COMBAT TRAUMA AND PASTORAL RESPONSE

Don Sensing/ Div. 3052/ 8 Dec. 97

INTRODUCTION
Combat trauma is the term used to describe adverse psychological, emotional and spiritual
reaction to the experience of armed combat. It is a subset of post-traumatic stress syndrome
(PTSD). However, while PTSD can be brought about by any life-threatening situation
automobile accident, robbery or a heart attack (Foy, 622), combat trauma is specifically the result
of battle.
There are almost 27 million veterans, of whom 22 million served during conflict. Forty-three
million other Americans are dependents or survivors of a veteran (VA figures). Probably most
Americans have a veteran somewhere in their families, and frequently several across generations.
For example, my grandfather was drafted in World War I, my father served in World War II. My
older brother escaped Viet Nams draft, but many of his age did not.
In this paper, I will examine some psychological, emotional and spiritual characteristics of
combat trauma and propose a pastoral approach to dealing with it in a civilian congregational
setting. This paper does not address care of combat veterans still on active-duty or immediate
responses to combat trauma such as would be used by military chaplains or mental health
professionals. It does not address veterans who are receiving professional care through the
Veterans Administrations systems.
RELATIONSHIP OF THE TOPIC TO THIS COURSE
According to the classic military theorist Karl Clausewitz, killing is the sine qua non of war:
without killing there is no war. Soldiers in battle are surrounded by death and the threat of death.
The battlefield is a grisly place. William Manchesters description of Iwo Jima could have been
written about almost any large-scale battlefield: You tripped over strings of viscera fifteen feet
long, over bodies which had been cut in half at the waist. Legs and arms, and heads bearing only
necks, lay fifty feet from the closest torsos. As night fell, the beach reeked with the stench of
burning flesh (Manchester, 340).
Veterans cope with death in three broad categories. First, they struggle to accept that it is
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American soldiers, stripped of all equipment, lie
dead, face down in the slush of a crossroads
somewhere on the western front.
possible (even likely) that they might die. Second, they wrestle with the death of close friends
due to enemy action, accident or disease.
1
Finally, many veterans carry the burden of having
killed other human beings, sometimes in carload lots.
These experiences lead to a pastoral challenge in our churches for which pastors should be
prepared. Several World War II veterans have indicated to me that as their twilight years
approach some of these issues are resurfacing. Even the youngest World War II veteran is at least
70. In addition to the common issues of aging and loss that elderly parishioners face, some of
them (mostly men, but not exclusively) are now struggling with combat trauma again.
THE EXPERIENCE OF COMBAT
Fear and Fear Management
The fear of death is the soldiers universal lot (Keegan, 17). In one U. S. division in France
in 1944, two-thirds of the soldiers admitted that they
had been too frightened to do their jobs properly at
least once and forty percent said it happened
routinely. A post-war Army study found, There is
no such thing as getting used to combat. Each
moment of combat imposes a strain so great that
men will break down in direct relation to the
intensity and duration of their exposure (Dyer, 142,
143). Indeed, several studies have noted that in
battle, the seeds of panic are always present in
soldiers.
A Marine wrote of single-handedly entering a
building to take out an enemy sniper: There was a
door which meant there was another room and the sniper was in thatand I just broke down. I
was absolutely gripped by fear that this man would expect me and would shoot me (Dyer, 101).
1
World War II was the first American conflict in which deaths due to disease were fewer than
combat deaths. In the Persian Gulf War of 1990-1991, more American troops died in accidents than from
Iraqi action.
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Medics help a wounded solider in France, 1944.
The symptoms of fear are well documented. The heart pounds violently; frequently the
whole body shakes. Nausea occurs in about half the soldiers. A fifth lose control of their bowels.
There is an urgent need to urinate. Many troops clench their jaw so tightly to control themselves
that it aches for days afterwards (Dyer, 142; Keegan, 261).
Stephen Getsinger noted that being
wounded was often a relief to soldiers
because the inevitable had finally happened
and it meant that they would be out of action,
at least for awhile. It also generally raised
their esteem in the eyes of their fellows, since
they had done their duty and had not broken
down (assuming they werent wounded while
fleeing) (Getsinger, 217). James Jones said
the wounded had passed through some veil
isolating him, and entered a realm where
others, the unwounded, cannot follow. He has become a different person, and others treat him
differently. . . . The lucky ones, those hurt badly enough [would obtain] everybodys secret goal:
discharge (Jones, 86, 89).
