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3973 Words
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
ABSTRACT
I explore the basic concepts of special relativity and then apply them to interstellar space
travel, to analyze their implications. Some background knowledge of classical (Newtonian)
mechanics is assumed, and background knowledge on relativity is helpful but not absolutely
required. 1
Several types of fuel are discussed: nuclear fission(briefly), nuclear fusion and antimatter
annihilation. The conclusion is reached that fission fuel is fairly inefficient and that fusion
fuel is the better alternative within nuclear fuels. Matter-antimatter fuel annihilation is
found to be much more powerful, however it has the strong disadvantage of being much
harder to gather in sufficient amounts.
More specific aspects of interstellar travel are then investigated; I develop a method to find
required velocities that allow travelling certain distances in a given time. An equation to
find a mass-to-fuel ratio (for 100% efficient antimatter fuel) is also found :
𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑣
=γ 1+𝑐 −1. I find that the amount of fuel required for a long distance mission
𝑚 𝑠 𝑖𝑝
(25000 light years) are too high and unlikely to be possible to gather, however short range
targets such as Alpha Centaury (4.3ly) or even Gliese 871 (15ly) might be reached, perhaps
even with nuclear fuel.
Light Sail spaceships are also investigated. While requiring significantly less energy (and thus
fuel) than self-propelling rockets, they are not suitable as such for interstellar travel because
they are only capable of very low acceleration.
226 Words
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
CONTENTS
2
Abstract .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 1
Contents ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1. Time dilation........................................................................................................................................................................... 3
2. Relativistic phenomena and the Lorentz factor ....................................................................................................... 6
3. Planning a trip to a distant star ...................................................................................................................................... 9
4. Fuel .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 10
4.1. Nuclear Fuel ............................................................................................................................................................... 10
4.2. Antimatter fuel .......................................................................................................................................................... 12
4.3. Calculating the amount of fuel needed............................................................................................................ 13
5. Alternative targets ............................................................................................................................................................ 15
6. An alternate solution ........................................................................................................................................................ 16
6.1. Light Sail Spaceships .............................................................................................................................................. 17
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Appendix ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Appendix 1: Simple derivation of the Time Dilation relation(The Lorentz factor) .................................... 21
Appendix 2: Calculation of the Velocity needed to travel a certain distance in a given Perceived time
(section 3).................................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Appendix 3: How to calculate the amount of fuel needed to accelerate a rocket (Derivation, Section
4.3)................................................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Works Cited ................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
INTRODUCTION
Interstellar space travel has long been a topic of interest for many people. We have long 3
dreamed of going to distant stars or galaxies, but only fairly recently, within the last century,
the idea has begun to appear more realistic and perhaps even achievable. Humans have
been to the moon, and are planning to go to Mars next. In the very long run, we will try to go
further and further for different reasons. These include simple curiosity, searching for
extraterrestrial life, or other inhabitable planets. In this essay I will investigate how we
could, sometime in the future, achieve interstellar travel while focusing on special relativity’s
I will explore the general concepts of special relativity as proposed by Einstein, and then
evaluate their implications on space travel. I will do this by investigating two different
models: Relativistic rockets that use fuel for propulsion, and light/solar sails, which use
(Note: the term “payload” refers to any mass on a spaceship ship that is not fuel in this essay)
1. TIME DILATION
Einstein proposed that the perception of time, relative speed, mass and dimensions will dilate
or contract according to the velocity of an object or its observer, meaning that these
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
measurements can diverge for different observers. This notion follows from two
assumptions. The first is that the laws of physics are observed to be the same from all
inertial reference frames. The second assumption is that the speed of light in a vacuum is
constant, regardless of the motion of the source of the light or the observer. Every observer
will measure the speed of massless particles (c) to be the same, no matter at what speed the 4
We can visualize time dilation with a light clock, an apparatus that reflects a beam of light
between two mirrors to measure an interval of time. If we were to move the clock at
velocity v, and consider the system from an external viewpoint (that is at rest), we see that the
beam of light must travel a greater distance, since an additional component has been added to
If the speed of light (c) is indeed constant, the beam would take longer to travel between the
two mirrors, because it travels a greater distance (cT) than when at rest (ct). However this
The exact factor of dilation can be derived from this diagram by rearranging the following
formula:
5
(cT) ² = (vT)² + (ct)² (Pythagoras theorem for the path of the beam of light)
For T (the time in the accelerated system in terms of t, the time in the stationary system)
𝒕
𝑻 =
𝒗²
√(𝟏 − )
𝒄𝟐
1
𝑇 = γ × t , 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 =
𝑣2
(1 −
𝑐2
where:
v is the velocity
The variable γ (gamma) is known as the Lorentz factor. This factor is used very often when
doing calculations about relativistic effects, and I will talk more about it later on.
