KW. The power factor s one when the KVA
equas
the KW. w
/ressuri3ed tan1 toilet - A toet that uses a factys waterne pressure by pressurzng
water hed n
a vesse wthn the tank; compressng a pocket of trapped ar. The water reeases at a force
500 tmes
greater than a conventona gravty toet. w
A.'
A--endi A
/ressure reducing valve - A vave desgned to reduce a factys water consumpton by
owerng
suppy-ne pressure. w
/rocess ?oad - A coong or heatng oad not reated to mantanng occupant comfort, such as
e server rooms and specazed dagnostc equpment n the heath-care sector. The oads may
be
ntermttent or contnuous.
/ump $ead - The dherenta pressure of a ud generated by a pump between ts net and
outet.
Ths pressure may be expressed n feet of water or pounds per square nch (ps).
=adiation - The transfer of heat from one body to another by heat waves wthout heatng the ar
between them. w
=efrigerant - A substance producng a refrgeratng ehect by expandng or vaporzng. w
= @alue - The resstance to heat ow of nsuaton. w
Seasonal e*ciency - Rato of usefu output to energy nput for a pece of equpment over an
entre
heatng or coong season. It can be derved by ntegratng part oad emcences aganst tme. w
Sensible heat - Heat that resuts n a temperature change, but no change n state. w
Siphonic 7et urinal - A urna that automatcay ushes when water, whch ows contnuousy
to ts
tank, reaches a speced preset eve. w
Source meter - A water meter that records the tota waterow nto a facty. w
Sub meter - A meter that record energy or water usage by a specc process, a specc part of
a
budng, or a budng wthn a arger facty. w
!erminal Bnit - The na pece of HVAC equpment n the dstrbuton system capabe of
modfyng
the temperature n a condtoned space. w
!herm - A unt of gas fue contanng 100,000 Btus. w
!hermography - Process of generatng vsua mages that represent varatons n nfrared
radance of
surfaces and ob|ects. w
!on #of refrigeration( - A means of expressng coong capacty: 1 ton = 12,000 Btu/hour
coong
(remova of heat). w
!ransducers - Eectronc devce that converts energy from one form to another. w
!rend ?ogging - Recordng system varabes (e.g., temperature, voume, pressure, power) at
tme
ntervas to montor equpment operaton and hep dentfy or dagnose probems. Loggng s
accompshed usng portabe data oggers, eectrca meters, or the resdent DDC system.
!wo"0ay @alve - A vave reguatng ow between no ow and fu ow. It can ether moduate or
operate as a two-poston vave (open/cosed) n response to an externa nput sgna. There s no
bypass as s found n a 3-way vave.
A.(
A--endi A
B @alue - A coemcent expressng the therma conductance of a composte structure n Btus
per
(square foot) (hour) (degree Fahrenhet dherence). w
Bltra low Mow toilet - A toet that uses 1.6 gaons or ess of water per ush. w
@ariable speed drive - See "Ad|ustabe speed drve." w
@ariable frequency drive - See "Ad|ustabe speed drve." w
@";elt - A bet used to mechancay nk two or more rotatng pueys. The "V" shape of the
bet
tracks n a matng groove n the puey (or sheave). w
@eiling reMection - Reecton of ght from a task or work surface nto the vewers eyes. w
@apor barrier - A mosture mpervous ayer desgned to prevent mosture mgraton. w
0et bulb temperature - The owest temperature attanabe by evaporatng water n the ar
wthout
the addton or subtracton of energy. w
Qeriscaping - The seecton, pacement, and care of water-conservng and ow-water-demand
ground
covers, pants, shrubs, and trees n andscapng. w
O
&
M

B
e
s
t

P
r
a
c
t
i
c
e
s

G
u
i
d
e
,

R
e
l
e
a
s
e 3.0
A.*
Appendx B w
FEMP Stah Contact Lst w
Appendx B
FEMP Stah Contact Lst
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Federal Energy Management Program facilitates the Federal Governments
implementation of sound, cost-effective energy management and investment practices to enhance the nations energy
security and environmental stewardship.