Armies must form fighting units in which fear is managed and subdued enough so that the
military objective can be obtained. Therefore, commanders give extraordinary care and concern
to their soldiers physical and mental well-being. The most effective means of managing the fear
is to foster bonds of loyalty and affiliation for one another among the troopsbonds that only
death can break, not the mere fear of death. If this effort is successful soldiers will ultimately
cherish two things more than life: the lives of their buddies and their own reputations among
their comrades. Personal honor is the one thing valued more than life by the majority of
soldiers (Keegan, 52). One soldier wrote, We became great friends and one just cant describe
the affinity there was. We were all in it together and it was a question of whats mine is thine
(Keegan, 273).
There is no civilian equivalent of this environment, with these bonds, except possibly in
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Sometimes youre lucky! Coast
Guardsman Charles Tyner examines the
shrapnel hole in the helmet he wore during
the initial assault on the beaches of
Southern France. Tyner suffered just a
superficial scratch.
police or firefighting organizations. Therefore, the soldiers sitz im Leben is crucial to
understanding the context of veterans combat trauma and how it is manifested. James Jones,
who survived Pearl Harbor and was wounded on Guadalcanal, wrote of the return of combat
veterans to America after the end of World War II:
Articles appeared in womens magazines with titles like, Will He Be
Changed? Good Housekeeping said, After two or three weeks [Jones italics]
he should be finished with talking, with oppressive remembering. If he still goes
over the same stories, you had best consult a psychiatrist. This condition is
neurotic.
Men still woke up in the middle of the night, thrashing around and trying to get
their hands on their wifes throats. Men still rolled out from a dead sleep, and hit
the dirt with a crash on the bedroom floor, huddling
against the bed to evade the bomb or shell they had
dreamed they heard coming. While their wives sat
straight up in bed in their new frilly nightgowns
bought for the homecoming, wide-eyed and staring,
horrified.
A number of men I knew slept with
loaded pistols or unsheathed bayonets under
their pillows for a number of months. Just
made them feel more comfortable, they said
shamefacedly, but it sure scared the shit out
of their wives. And their wives
psychiatrists.
As the old combat numbness disappeared,
and the frozen feet of the soul began to thaw.
. [came] the sick-making thoughts of all the
buddies who had died. The awful bad luck of
the maimed.
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About the last thing to go was the old sense of esprit. That was the hardest
thing to let go of, because there was nothing in civilian life that could replace it
(Jones, 255,256).
The Loss of Friends
Soldiers frequently fear the death of friends more than their own death.
2
That is the reason
that self-sacrificial acts are common, such as jumping on top of a grenade to shield others from
the blast. William Manchester, badly wounded on Okinawa, wrote, Among men who fight
together there is an intense love; the thought of his friends facing danger without him to help
them was just intolerable. Those men on the line were my family, my home. They were closer
to me than I can say. I had to be with them, rather than let them die and me live with the
knowledge that I might have saved them (Manchester, 391).
Upon learning of Jonathans death, King David lamented, I grieve for you, Jonathan my
brother; you were very dear to me. Your love for me was wonderful, more wonderful than that of
women (2 Sam 1:26).
As David discovered, the deaths of friends can cause strong reactions. A veteran of World
War I wrote home, One of the most pathetic features of the war, he wrote, is this continual
forming of real friendships which last for a week or two, or even months, and are then suddenly
shattered for ever by death. However, the death of a comrade is more than just depressing: it
knocks away one of the props which sustains a soldiers morale, and suggests to him that his own
death may be near (Keegan, 265).
That their friends die is bad enough, but the deaths are harder to bear because they are often
so violent. Rifleman John Harris heard his friend cry out in battle and looked around to see him
sitting doubled up, swaying back and forth as if he had an intense stomach ache. He had been
shot sideways through both hips. Oh, Harris! said he, as I took him in my arms, I shall die!
The agony is so great I cannot bear it! . . . the froth came from his mouth and the perspiration
poured from his face. . . he suffered more for the short time that he was dying than any other man
2
During the Panama operation of December 1989, I heard that my best friends unit had been
mortared. The mere idea that he could have been killed or wounded made me break down. Later, I
discovered that the report was false, to my great relief.
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Capt. Ezekia Smith, 92nd
Div., receives treatment for
shell fragments in face and
shoulders suffered near
Querceta, Italy.
Marines carry off a fallen comrade on Iwo Jima.
I think I ever saw (Keegan, 148).