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
I have shown that time slows down for light-clocks, and in order for the second postulate
(constancy of the speed of light) to be correct, it must also slow down for all other clocks
6
This suggests that it is impossible for mass to travel at the speed of light, as time would freeze
completely once the speed of light is reached. When the clock reaches the speed of light, the
beam of light that is reflected must stop moving altogether for an observer on travelling
alongside it. This is because the light would have to move faster than c to reach the other
mirror.
Einstein’s theory is also supported by different kinds of empirical evidence. One good
example of this are Muon decay experiments. What these show is that cosmic ray muons,
which are “charged particles [which are] by-products of cosmic rays colliding with molecules in the
upper atmosphere”2, are found to decay at slower rates when they are moving at relativistic
speeds than when they are at rest, providing evidence for time dilation. They also show that
particles travelling near the speed of light have higher kinetic energy than one would predict
with classical equations. This has been demonstrated multiple times and is a reproducible
experiment.3 Particle accelerators in general are a good example of relativity, as they can
give particles very high kinetic energies, but never accelerate them to the point that they are
“Cosmic Ray and Neutrino Tests of Special Relativity” - Sidney Coleman, Sheldon L. Glashow
(http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9703240)
“The Mean Life and Speed of Cosmic-Ray Muons” - Javier M. G. Duarte and Sara L. Campbell
(http://web.mit.edu/woodson/Public/8.13finalpapers/Duarte_muons.pdf)
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
travelling at or above the speed of light(even if the should be travelling above c according to
1
𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 ).
I will now proceed with some more specific examples and some calculations as to how exactly
time dilation affects moving objects, since, in our everyday lives, we don't seem to notice it at
7
all, and it seems very counter-intuitive. To explain this, we need to look at the formula for
the calculation of the dilation, and hence see how strong time dilation should be on low-
velocity objects.
Einstein found that the effect could be calculated using the Lorentz transformations, or rather
the Lorentz factor, a simplified derivation of which I have shown earlier.4 As I previously
1
𝑻 = 𝛄 × 𝐭, where γ = v2
(the Lorentz factor)
√(1− 2 )
c
(This relation also shows why travel at the speed of light is impossible, as when v is equal to c,
4 Another approach of a derivation (with the same result) of it can be found in Einstein’s book “Relativity: The Special and
General Theory“.
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
1
If we graph the Lorentz factor γ as a function,γ = v2
, we get the following graph: 5
√(1− 2 )
c
This clarifies why relativistic phenomena (such as time dilation) are essentially unnoticeable
6in our everyday lives, as the effects of it 'settle down' to Newton’s laws at low speeds, as γ is
extremely close to 1 for even the highest velocities humans move at. The effects are simply
too small to notice, since we never do or have been moving at relativistic speeds relative to
each other.