Genera! 6ontact &n$oration
EE-2L
1000 Independence Avenue, SW
Washington, DC 20585-0121
202-586-5772
www.femp.energy.gov
Leadership Tea
=ichard .idd
Program Manager
202-586-5772
richard.kidd@ee.doe.gov
Ierry 2ion
Senior Technology Matrix Manager
202-586-9710
jerry.dion@ee.doe.gov
;rad 5ustafson
Supervisor, Applied Technology Services;
Greenhouse Gas Management
202-586-5865
brad.gustafson@ee.doe.gov
Scott =ichlen
Supervisor, Decision Support Services
202-586-2078
scott.richlen@ee.doe.gov
Schuyler #S1ye( Schell
Supervisor, Project Transaction Services
202-586-9015
schuyler.schell@ee.doe.gov
Arielle 0ait
Administrative Support
202-586-5772
arielle.wait@ee.doe.gov
ProBect Transaction 4ervices
Financing assistance, including ESPCs,
UESCs, and PPAs
!ishisa ;ra3iel
Public Benefit Funds; Enhanced Use
Leases
202-586-7748
tishisa.braziel@ee.doe.gov
=ebecca 2yer
Procurement Policy
202-586-8215
rebecca.dyer@ee.doe.gov
>ate 6ol1emer
ESPCs
202-287-6033
nathaniel.folkemer@ee.doe.gov
!racy ?ogan
Utility Acquisitions, DOE Rate
Interventions, Renewable Power
Purchases
202-586-9973
tracy.logan@ee.doe.gov
2avid McAndrew
Renewable Power Purchases; UESCs;
GovEnergy
202-586-7722
david.mcandrew@ee.doe.gov
0illiam =aup
ESPCs
202-586-2214
william.raup@ee.doe.gov
Ab =eam
Operations and Maintenance; Metering;
Commissioning; Energy Audits
202-586-7230
ab.ream@ee.doe.gov
App!ied Techno!og" 4ervices
Technology assistance surrounding energy
efficiency and renewable energy
Anne -rawley
Renewable Energy
202-586-1505
anne.crawley@ee.doe.gov
Shawn $errera
Metering; Technical Assistance
202-586-1511
shawn.herrera@ee.doe.gov
;oyan .ovacic
Renewable Energy
202-586-4272
boyan.kovacic@ee.doe.gov
0ill ?intner
Labs21; Water; Data Centers; New
Technologies; Sustainability
202-586-3120
william.lintner@ee.doe.gov
Mar1 =eichhardt
Renewable Power Purchases; Renewable
Energy; Sustainability
202-586-4788
mark.reichhardt@ee.doe.gov
Amanda Sahl
Fleets; Awards; Communications
202-586-1662
amanda.sahl@ee.doe.gov
Stephen 0alder
Energy-Efficient Products
202-586-9209
stephen.walder@ee.doe.gov
Decision 4upport 4ervices
Energy outreach, guidance, training, and
education to embrace energy efficiency
and renewable energy
2avid ;oomsma
Budgeting; Planning; Performance
Tracking
202-586-7086
david.boomsma@ee.doe.gov
!eresa -arroll
Schedules and Metrics Tracking
202-586-6477
teresa.carroll@ee.doe.gov
Annie $as1ins
Communications/Outreach; Awards;
EERE Information Center
202-586-4536
annie.haskins@ee.doe.gov
$ayes Iones
Communications/Outreach; Awards;
FEMP Focus
202-586-8873
hayes.jones@ee.doe.gov
Ioe .onrade
Peer Review; State Collaboration;
Technology Transfer; FEMP Web Site
202-586-8039
joseph.konrade@ee.doe.gov
-yrus >asseri
Energy Efficiency Standards; Rule
Making
202-586-9138
cyrus.nasseri@ee.doe.gov
-hris !remper
Reporting; Guidance; Interagency
Coordination
202-586-7632
chris.tremper@ee.doe.gov
5or the )ost recent contact in1or)ation -lease visit http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/about/contacts.htm.
O&M Best Practices Guide, Release 3.0 B.1
Each Federal agency has a single contact within FEMP. This contact serves as that agencys customer service representative to help
identify appropriate resources and resolve concerns related to FEMP services. Representatives also assist in agency planning to meet
energy goals.