An American sergeant after D-Day related, They had my closest
friends laying alongside the ditches of this road, ready for pick up by
the graves registration unit. You walk by them and you see their faces
and its a sad thing. . . it does upset you (Keegan, 273).
Cadet Shirer was a medic assigned to a US hospital caring for
wounded soldiers in France in WW I.
One case I never forgot. When me and the nurse
passed him, hed say, Sister, can't you help me? He
was burnt, blinded in both eyes, with mustard gas.
He'd had chlorine gas. The nurse said, Take care of
this man, he's going to die. His name was Stanislaus
Nagursky. I worked with him and I worked with him. I
think his suffering controlled my whole life. Later I
picked up Stars and Stripes and
learned he didn't die. Was I happy!
Would you believe a man could take
so much interest in another man that
he'd remember a name like that for 79
years? I still see him in my sleep at
times. I still see him in my sleep (Life,
94).
It is a particular burden to have been a
combat leader who has given orders which
resulted in the deaths of ones own soldiers.
Officers must use up their mens lives in order to win battles. Paul Fussell, an infantry officer,
wrote that one of the most painful things was having to withhold your affection for them [ones
troops] because you know youre going to have to destroy them on occasion. And you do. You
use them up: theyre material. Officers pay a price, though, of suffering twice the casualty rate
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Dead Japanese in a pillbox on the island of Engebi.
of their soldiers. (Dyer, 139, 140).
Yet the grief for the slain is reserved only for ones buddies. The death of someone not
known makes virtually no impression. William Manchester pulled to safety a mortally wounded
soldier whom he had never met before. Had circumstances be different, I would have consoled
him. But a foot soldier retains his sanity only by hardening himself. . . . I saved my tears for the
men I knew (Manchester, 316). The dichotomy between hyper-emotional attachment on the one
hand and extreme disinterest bordering on callousness on the other is a psychic conflict which is
not usually found in civilian life and can make readjustment difficult.
Killing
William Manchester called the recollection of killing the enemy, blood that never dried.
He was on a Boeing 747 when one of my
worst recollections, one I had buried in my
deepest memory bank long ago, comes back
with a clarity so blinding that I surge forward
against the seat belt, appalled by it, filled with
remorse and shame. I am remembering the
first man I slew. It was a Japanese sniper.
Manchester killed him with a .45-caliber
pistol. I began to tremble, then to shake all
over. I sobbed, Im sorry. Then I threw up
all over myself (Manchester, 3, 7).
American military commanders of this
century have noted that American troops are
inherently reluctant to kill the enemy. A
highly regarded World War II study discovered that only about fifteen percent of American
riflemen actually fired their weapons in battle, and that most of those who did shoot missed
deliberately, to force the enemy to take concealment. When asked why, they readily admitted that
they didnt want to hurt anyone. The studys author attributed this reluctance to deeply inbred
American cultural pacifism and the religious teachings of the troops (Dyer, 129e).
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The immediate effects of combat trauma from taking life is greater on infantrymen than, say,
artillery troops, who rarely see the results of their work. A Viet Nam infantryman related,
I got around to the side [of the enemy] and pointed my M16 at them and this
person turned around and just stared, and I froze, cos it was a boy, I would say
between the ages of twelve and fourteen. When he turned at me and looked, all of
a sudden he turned his whole body at me and pointed his automatic weapon at me,
I just opened up, fired the whole twenty rounds right into the kid, and he just laid
there. I dropped my weapon and cried. . . (Keegan, 257).
High-altitude bomber pilots had some cushion against the psychological effects of daily
combat (Dyer, 153a). A fighter pilot noted that you dont hear the shouts, you dont see the
face and you dont see the blood of the enemy in an airplane (Keegan. 193). However, crews of
aircraft such as bombers do face the horror of suffering and witnessing violent deaths.
For pastoral purposes, then, it is useful to remember that veterans experiences of killing
were different, depending on how they did it. The lingering issues needing pastoral intervention
cant be lumped into one hat, all benefitting from similar responses.
Guilt and Guilt Conflicts
Veterans of ground combat may have deep-seated problems with what they did in the heat of
battleacts that violated their innate sense of rightness or the Law of Land Warfare.
3
An infantry
sergeant told James Jones how his platoon had taken eight German prisoners during the battle of
the Bulge:
We needed some information, but they werent talking, not those tough old birds.
So we took the first one off to the side, where they could see him, and shot him
through the head. Then they all talked. Horrible? Evil? We needed that
information. Our lives depended on it. We didnt think it was evil. Neither did
they. But how am I going to tell my wife something like that? Or my mother?