We also see that time gets “compressed” more rapidly between two velocities as the speed of
light is approached (around >0.85c), much more extreme than at speeds such as just 0.5c and
0.6c. This is very significant for this investigation, as it suggests that we would have to
5 The graph uses natural units, c has been replaced by 1, therefore velocity is to be read as a fraction of c, not 𝑚𝑠 −1
6 As well as negligible for virtually all experiments involving low velovities (below 0.5c, or even 0.1c)
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
travel at least at about 0.9c to even achieve sufficient time dilation to make the trips seem
significantly shorter.
In this first example, calculations of the necessary time dilation for a trip to the center of our
galaxy, (roughly 25000 light years away from earth) will be made. It can be assumed that
the trip will either involve two generations, or humans either have a greater life-expectancy
then, and 50 years is therefore an acceptable time to reach the planet for the astronauts.
Since the ship will travel at a speed extremely close to the speed of light, we can, to simplify
calculations, say that it will need approximately 25000 years to travel the distance from the
25000
earths’ frame of reference, and 50 in its own. = 50, Time for the ship therefore needs
50
1
T= = 500
v2
√(1 − 2 )
c
v2 1
√(1 − c 2 ) = 500 Rearranging
𝑣2 1 2
= 1− Square both sides and rearrange
𝑐2 500
1 2
𝑣= 1− × 𝑐2 Solved for v
500
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
v = 0.999998c
= 299791858.4 ms-¹
Even though I assumed that the ship was traveling at the speed of light to find the time taken 10
from a stationary reference frame (to simplify calculations), the value obtained for v is
roughly correct. At this speed, it takes 50.0003 years of perceived time for the ship to travel
the 25000 light years ( see appendix for full calculations of this).
4. FUEL
Next, I will examine two types of fuel that could be used to propel a spaceship which is supposed
antimatter annihilation.
There are two types of nuclear reactions that would be suitable: fusion and fission. However,
nuclear fusion releases significantly more energy than fission, and fission therefore would be
an unlikely fuel to be used. But how much energy is released in nuclear fusion?
Commonly, nuclear fusion involves fusing deuterium and tritium into helium:
2
1𝐻 + 31𝐻 = 42𝐻𝑒 + 𝑁 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2
1𝐻 has a mass of 2.014𝑢 and 31𝐻 has a mass of 3.01605𝑢, their combined mass is:
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
−29
𝐸 = 3.119 × 10 × 𝑐2
The idea of a nuclear powered spaceship to travel large distances has been brought up various
times before, the most well known of them was called project Orion. The idea was, in simple
terms, to detonate nuclear weapons below the ship to propel it, and it would theoretically be
able to reach a maximum velocitie of roughly 0.1c this way.8 This already suggests that
nuclear fuel might not be sufficiently efficient for interstellar travel such large scales as 25000
We can calculate how fast we have to travel to reach a place in a certain time, but it is also
necessary to know how much energy is needed for such travel, if we want to actually plan a
trip under these conditions. Again, the Lorentz factor is used. The classical formula for
1
kinetic energy held by an object is 𝐾𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 . Taking into account relativistic effects, this