Federa! Agenc"/4u#.Agenc"
Broadcasting Board o1 Governors
6e-art)ent o1 Agriculture 78/6A9
6e-art)ent o1 Co))erce 76OC9
6e-art)ent o1 6e1ense 76O69
6e-art)ent o1 2nerg$ 76O29
6e-art)ent o1 :ealth and :u)an /ervices 7::/9
6e-art)ent o1 :o)eland /ecurit$ 76:/9
6e-art)ent o1 :ousing and 8r;an 6evelo-)ent 7:869
6e-art)ent o1 <ustice 76O<9
6e-art)ent o1 =a;or 76O=9
6e-art)ent o1 /tate
6e-art)ent o1 the !nterior 76O!9
6e-art)ent o1 the 0reasur$
6e-art)ent o1 0rans-ortation 76O09
2nviron)ental Protection Agenc$ 72PA9
General /ervices Ad)inistration 7G/A9
>ational Aeronautics and /-ace Ad)inistration 7>A/A9
>ational Archives and Records Ad)inistration 7>ARA9
/)ithsonian !nstitution
/ocial /ecurit$ Ad)inistration 7//A9
0ennessee ?alle$ Authorit$ 70?A9
8./. Air 5orce
8./. Ar)$
8./. Marine Cor-s
8./. >av$
8./. Postal /ervice 78/P/9
8./. Railroad Retire)ent Board 7RRB9
?eterans A11airs 7?A9
FEMP 6ustoer 4ervice Representative
Chris 0re)-er, 202@'+(@*(32, chris.tre)-erAee.doe.gov
Bo$an Bovacic, 202@'+(@&2*2, ;o$an.CovacicAee.doe.gov
<oe Bonrade, 202@'+(@+03,, 3ose-h.ConradeAee.doe.gov
Richard Bidd, 202@'+(@'**2, richard.CiddAee.doe.gov
C$rus >asseri, 202@'+(@,13+, c$rus.nasseriAee.doe.gov
6avid McAndre", 202@'+(@**22, david.)candre"Aee.doe.gov
A; Rea), 202@'+(@*230, a;.rea)Aee.doe.gov
/te-hen #alder, 202@'+(@,20,, ste-hen."alderAee.doe.gov
0rac$ =ogan, 202@'+(@,,*3, trac$.loganAee.doe.gov
>ate 5olCe)er, 202@2+*@(033, nathaniel.1olCe)erAee.doe.gov
MarC Reichhardt, 202@'+(@&*++, )arC.reichhardtAee.doe.gov
<oe Bonrade, 202@'+(@+03,, 3ose-h.ConradeAee.doe.gov
0ishisa Bra.iel, 202@'+(@**&+, tishisa.;ra.ielAee.doe.gov
A)anda /ahl, 202@'+(@1((2, a)anda.sahlAee.doe.gov
MarC Reichhardt, 202@'+(@&*++, )arC.reichhardtAee.doe.gov
/chu$ler 7/C$e9 /chell, 202@'+(@,01', schu$ler.schellAee.doe.gov
6avid Boo)s)a, 202@'+(@*0+(, david.;oo)s)aAee.doe.gov
Re;ecca 6$er, 202@'+(@+21', re;ecca.d$erAee.doe.gov
0eresa Carroll, 202@'+(@(&**, teresa.carrollAee.doe.gov
Annie :asCins, 202@'+(@&'3(, annie.hasCinsAee.doe.gov
/ha"n :errera, 202@'+(@1'11, sha"n.herreraAee.doe.gov
:a$es <ones, 202@'+(@++*3, ha$es.3onesAee.doe.gov
Anne Cra"le$, 202@'+(@1'0', anne.cra"le$Aee.doe.gov
#illia) Rau-, 202@'+(@221&, "illia).rau-Aee.doe.gov
#ill =intner , 202@'+(@3120, "illia).lintnerAee.doe.gov
Brad Gusta1son, 202@'+(@'+(', ;rad.gusta1sonAee.doe.gov
Chris 0re)-er, 202@'+(@*(32, chris.tre)-erAee.doe.gov
/cott Richlen, 202@'+(@20*+, scott.richlenAee.doe.gov
Appendx C w
Resources w
Appendx C
Resources for Energy and Factes Professonas
organza-
To
groups,
Organi+ations
American Society for $ealthcare Engineering #AS$E( w
0ebsite: www.ashe.org w
2escription: ASHE serves as an advocate and resource for contnuous mprovement n
heathcare
engneerng and factes management and s the argest professona group amated wth the
Amercan Hospta Assocaton. ASHE provdes ts members wth nformaton and educaton
through comprehensve pubcatons and educatona programmng. w
American Society of Mechanical Engineers #ASME( w
0ebsite: http://www.asme.org/ w
2escription: The work of ASME s performed by ts member-eected Board of Governors and
through
ts 5 councs, 44 boards, and hundreds of commttees n 13 regons throughout the word.