They dont understand the problems (Jones, 255).
During the battle for Okinawa, 85 Japanese nurses took shelter in a cave. Marines heard their
3
This is the U.S. statute that codifies the various Hague and Geneva treaties and conventions.
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voices, but neither they nor their interpreter recognized them as feminine. When the nurses didnt
surrender, the Marines killed them all with flamethrowers (Manchester, 381). More than 30
American troops were killed in the Gulf War by erroneous or careless fire from other Americans.
One of the most difficult things for combat soldiers to adjust to is the fact that in battle, st
happens. As an old Army saying goes, Anything you do in combat can get you killed, including
doing nothing. The deaths of friends or civilians killed by accident or bad luck in the middle of
battle can be terribly traumatic, especially for the soldiers directly involved in it, such as the
Marines who killed the nurses. These sorts of lingering guilt issues over what should have been
done or not done can be the most difficult ones for veterans to work through.
One aircrew member wrote home from the front, Now more than ever I am determined to
wipe these rotten bastards off the face of the earth. Total and complete destruction is the only
way to treat these animals. I never thought I could hate them as much as I do now (Keegan,
159). Such feelings of animosity can be very strong long after the war is over. A pastor told me
this year that he was upbraided by one of his parishioners, a World War II veteran, for buying a
Honda automobile, a Japanese make.
More frequently, though, a veterans combat trauma is conflicted because of mixed feelings
toward the enemy whom he has tried to kill. A Viet Nam veteran wrote of the North Vietnamese
soldier, He was a trained soldier, and I was a trained soldier. And I respected him, and Im
pretty sure he respected me, you know. His job was to kill me, my job was to kill him (Keegan
267). Impromptu truces are commonplace between opposing forces. In 1914 German and British
officers and men met peacefully in most sectors, exchanged presents, took photographs and
even played football [soccer] (Keegan, 268).
In the Normandy battle in 1944, an American commander granted a truce to the Germans so
the wounded could be evacuated. The German officer came out to meet the American, who spoke
German. The German related that his forces had been ordered to withdraw from their position at
dusk. Immediately, the American said he would not continue the attack until after dark, when the
Germans would be gone. They shook hands and did not shoot at each other again. In the same
campaign, an American ambulance driver made a wrong turn and was stopped by a German
sentry. The German saw the wounded soldiers and pointed the driver toward American lines. A
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few hours later, the Germans were astonished to see another American ambulance drive up. The
driver got out, waved, and dropped several cases of cigarettes on the ground. Then he drove away
(Ambrose, 1).
What About Women Veterans?
Fortunately for women, very few of them have suffered the intensity of combat that many
male veterans have, due to restrictions on assignment of women to combat roles. However, these
restrictions have been greatly lessened in recent years. Women are prevented by law from being
assigned to infantry, armor, field artillery and a few other combat-specific specialties or units, but
they are assignable to combat aircraft and vessels.
So far, almost all the studies done of combat trauma have been about men. No studies have
been done of both men and women who served in the same unit. Currently, women comprise
nearly 4.5 percent of the total veteran population and more than 10 percent of the present active
duty force compared to two percent during World War II. These percentages will likely increase
(Dougherty, 1).
During World War II, women were assigned as weather observers and forecasters,
cryptographers, radio operators and repairmen, sheet metal workers, parachute riggers, link
trainer instructors, bombsight maintenance specialists, aerial photograph analysts, and control
tower operators. By January 1945 only 50 percent of AAF [Army Air Forces] WACs [Womens
Army Corps] held traditional assignments such as file clerk, typist, and stenographer. Sixteen
WACs were awarded the Purple Heart for death or injury due to enemy action, most of whom
were killed or injured by German V-l buzz-bombs while stationed in London. (Bellafaire, 1).
Women were killed in action in World War II and made prisoner by the Japanese. During the
Persian Gulf War, several women were killed in action by missile attack and the Iraqis took at
least two prisoner, one of whom was sexually assaulted. However, there are so few women who
suffered these experiences that it would be quite unusual for a particular congregation to have
one as a member. It is more likely that women veterans will have served in non-combat roles
unless their service was quite recent.
Nonetheless, some of these roles carry their own set of issues of death and dying, especially
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Nurses caring for patients in a MASH unit, Korean
War.
nurses.
4
The first female veterans who were recognized to have combat trauma were military
nurses in Viet Nam. Of the female veterans who served in the Vietnam theater 8.5 percent suffer
from war-related PTSD, while an additional 7.2 percent show partial symptoms of the disorder
(Dougherty, 1).