9 Pearson Baccalaureate: Higher Level Physics, Chris Hamper. Chapter 13: Relativity
10 This, again, cancels down to classical mechanics at low speeds, and is therefore not noticed by us.
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
a moving object again increases dramatically as the speed of light is approached, and is
infinite at c. 11 This is another example of why mass can never reach the speed of light, it
For a space mission, this is also a limiting factor, as the amount of energy needed to reach
12
‘relativistic’ velocities is dramatically higher than predicted using classical equations,
Newton’s laws. Calculating the energy needed to accelerate a certain mass to such a velocity
is fairly simple. 𝐾𝐸 = γ − 1 mc 2 gives the energy held by the object at this speed, and
thus the energy one would need to give the object to reach the velocity. So to ‘catapult’ an
energy are required. In comparison, the largest nuclear fusion reaction ever produced by
humans, the Tsar Bomba hydrogen bomb12, had an energy equivalent of 50 Megaton’s of TNT,
which translates to 2.09 × 1020 J of energy. 13 This is merely the amount of energy needed
to accelerate the mass immediately, something which we cannot do with an actual spaceship,
since the sudden acceleration would be too great for any astronauts on board. For an
actual spaceship, only some fuel is used every instant, and the rest of the fuel becomes
additional payload, which significantly increases the total amount of fuel needed, as I will
Before reaching a conclusion as to whether nuclear fuel is a good option, I will now discuss
11 Pearson Baccalaureate: Higher Level Physics, Chris Hamper. Chapter 13: Relativity
13 NIST Guide to the SI: B.8 Factors for Units listed Alphabetically
(http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/appenB8.html)
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
Matter-antimatter annihilation is a much more powerful reaction than both nuclear fission
and fusion. In the process, a particle and its antiparticle collide and annihilate, releasing a
lot of energy, often forming new particles. The energy released is given by the formula
13
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 . This is significantly more than in nuclear fusion, as not only a small mass defect is
converted into energy, but the entire mass involved in the reaction.14 For example: for just
one electron-positron pair, 511 keV, or 8.18 × 10−14 J of energy is released, which
significantly more than the energy obtained in fusion reactions, which is approximately
This appears to be the better option, but has the disadvantage of being harder to aggregate.
Currently it is still extremely difficult to gather large amounts of antimatter, an obstacle which
Calculating the amount of fuel needed for a rocket to reach a velocity is not as simple as it first
appears. Most of the fuel is carried around on the ship for a large part of the journey, and
this has to be taken into account, especially since the amounts of fuel easily surpass the mass
of the ship itself. The simplest way to calculate the amount of fuel that is required is to find
a ‘mass of fuel to mass of ship’ ratio by equating the formulas for conservation of energy and
momentum held by the system. You can see a derivation of this (which is partially adapted
14 Although in many cases this energy partly goes to the creation of new particles
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
from “The Relativistic Rocket” by Don Koks15) in the appendix, but the resulting formula for
the mass of fuel/ mass of ship ratio for a ship at a given velocity is
𝒎𝒇 𝒗
= 𝜸 𝟏+ –𝟏 16
𝒎𝒔 𝒄
14
This equation enables the calculation of the fuel/payload mass ratio, taking into account
relativistic effects.
1
𝛾= = 499.994
299791858.42 ms −1
1−
c2
𝑚𝑓 𝑣
= 𝛾 1+ −1
𝑚𝑠 𝑐
𝑚𝑓 299791858. 4ms−1
= 499.994 1 + −1
𝑚𝑠 𝑐
𝑚𝑓
= 998.987
𝑚𝑠
Nearly a thousand kilograms of matter-antimatter fuel for each kilogram of payload. For a
ship with a mass of 100,000kg, this means 99898700 kg of fuel are needed (which again
would increase the payload mass significantly, since more storage space is needed). By
current standards, it is virtually impossible to gather this much antimatter. Unless there
16 Ibid.
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
will be a major breakthrough in creating or collecting suitable antimatter, it is not going to be
Even if relatively large masses of antimatter can be obtained, an engine which is 100%
antiprotons would probably be used, since they produce charged particles, 𝜋 + 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋 −
(along with 𝜋 0 and gamma radiation, but these aren’t useful for propulsion) which can be
It follows that my subconclusion at this point is that it is unlikely that humans will ever
achieve interstellar space travel on such large scale, even using such kinds of highly efficient
engines and matter-antimatter annihilation as a fuel. However, I will now examine whether
5. ALTERNATIVE TARGETS
A closer star or planet would require less time dilation, which means lower speed, and thus
less fuel. Below, you can find a table showing distance, required time dilation to reach the
destination in 50 years or less, (I used one year for values under 10ly, 5 for distances below
150ly, 50 for the remaining) the fuel-to-mass relationship and the resulting required fuel, for
20 Research Consortium of Nearby Stars: The One Hundred Nearest Star Systems
(http://www.chara.gsu.edu/RECONS/TOP100.posted.htm)
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
and also much less time to reach. In fact, it appears that with sufficient advances in methods
of gathering antimatter (and spacecraft engineering), these are fairly realistic targets which
we have a good chance to someday be able to reach. At such distances, it might even be
possible to use nuclear fuel, which is much easier to gather (and can actually be extracted
from hydrogen, which could be found on some planets in our own solar system, which means
that a spaceship could travel in steps, rather than carrying all its fuel right from the beginning.