There
are a combned 400 sectons and student sectons servng ASMEs word-wde membershp.
ASMEs
vson s to be the premer organzaton for promotng the art, scence, and practce of
mechanca
engneerng throughout the word. w
Association for 6acilities Engineering #A6E( w
0ebsite: http://www.afe.org/ w
2escription: AFE provdes educaton, certcaton, technca nformaton, and other reevant
resources for pant and facty engneerng as we as O&M professonas. w
Association of Energy Engineers #AEE( w
0ebsite: www.aeecenter.org w
2escription: AEE s a comprehensve provder of nformaton servng the eds of energy
emcency,
energy servces, dereguaton, facty management, pant engneerng, and envronmenta
compance.
American Society of $eating, =efrigeration, and Air"-onditioning Engineers
#AS$=AE( w
0ebsite: www.ashrae.org
2escription: ASHRAE fus ts msson of advancng heatng, ventaton, ar condtonng,
and
refrgeraton to serve humanty and promote a sustanabe word through research, standards
wrtng,
pubshng, and contnung educaton. w
C.1
A--endi C
Association of $igher Education 6acilities O*cers
0ebsite: http://www.appa.org/
2escription: APPA (formery the Assocaton of Physca Pant Admnstrators) s the assocaton
of choce servng educatona factes professonas. An nternatona assocaton dedcated to
mantanng, protectng, and promotng the quaty of educatona factes, APPA represents
more than 1,500 earnng nsttutons servng over 4,700 ndvduas. APPAs membershp
ncudes
factes professonas from pubc and prvate, two-year and four-year coeges and unverstes;
medca and aw schoos; semnares; pubc and prvate K-12 schoos and dstrcts; museums and
parks; mtary nstaatons; Federa, state, and cty-county governments.
;etter;ric1s /rofessional Education
0ebsite: www.betterbrcks.com
2escription: BetterBrcks Professona Educaton and ts partners oher a varety of professona
educaton optons at ow or no cost throughout the Northwest to mprove understandng about
the
benets and eements of hgh-performance budng.
;oiler E*ciency 9nstitute
0ebsite: www.boernsttute.com
2escription: BEI s the natonay recognzed eader n tranng for optmzng facty systems to
mnmze costs. Currenty BEI s a partnershp composed of ts two founders: Drs. Gennon Mapes
and Davd Dyer and Tom Burch. Coectvey, these ndvduas have wrtten a dozen textbooks,
authored ve patents, pubshed over fty scentc papers, and deveoped numerous computer
software packages n ther areas of expertse. They have taught more than a thousand
workshops
nvovng more than 100,000 peope. More than 125,000 facty operaton personne use ther
textbooks.
;uilding -ommissioning Association #;-A(
0ebsite: www.bcxa.org
2escription: BCA promotes budng-commssonng practces that mantan hgh professona
standards and fu budng owners expectatons. The BCA provdes nformaton and resources
to
ts members and to the pubc to ncrease awareness and promote budng commssonng.
;uilding Operator -erti4cation #;O-(
0ebsite: www.theboc.nfo
2escription: BOC s a natonay recognzed tranng and certcaton program for budng
operators oherng mproved |ob sks and more comfortabe, energy-emcent factes.
Certcaton
s competency-based and ohered at two eves. Leve I emphaszes energy-emcent budng
mantenance practces, whe Leve II emphaszes equpment troubeshootng and mantenance
for
energy savngs.