World War II Nurse Ruth Hess described setting up an evacuation hospital just behind
American forces sweeping through France:
We arrived late in the evening
and spent all night getting ready to receive
patients, setting up the tents and equipment.
Then went to work, for nine days we never
stopped. Eight hundred eighty patients
operated; small debridement of gunshot and
shrapnel wounds, numerous amputations,
fractures galore, perforated guts, livers,
spleens, kidneys, lungs, everything imaginable.
We cared for almost 1,500 patients in those
nine days. Then the hospital packed and
moved forward, closer to the front (Ambrose,
1). There are differences in the effects of combat trauma on females than on males. Compared to
men, women veterans:
are five times more likely to develop combat trauma symptoms, and have a higher
lifetime prevalence of combat trauma symptoms,
have a lower rate of alcohol and drug disorders but higher rates of major depression,
obsessive compulsive disorder, and phobias,
are more likely to be suicidal,
suffer more severe depressive episodes (Dougherty, 1).
The most likely type of combat trauma for women is survivors guilt, the nagging feeling
4
The Womens Army Corps and the Army Nurse Corps were not the same. Nurses were not part
of the WAC.
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that they could have done just one more thing to save a particular patient. Professional, or career,
nurses may be less likely to manifest this symptom than women who joined the service to be a
nurse for the present emergency, as the saying went in the world wars. However, field hospitals
and aid stations were by no means immune to enemy attack despite convention restrictions.
Combat-area nurses shared the same fears of death and wounds as their patients.
One of the chief contributors to womens combat trauma difficulties was the lack of peer
groups upon demobilization. There were no distaff equivalents of the VFW. Women veterans
had little opportunity to talk out their feelings and emotions.
PASTORAL CARE FOR VETERANS IN A CONGREGATIONAL SETTING
At the outset, congregational pastors should realize that overt manifestations of combat
trauma will be unlikely. Usually, serious psychological disorders requiring professional care will
have manifested themselves before the veteran left the service. These persons will almost
certainly be under care of the VA. If so, a pastor should not attempt independent care for that
veteran.
Recent research into combat trauma suggest strongly that memories are amplified as time
passes. In a study of Gulf War veterans, Seventy percent of subjects recalled traumatic events at
2 years that they had not reported at 1 month. Subjects with greater PTSD symptom levels were
significantly more likely to amplify their memory of combat trauma at the 2-year assessment
(Hales, 143).
It is most likely that lingering effects of combat trauma will be triggered by certain dates,
such as Memorial Day, Veterans Day or VE/VJ Day, since pain is often associated with
anniversary reactions (Foy, 630). These days should not pass unnoticed by a congregation with
significant veteran membership. It is not necessary to dedicate an entire service to these occasion,
but there should definitely be some sort of pastoral recognition. Something as simple as a timely
phone call or an encouraging note can be meaningful to a parishioner who is experiencing painful
memories (Foy, 630).
A ecclesial distinction should be made between Memorial Day and Veterans Day. Memorial
Day is intended to honor war dead; Veterans Day is intended to honor living veterans. Pastors
should not confuse the two intentions because veterans certainly dont, especially those who lost
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With a canvas tarpaulin for a church and packing
cases for an altar, a chaplain holds memorial
mass for Marines at Saipan.
friends in the service. It would be a good idea to approach one or two veterans of the
congregation and ask them to design the appropriate recognition, within the limits of the order of
service.
Of course, pastors must be careful to honor the intentions of these days without glorifying
war. Rhetorically, one must walk a fine line between honoring the sacrifices on the one hand
(good) while not using triumphal language of domination and conquest (bad). By no means
should the nations erstwhile enemies be subjected to calumny. Not only is it lousy theology, it
would almost certainly be very offensive to most
veterans.
5
Themes of peace and reconciliation are
well received.
Issues of war and peace offer a pastor an
opportunity to wrestle with some of the most
difficult theological problems. In particular, a
service of communion brings forth stark images of
blood and broken body which offer chances to
address the spiritual issues of combat trauma.
Sacred heart of the crucified Jesus, take away this
murdering hate and gives us thine own eternal
love, William Manchester prayed (Manchester,
391).
In the eucharistic feast, wine becomes blood and bread becomes flesh. The
5
However, I continue to be surprised by the very strong feelings of hostility against the Japanese
by many (but not all) World War II veterans. Such animosity is rare against the Germans. A man in my
congregation was shot down over Germany and held prisoner for 14 months. His apparent feelings
toward Germany are positive, but he is venomous toward Japan, even though he never fought against
them.