This is a largely discussed idea, but further exploration of this goes beyond the scope of this
essay.)
6. AN ALTERNATE SOLUTION
The main theme of this essay so far has been to establish whether interstellar space travel is
possible with so called “relativistic rockets”, spaceships that use fuel to propel themselves to
their destination, which they carry with them from the start. However, there are other
kinds of spaceships which might also be capable of interstellar travel, but do not have to solve
the problem of carrying fuel. I will briefly talk about one of these in this section: light sail
spaceships.
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
These ships could theoretically use the radiation pressure of beams from a powerful laser (or
some type of radiation source, even stars) stationed on earth or some other planet as energy
17
for propulsion. According to Einstein, photons have no mass, but still have momentum.
𝐸
This momentum is given by the equation 𝑝 = 𝑐 . 21 The law of conservation of momentum
states that, in a closed system momentum in an elastic collision must be conserved. This
means that a Light Sail spaceship could, over time, achieve great velocities, using significantly
less energy than a fuel-powered spaceship, since only the spaceship, and no remaining fuel
The momentum held by a ship at a certain velocity, taking into account relativistic
phenomena, is calculated using the formula 𝑝 = 𝛾𝑚0 𝑣. 22 Light has both energy and
momentum. Energy is given by 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐, and momentum must be conserved upon impact on
the light sail. Therefore, if absorbed, the all the light’s energy goes toward accelerating the
ship, and if reflected, this increase in momentum is even doubled. We can calculate the
momentum held by a certain ship, and then calculate how much energy in form of photons
this corresponds.
𝑚
A ship of mass 100,000𝑘𝑔 travelling at 99% of the speed of light (296 794 533 ) has the
𝑠
following momentum:
𝑝 = 𝛾𝑚0 𝑣 1
𝛾= = 50.25
296 794 5332
1−
𝑐2
−1
𝑝 = 50.25 × 100000𝑘𝑔 × 296794533𝑚𝑠
We can now calculate the amount of light energy needed to supply this much momentum:
2𝐸 18
𝑝= (from 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑐, however if the light is reflected, the momentum gained by the sail is
𝑐
1
So 𝐸 = 2 𝑝𝑐 23
1
𝐸= × 1.4914 × 1015 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 × 𝑐 = 2.2356 × 1023 𝐽
2
This is a lot of energy, but significantly less than what an antimatter fueled rocket would
consume. Using the same method as in previous examples, that amount would turn out to
be the following:
𝑚𝑓 𝑣
= 𝛾 1+ −1
𝑚𝑠 𝑐
𝑚𝑓 296794533𝑚𝑠 −1
= 50.25 1 + −1
𝑚𝑠 299792458𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑚𝑓
= 98.997
𝑚𝑠
For 100,000kg:
296794533𝑚𝑠 −1
100000𝑘𝑔 × 50.25 1 + − 1 = 9899749.99kg
299792458𝑚𝑠 −1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝐸 = 9899749.99kg × 𝑐 2
𝐸 = 8.897 × 1023 J 19
As we can see, the light-sail method requires about a quarter of this energy, even without
taking into account the fact that an antimatter rocket would not be 100% efficient.
as antimatter is still extremely rare, while light sails are comparatively easy to make.