;uilding Owners and Managers Association #;OMA(
0ebsite: www.boma.org
2escription: The msson of BOMA Internatona s to enhance the human, nteectua, and
physca
assets of the commerca rea-estate ndustry through advocacy, educaton, research, standards,
and
nformaton. Loca assocatons are n Bose, Portand, Seatte, South Puget Sound, Tr-Ctes, and
Spokane.
C.2
A--endi C
Energy 6acility -ontractors 5roup #E6-O5( w
0ebsite: www.efcog.org w
2escription: EFCOG promotes exceence n a aspects of the operaton, management, and
ntegraton of DOE factes n a safe, envronmentay sound, emcent and cost-ehectve
manner
through the ongong exchange of nformaton on essons earned.
6acilities >et w
0ebsite: http://www.factesnet.com w
2escription: Organzaton and wed ste for professonas n facty desgn, constructon, and
mantenance.
6ederal Energy Management /rogram #6EM/(, B.S. 2epartment of Energy #2OE( w
0ebsite: www1.eere.energy.gov/femp w
2escription: FEMP heps Federa agences nd nnovatve soutons to ther most dmcut
energy
chaenges and address ther fu range of energy management responsbtes. w
9ndustrial E*ciency Alliance w
0ebsite: www.ndustraemcencyaance.org
2escription: The Industra Emcency Aance and ts partners oher busness and technca
tranng
courses that are desgned to equp attendees wth the knowedge and toos to mprove
compettveness
and enhance system performance through ncreased energy emcency. w
9nstitute of Asset Management #9AM( w
0ebsite: http://www.am-uk.org/ w
2escription: An ndependent organzaton for professonas dedcated to furtherng our
knowedge
and understandng of Asset Management. In partcuar, the nsttute seeks to spread good
practce
and deveop decson support toos and technques. w
9nstitute of 9ndustrial Engineers #99E( w
0ebsite: http://www.enet.org/ w
2escription: IIE s the argest professona socety dedcated soey to the support of the
ndustra
engneerng professon and ndvduas nvoved wth mprovng quaty and productvty. IIE s
an
nternatona, nonprot assocaton that provdes eadershp for the appcaton, educaton,
tranng,
research, and deveopment of ndustra engneerng. w
9nternational -ouncil for Machinery ?ubrication #9-M?( w
0ebsite: http://www.ubecounc.org w
2escription: A vendor-neutra, not-for-prot organzaton founded to factate growth and
deveopment of machne ubrcaton as a technca ed of endeavor. Among ts varous
actvtes,
ICML ohers sks-based certcaton testng for ndvduas n the eds of machne condton
montorng, ubrcaton, and o anayss. w
9nternational 6acility Management Association #96MA( w
0ebsite: www.fma.org
2escription: IFMA s a professona assocaton for facty managers. IFMA membershp
comprses
more than 17,500 facty professonas n 56 countres. Ther members have a voce n 125
chapters,
15 councs, and one Speca Interest Group.
C.3
A--endi C
9nternational Maintenance 9nstitute #9M9( w
0ebsite: www.monne.org w
2escription: The phosophy of the IMI to professonaze the mantenance functon by hepng
mantenance managers to work smarter through the exchange of deas and educaton. The IMI s
a
goa-drven organzaton made up of decson makng mantenance eaders as we as reated
saes and
servce professonas - a dedcated to keepng a natons nfrastructure operatng smoothy.
9nternational !raining 9nstitute #9!9( w
0ebsite: www.sheetmeta-t.org
2escription: ITI has a varety of currcua that teach the students how to operate and servce
HVAC
equpment. Ths ncudes the refrgeraton system and t components, a types of heatng
systems
(o, gas, and eectrc) and ther components, as we as the eectrca fundamentas requred by
a of
these systems.