The reasons for this sort of hostility against Japan are complex, but seem to be due to the Pearl
Harbor attack, the fact that the Japanese method of war was exceptionally brutal, and outright ethnic spite
against the Asian race.
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The sea gave up the dead that were in it . . .
material is transformed into the spiritual. The transformation is accomplished by
the historical and material sacrifice of Jesus called Christ. This sacrifice is the
material transformation of the dichotomy of existence. To the extent the pastor
presents through word and sacrament this transcendence, he or she represents the
actions of Jesus Christ. . . . In the
issue of war, one clearly finds the
dichotomy of human existence.
(Dictionary, 1315).
Veterans may suffer from survivors
guilt in dreams, where unconscious
guilts are often manifested. . . . Fears that
they could have done something to save
their buddies if they had tried frequently
haunt veterans (Getsinger, 217). This
kind of guilt will likely not be verbalized
readily.
It is the pastors goal to foster insight and self-actualization. He promotes a climate
in which realistic understanding of needs, goals and options may be examined. This
takes place within the context of a religious community as regards acceptance,
nurturance, and the ultimate regard of every individual as an end in himself . . .
within the context of an ethic of redemptive love (Getsinger, 218).
Specific tips for a pastor helping a veteran with combat trauma are:
6
Do not marginalize veterans in the congregation because of ones own political, religious
or ideological beliefs and values. Remember that there is almost no one more inclined to
pacifism than those who have served in war.
Do not try to shut off expressions of guilt, condemnation or anger by the veteran. Do not
moralize about the rightness and wrongness of the veterans feelings.
6
Most of these suggestions generally follow Getsinger, 217, and Foy, 631, with my own
amplification. Since I have conflated them, it would be too awkward to attribute each point individually.
Page 14 of 16
. . . and death and Hades gave up the dead
that were in them, and each person was
judged according to what he had done. (Rev
20:13)
Make use of the pastoral office as a representative of a religious tradition that stresses
both the reality of sin and forgiveness and healing.
Be alert for self-destructive indications.
However, listen carefully. Many veterans may
express bafflement at having survived, such as, I
just dont see why I am alive. This kind of
expression is not a suicide indicator.
Be observant for changes in emotional states
as significant dates come up. It is normal for
reminiscing to occur, but morose emotionalism may
indicate a need for pastoral intervention.
Do not stereotype veterans as permanently
scarred spiritually. Assume that their stress is caused
by their experiences, not spiritual weakness or
immaturity.
Appropriate role expectations for the helper are support, alliance and advocacy.
Recognize that recovery from combat trauma can be a lifelong process.
Help the veteran to understand that experiences cannot be done over and losses cannot be
restored, but they can be grieved. Be willing to encourage private rituals on the veterans
part to help work through grief and loss.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Photo credits: National Archives
Ambrose, Stephen E. The Toughest Job in World War II: Medicine in the U. S. Army.
American Heritage magazine, Nov. 97, Internet page
http://www.americanheritage.com/97/nov/medic.htm
Bellafaire, Judith A. The Womens Army Corps: a Commemoration of World War II Service.
Center for Military History Publication 72-15, undated, published at
http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/wac.htm
Dictionary of Pastoral Care and Counseling. Rodney J. Hunter, ed. Abingdon, Nashville. 1990
Dougherty, Willie. Women Veterans: Survivors of a Secret BattlePTSD. Veterans News and
Information Service, undated, published at http://www.vnis.com/vetnews/vvoa9697.txt
Dyer, Gwynne. War. Crown Publishers, New York, 1985
Foy, David W., et. al. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Clinical handbook of Pastoral
Counseling, Volume 2, Robert J. Wicks and Richard D. Parsons, ed. Integration Books,
Paulist Press, New York, p. 621
Getsinger, Stephen H. Pastoral Counseling and the Combat Veteran in Journal of Religion
and Health 14, 1975, p. 214
Hales, Robert E., M.D. What is PTSD? The American Journal of Psychiatry, Feb. 97.
Jones, James. World War II. Ballantine Books, New York, 1975
Keegan, John and Richard Holmes. Soldiers, a History of Men in Battle. Hamish Hamilton,
London, 1985
Manchester, William. Goodbye, Darkness: A Memoir of the Pacific War. Little, Brown and
Company, 1979.
________ . Sunset on the Western Front, Life, magazine, Nov. 1997 p. 94
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