However, light sails have the disadvantage of accelerating very slowly.24 The acceleration of the sail
is given by:25
1+ř 𝑃
𝑎=
𝑚𝑐
Where a is the acceleration, ř is the sail’s reflectivity (fraction of the light that is reflected), P
is the light sources power output and m is the sail’s mass. Assuming perfect reflectivity, this
2𝑃
turns into 𝑎 = 𝑚𝑐 , so for our ship:
2𝑃 𝑃
𝑎= =
100000𝑘𝑔 × 𝑐 50000𝑘𝑔 × 𝑐
This is a very low value, since it is extremely hard to build lasers with a power output just
remotely close to close to 50000 ∗ 𝑐 joules. Also note that this is a classical formula, not
taking into account relativistic effects, which would significantly decrease acceleration as the
24 Ibid.
25 Solar Sailing: Technology, Dynamics and Mission Applications, Colin Robert McInnes, page 272 (section 7.2)
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
speed of light is approached.26 To achieve sufficient acceleration, an extremely powerful
laser and a light sail the size of a small (or perhaps large) world is needed, as this increases
the acceleration induced on the ship. Light sails would be useful for small spacecraft with
very light payload, such as satellites or probes, but they would hardly be suitable for manned
CONCLUSION
From all this, I conclude that interstellar space travel is theoretically possible, time dilation
enables travelling large distances in little perceived time. Nuclear fuel is not an option for
large distances, but fusion might perhaps be used to reach closer systems such as Alpha
Centaury. Antimatter- matter annihilation also provides sufficient energy to reach closer
star systems, but an unlikely-to-gather amount is required for going far distances, such as to
another galaxy or even to close to the center of our own galaxy, therefore better methods of
Solar sails are also only a very limited alternative due to their low acceleration; they might be
used for unmanned spaceflight, or would have to be built on an enormous scale. In the long
run, I think it is more likely that annihilation fuel is going to be used for manned interstellar
spaceflight. There are many advances that still need to be made, most significantly the
collection of sufficient antimatter, but there are many others, just to mention a few: Radiation
shielding is a big problem, both induced radiation form particles in space, as well as radiation
26 I was unable to find or derive a formula for this that takes into account relativistic effects, however the
classical formula already suggests the the acceleration is extremely low for most lasers, and relativistic effects
would only further decrease the acceleration as c is approached (more KE required)
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
created by the actual annihilation ‘below’ the ship; the spaceships would need to be of
enormous size, a project no nation could achieve on its own, and is even a major difficulty if
many nations collaborate. The storage of fuel is also difficult, as it needs to be kept in
magnetic fields, which are for one hard to build, and then also require a lot of energy to
maintain. 21
3973 words
APPENDIX
way:
(cT) ² = (vT)² + (ct)² (Pythagoras theorem for the path of the beam of light)
𝑣²
𝑇² = × 𝑇² + 𝑡² (divide both sides by c²)
𝑐2
𝑣²
𝑇² − 𝑡² = × 𝑇²
𝑐2
𝑣²
𝑡² = 𝑇² – × 𝑇² (rearranging)
𝑐2
𝑡2 𝑣²
= 1 –
𝑇2 𝑐2
𝑡 𝒗²
= √(1 – ) (Taking the square root of both sides)
𝑇 𝒄𝟐
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
𝒕
𝑻=
𝒗𝟐
𝟏−
𝒄𝟐
where:
v is the velocity
22
c is the speed of light
Time as perceived on the ship in terms of time from a reference frame which is at rest is given
by
𝑡
𝑇=
𝑣2
1−
𝑐2
We are trying to find the velocity, and we have a given perceived time. However, we don’t
know the time as perceived in the stationary rest system, as it actually depends on the
velocity. This significantly complicates exact calculations, and I have not been able to find a
way around this.
What I did do to solve this problem was to approximate T to be equal to the distance, but in
years, since the ship would be travelling at extremely close to the speed of light, and being
exact would not greatly change the result. The actual time taken measured from the rest
reference frame would be just slightly more than 25000 years in the example I was using.