9nternational Bnion of Operating Engineers #9BOE( w
0ebsite: www.uoe.org w
2escription: IUOE s a progressve, dversed trade unon that prmary represents operatng
engneers who work as heavy-equpment operators; mechancs and surveyors n the constructon
ndustry; and statonary engneers who work n operaton and mantenance n budng and
ndustra
compexes, and n the servce ndustres. Founded n 1896, the IUOE today s the 12th argest
unon
n the AFL-CIO and has 400,000 members n some 170 oca unons throughout the Unted States
and Canada. They oher apprentceshps and tranng to IUOE members. w
?ighting 2esign ?ab
0ebsite: www.ghtngdesgnab.com w
2escription: The Lghtng Desgn Lab n Seatte, WA provdes assstance to commerca ghtng
desgners, facty managers, and speccaton wrters that seek the most emcent ghtng
technooges
and strateges.
Machinery 9nformation Management Open Systems Alliance #M9MOSA( w
0ebsite: http://www.mmosa.org/ w
2escription: Advocates open exchange of equpment condton reated nformaton between
condton assessment, process contro, and mantenance nformaton systems through pubshed,
consensus, conventons and to gan greatest vaue by combnng vta condton nformaton from
mutpe sources for coectve evauaton, reachng accurate determnatons of current condton,
and pro|ected fetme and communcatng resuts n a usefu, understandabe form. MIMOSA
s commtted to preservng the advantages, ehectveness, and rch deta contaned n
specazed
appcatons such as vbraton, temperature, ubrcatng o, and eectrc motor montorng and
anayss systems wthn an ntegrated enterprse nformaton structure. w
Maintenance and =eliability -enter #M=-( w
0ebsite: http://www.engr.utk.edu/mrc/ w
2escription: A premer nsttuton, headquartered at the Unversty of Tennessee, for educaton,
research, deveopment, nformaton exchange and appcaton of mantenance and reabty
engneerng. Mantenance and reabty engneerng focuses on the use of anayss technques,
advanced predctve and preventve technooges and management systems to dentfy, manage
and
emnate faures that ead to osses n system functon. w
C.&
A--endi C
Motor 2ecisions Matter w
0ebsite: www.motorsmatter.org/ w
2escription: A natona campagn encouragng the use of sound motor management and
pannng
as a too to cut motor energy costs and ncrease productvty. The campagn s sponsored by a
consortum of motor ndustry manufacturers and servce centers, trade assocatons, eectrc
uttes,
and government agences. w
>ational Association of Energy Service -ompanies #>AES-O( w
0ebsite: www.naesco.org w
2escription: NAESCO s a natona trade assocaton whch has been promotng the benets
of the
wdespread use of energy emcency for over 20 years. On behaf of ts membershp, NAESCO
works
to hep open new markets for energy servces by drecty promotng the vaue of demand
reducton
to customers through semnars, workshops, tranng programs, pubcaton of case studes and
gudebooks, and the compaton and dssemnaton of aggregate ndustry data. w
>ational Association of State Energy O*cials #>ASEO( w
0ebsite: www.naseo.org w
2escription: NASEO was formed by the states and through an agreement wth the Natona
Governors Assocaton n 1986. The organzaton was created to mprove the ehectveness and
quaty of state energy programs and poces, provde pocy nput and anayss, share successes
among
the states, and to be a repostory of nformaton on ssues of partcuar concern to the states and
ther
ctzens. NASEO s an nstrumentaty of the states and derves basc fundng from the states
and the
Federa government. w
>ational School /lant Management Association #>S/MA( w
0ebsite: http://nspma.org/ w
2escription: Chartered n 1995, NSPMA was formed n the nterest on enhancng and
promotng
the educatona process. Its purpose s to provde for the exchange of nformaton that
mproves
schoo pant management, mantenance, and care through the promoton of acceptabe
poces,
standards, and practces and to promote the professona advancement of schoo pant
management
personne. w
>ational Sustainable ;uilding Advisor /rogram #>aS;A/( w
0ebsite: www.nasbap.org
2escription: NaSBAP ohers a tranng program speccay desgned for workng professonas
wshng to appy sustanabe concepts to the budngs they desgn, deveop, and construct-
budngs
that are energy- and resource-emcent, heathy workng and vng envronments,
envronmentay
responsbe, and cost ehectve. Partcpants ncude archtects, engneers, tenant and
deveoper
representatves, constructon and capta pro|ect managers, other budng ndustry
professonas, and
resource conservaton specasts.
>orth -arolina State Bniversity Maintenance and =eliability Management /rogram
w
0eb site) http://contnungeducaton.ncsu.edu/mrm.htm w
2escription) North Carona State Unversty, n partnershp wth Marsha Insttute, ohers a
three-
week program to deveop mantenance and reabty knowedge and sharpen eadershp sks
for
todays ncreasngy compettve goba marketpace. Ths program w expose you to rea-
word
exampes and w provde you wth practca knowedge and sks appcabe n your pant or
facty.
C.'
A--endi C
>orthwest Energy Education 9nstitute #>EE9(
0ebsite: www.nwee.org w
2escription: NEEI s ocated wthn the Scence Department at Lane Communty Coege,
Eugene,
Oregon. They have provded energy-emcency tranng and deveopment throughout the
Northwest
snce 1998. w
O1lahoma /redictive Maintenance Bsers 5roup #O/MB5( w
0ebsite: http://www.opmug.net/ w
2escription: Estabshed n 1992 to provde mantenance professonas throughout Okahoma,
and
the surroundng states, an opportunty to share and obtan rst hand knowedge about predctve
mantenance. w
/lant Engineering and Maintenance Association of -anada #/EMA-( w
0ebsite: http://www.pemac.org w
2escription: The natona technca assocaton devoted to pant engneerng and mantenance,
created by and for pant engneerng and mantenance peope. w
/lant Operations Support /rogram w
0ebsite: www.ga.wa.gov/pant w
2escription: The Pant Operatons Support Program s comprsed of state agences, educatona
factes, muncpates, and port dstrcts, and acts as a cearnghouse for best practces,
organzatona standards, and surpus/savage materas. The consortum ncudes hundreds of
professonas wth vared experence and expertse who reguary share soutons and essons
earned. w
/rofessional !hermographers Association w
0ebsite: http://www.prothermographer.com w
2escription: The msson of the Professona Thermographers Assocaton s to provde a
patform
for non-based nformaton, professona communcaton and unty, for ndvduas and
organzatons
nvoved n provdng, or procurng nfrared thermographc servces, equpment and support. w
Society for Machinery 6ailure /revention !echnology #M6/!( w
0ebsite: http://www.mfpt.org/ w
2escription: A Dvson of the Vbraton Insttute, MFPT acts as a foca pont for technoogca
deveopments that contrbute to mechanca faure reducton or preventon. w
Society for Maintenance & =eliability /rofessionals #SM=/( w
0ebsite: www.smrp.org w
2escription: An ndependent, non-prot socety by and for practtoners n the Mantenance &
Reabty Professon wth neary 2,000 members strong wth goba penetraton. w
Society of =eliability Engineers #S=E( w
0ebsite: http://www.sre.org/ w
2escription: SRE s an organzaton dedcated to a forms of reabty engneerng and
educaton.
C.(
A--endi C
B.S. 2epartment of Energy 9ndustrial !echnology /rogram #9!/(
0eb site) http://www1.eere.energy.gov/ndustry/
2escription) The Industra Technooges Program (ITP) eads natona ehorts to mprove
ndustra
energy emcency and envronmenta performance. ITP s part of the U.S. Department of
Energys
Omce of Energy Emcency and Renewabe Energy and contrbutes to ts ehorts by partnerng
wth
U.S. ndustry n a coordnated program of research and deveopment, vadaton, and
dssemnaton
of energy emcency technooges and operatng practces. ITP works wth ndustry to save
energy and
money, ncrease productvty, and reduce envronmenta mpacts by:
Conductng R&D on new energy emcent technooges
Supportng commercazaton of emergng technooges
Provdng pants wth access to proven technooges, energy assessments, software toos,
and other
resources
Promotng energy and carbon management n ndustry.
B.S. E/A E>E=5V S!A=
0ebsite: estar7.energystar.gov/ndex.cfm?c=busness.bus_nternet_presentatons
2escription: ENERGY STAR s a government-backed program hepng busnesses and
ndvduas
protect the envronment through superor energy emcency. ENERGY STAR provdes toos and
resources that assst facty professonas deveop a customzed strategy, strengthen
communcaton
wth decson makers, and gan recognton for ther achevements.