So now we have the formula (Times in years have been converted into seconds)
2
𝑣2 1.5778 ×10 9 𝑠𝑒𝑐
= 1− Square both sides and rearrange
𝑐2 7.889×10 11 𝑠𝑒𝑐
v = 0.999998c
= 299791858.4 ms-¹
We can now check the validity of this value by substituting it into the original formula,
𝑇 = 𝛾𝑡.
𝑑 25000 ×𝑐
First, T is now 𝑇 = 𝑣 , or 𝑇 = 299791858 .5 = 7.88924 × 1011 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 25000.049𝑦𝑟𝑠.
Already we can see that this is close to the first estimated value, so we can expect a roughly
accurate result.
Now 𝑇 = 𝛾𝑡, so
𝑣2
𝑡 =𝑇× 1−
𝑐2
299791858.42 𝑚𝑠 −1
= 7.88924 × 1011 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 × 1−
𝑐2
= 50.00060393 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
This is very close to 50 years, and precise enough for our purposes. The calculations in table
1 of section 5 are based on this method, and just like in this case, the margin of error was very
small. The errors were found to be negligible, as an error of less than one year (which it was
in every case, no perceived time for a certain velocity turned out to be more than 0.05 years
more than the expected value) is not large enough to affect whether the target could be
reached or not.
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
If the engine of the ship that is to be used is fueled by antimatter – matter reactions which are
24
100% efficient, meaning that all the mass is converted into energy (gamma ray photons), the
amount of which can then be calculated E = mc2. We also assume that all the energy is
converted into kinetic energy 100% efficiently and is used to accelerate the ship (which in
reality is impossible, but I will assume this for simplification). We can calculate a “mass of
fuel / mass of ship” ratio by equating the formulas for conservation of energy and momentum
The ship’s mass is assigned the variable ms, whereas the mass of the fuel, antimatter + matter,
is given the variable mf. We know the mass of the ship, and we are trying to find the mass of
the fuel. Applying the law of conservation of energy, the total energy held by the ship and fuel
before takeoff (from a stationary reference frame) is E0 = (ms + mf) c2, and is equal to the
total energy after the fuel has all been converted to energy (which we assign the variable
The momentum of the ship at rest is P0 = 0. After all the fuel has been used up, and the
energy was used to create force towards the opposite direction of the ships travel, the
momentum of this energy (assuming it is in the form of light) is plight = Ef/c, where c is the
P. Dowling – Physics Extended Essay
speed of light. This was calculated using the formula E = pc for the energy-to-momentum
relationship of a photon. 27
Since at the end of our trip, momentum of the ship is zero, we can write the formula for the
𝑬𝒇
(𝒎𝒔 + 𝒎𝒇 ) 𝒄𝟐 = 𝜸𝒎𝒔 𝒄𝟐 + 𝑬𝒇 and 𝜸𝒎𝒔 𝒗 − . = 𝟎.
𝒄
We can rearrange both for 𝐸𝑓 in order to set both formulas equal, and then solve them for
𝒎𝒇
, which is the ratio of the mass of fuel needed to accelerate one kg of payload to the final
𝒎𝒔
velocity. 28
𝐸𝑓 = 𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚𝑓 𝑐 2 − 𝛾𝑚𝑠 𝑐 2 (1)
𝐸𝑓 = 𝛾𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑐 (2)
(1)=(2) :
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚𝑓 𝑐 2 − 𝛾𝑚𝑠 𝑐 2 = 𝛾𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑐
𝛾𝑚 𝑠 𝑣
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚𝑓 = + 𝛾𝑚𝑠 (divide both sides by 𝑐 2 )
𝑐
𝑣
𝑚𝑠 + 𝑚𝑓 = 𝛾𝑚𝑠 ( 𝑐 + 1) (rearranging)
𝒎𝒇 𝒗
= 𝜸 𝟏 + 𝒄 –𝟏 (Divide both sides by ms)
𝒎𝒔
26
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