0ashington State Bniversity #0SB( Energy /rogram
0ebsite: www.energy.wsu.edu/ten
2escription: The WSU Energy Program provdes support and nformaton for Resource
Emcency
Managers (REMs) or Resource Conservaton Managers (RCMs). A REM or RCM s a desgnated
ndvdua acqured by an agency to support ts energy and resource emcency program. The
soe focus
of the REM or RCM s to brng about reductons n the cost of energy, water, natura gas, fue
o,
refuse dsposa, and any other uttes. Ths s done through mproved use practces, greater
attenton
to utty bngs and rate structures, and the nstaaton and use of resource-management
equpment.
Bniversity of -alifornia at 2avis -alifornia ?ighting !echnology -enter #-?!-(
0eb site) http://ctc.ucdavs.edu/content/vew/132/208/
2escription) The Caforna Lghtng Technoogy Centers (CLTC) msson s to stmuate,
factate
and acceerate the deveopment and commercazaton of energy emcent ghtng and
dayghtng
technooges. Ths s accompshed through technoogy deveopment and demonstratons, as
we as
oherng outreach and educaton actvtes n partnershp wth uttes, ghtng manufacturers,
end
users, buders, desgners, researchers, academcans and governmenta agences.
Bniversity of Maryland =eliability Engineering /rogram
0eb site) http://www.enre.umd.edu/
2escription) The Reabty Engneerng Program at the Unversty of Maryand was approved
to
oher the MS and PhD degrees n Reabty Engneerng n 1989. It provdes a broad range of
courses
and experences for ts students, desgned to prepare them to assst the naton n ts abty to
produce
compex technoogca systems wth utra-hgh reabty and avaabty.
C.*
A--endi C
Pu#!ications
;uilding Operating Management
www.factesnet.com
-hiltonWs 9ndustrial Maintenance
and /lant Operation
www.mpomag.com
$/A- Engineering
1300 E Nnth Street
Ceveand, OH 44114-1503
(216) 696-7000
www.hpac.com
9ndustrial Maintenance and /lant Operation
www.mpomag.com
Maintenance Solutions
P.O. Box 5268
Pttsed, MA 01203-5268
www.factesnet.com
Maintenance !echnology
(847) 382-8100/Fax: (847) 304-8603
www.mt-onne.com
/:/M !echnology
SC Pubshng
P.O. Box 2770
Mnden, NV 89423-2770
(702) 267-3970
/lant & 6acilities Engineering 2igest
Adams/Huecore Pubshng, Inc.
29100 Aurora Road, Sute 200
Ceveand, OH 44139
(708) 291-5222
/reventative Maintenance Maga3ine
*elia,ility MagaCine
www.reabty-magazne.com/
C.+
Appendx D w
Suggestons for Addtons or Revsons w
Appendx D
Suggestons for Addtons or Revsons
Ths gude s open to perodc updates and mprovement. Readers are encouraged to
submt
suggestons for addtons, deetons, correctons, or where to go for other resources.
In addton, we are nterested n what has worked at your Federa ste. We want to nd
other case
studes and documentaton of your successes.
Pease send or fax your nformaton to:
B Sandusky
Pacc Northwest Natona Laboratory (PNNL)
P.O. Box 999, MS K5-08 w
Rchand, WA 99352 w
ema: b.sandusky@pn.gov w
Fax (509) 375-3614 w
Addtona matera to ncude (pease be specc):
Addtona References/Resources:
Addtona matera to ncude (pease be specc):
O&M Best Practices Guide, Release 3.0 6.1
A--endi 6
Addtona References/Resources:
Case study matera (fee free to attach addtona sheets):
6.2
O&M Best Practices
FEDERAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
22R2 !n1or)ation Center
1@+**@22R2@!>5 71@+**@33*@3&(39
www.eere.energy.gov/informationcenter
PNNL.(;8*3 J August )=(=
Printed "ith a rene"a;le@source inC on -a-er containing at least
'0D "aste-a-er, including 10D -ost@consu)er "aste.

Omguide - Complete - TUGAS D4 TPE

Transféré par

Informations du document

Description originale:

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Omguide - Complete - TUGAS D4 TPE

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

FEDERAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

O&M Best Practices Guide, Release 3.0

Makeup water heatng

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi