2-1 Introduction

When conducting a statistical study, the researcher must gather data for the particular variable under study. To describe
situations, draw conclusions, or make inferences about events, the researcher must organize the data in some
meaningful way. The most convenient method of organizing data is to construct a frequency distribution.
2-2 Organizing Data
After organizing the data, the researcher must present them so those who will benefit from reading the study can
understand them. When data are collected in original form, they are called raw data. The most useful method of
presenting the data is by constructing statistical charts and graphs.
A frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes and frequencies.
Two types of frequency distributions that are most often used are the categorical frequency distribution and the
grouped frequency distribution.
The categorical frequency distribution is used for data that can be placed in specific categories, such as nominal- or
ordinal-level data.
When the range of data is large, the data must be grouped into classes that are more than one unit in width.
Constructing a Grouped requency Distribution!
1" Deter#ine the classes.
a. ind the highest and lowest values.
b. ind the range. !"ange # highest value $ lowest value%
c. &elect the number of classes desired. !There should be between ' and () classes.%
d. ind the width by dividing the range by the number of classes and rounding up. !The class width
should be an odd number. This ensures that the midpoint of each class has the same place value as
the data. The class #idpoint is obtained by adding the lower and upper boundaries and dividing
by (, or adding the lower and upper limits and dividing by (.%
e. &elect a starting point !usually the lowest value or any convenient number less than the lowest
value%* add the width to get the lower limits.
f. ind the upper class limits. !The class limits should have the same decimal place value as the
data.%
g. ind the boundaries. !The class boundaries should have one additional place value and end in a '.%
2" $ally the data.
%" ind the nu#erical frequencies fro# the tallies.
&" ind the cu#ulati'e frequencies.
(DDI$IO)(* I)O+,($IO)!
+% The classes must be mutually e,clusive* i.e., they must have nonoverlapping class limits so that data
cannot be placed into two classes.
(% The classes must be continuous. -ven if there are no values in a class, the class must be included in the
frequency distribution. There should be no gaps in a frequency distribution. The only e,ception occurs
when the class with a zero frequency is the first or last class.
.% The class must be e,haustive. There should be enough classes to accommodate all the data.
/% The classes must be equal in width. This avoids a distorted view of the data.
0ne e,ception occurs when there is an open-ended distribution !it has no specific beginning value or no specific
ending value.%
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The method for constructing a frequency distribution is not unique, and there are other ways of constructing one. &light
variations e,ist, especially in computer packages. 3ut regardless of what methods are used, classes should be mutually
e,clusive, continuous, e,haustive, and of equal width.
+easons for Constructing a requency Distribution!
+% To organize the data in a meaningful, intelligible way.
(% To enable the reader to determine the nature or shape of the distribution.
.% To facilitate computational procedures for measures of average and speed.
/% To enable the researcher to draw charts and graphs for the presentation of data.
'% To enable the reader to make comparisons among different data sets.
-.a#ple 1!
Thirty army inductees were given a blood test to determine their blood type. The data set is given below4
A A A3 3 A 0
0 0 3 3 A3 A3
A 3 3 0 0 0
A3 3 A 0 3 3
0 0 3 0 A 3
1onstruct a categorical frequency distribution for the data.
-.a#ple 2!
The heights in inches of commonly grown herbs are shown below. 0rganize the data into a frequency distribution with
si, classes, and think of a way in which these results would be useful.
+5 () +5 +5 (/ +) +'
+( () .6 +/ () +5 (/
+5 +6 +6 () 7
&ource4 The Old Farmers Almanac
2-% /istogra#s0 requency 1olygons0 and Ogi'es
After the data have been organized into a frequency distribution, they can be presented in graphical form. The purpose
of graphs in statistics is to convey the data to viewers in pictorial form. 8raphs are also useful in getting the audience9s
attention in a publication or a speaking presentation. They can be used to discuss an issue, reinforce a critical point, or
summarize a data set. The can also be used to discover a trend or pattern in a situation over a period of time.
The three most commonly used graphs in research are4
+% The histogra#4 a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars !unless the frequency of a
class is )% of various heights to represent the frequencies of the classes.
(% The frequency polygon4 a graph that displays the data by using lines that connect points plotted for the
frequencies at the midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are represented by the heights of the points.
.% The ogi'e !or cu#ulati'e frequency%4 a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a
frequency distribution.
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Constructing 2tatistical Graphs
+% :raw and label the x and y a,es.
(% 1hoose a suitable scale for the frequencies or cumulative frequencies, and label it on the y a,is.
.% "epresent the class boundaries for the histogram or ogive, or the midpoint for the frequency polygon, on the x
a,is.
/% 2lot the points and then draw the bars or lines.
The histogram, the frequency polygon, and the ogive are constructed by using frequencies in terms of raw data. These
distributions can be converted to distributions using proportions instead of raw data as frequencies. These types of
graphs are called relati'e frequency graphs. "elative frequency graphs are used when the proportion of data values
that fall into a given class is more important than the actual number of data values that fall into that class.
To convert a frequency into a proportion or relative frequency, divide the frequency for each class by the total of the
frequencies. The sum of the relative frequencies will always be one.
-.a#ple 1!
or 7' employees of a large department store, the following distribution for years of service was obtained. 1onstruct a
histogram, frequency polygon, and ogive for the data. A ma;ority of the employees have worked for how many years or
less<
Class li#its requency
+.' (+
6.+) ('
++.+' +'
+6.() )
(+.(' 5
(6..) 6
Distribution 2hapes
:istributions are most often not perfectly shaped, so it is necessary not to have an e,act shape but rather to identify an
overall pattern.
A bell-shaped distribution has a single peak and tapers off at either end. =t is appro,imately symmetric* i.e., it is
roughly the same on both sides of a line running through the center.
A unifor# distribution is basically flat or rectangular.
A 3-shaped distribution has a few data values on the left side and increases as one moves to the right.
A re'erse 3-shaped distribution is the opposite of a >-shaped distribution.
When the peak of the distribution is to the left and the data values taper off to the right, a distribution is said to be
right-s4ewed.
When the data values are clustered to the right and taper off to the left, a distribution is said to be left-s4ewed.
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:istributions with one peak are said to be uni#odal.
When a distribution has two peaks of the same height, it is said to be bi#odal.
A 5-shaped distribution has peaks on both the left and right and then decreases as one moves toward the center.
The highest peak of a distribution indicates where the mode of the data value is. The mode is the data value that occurs
more often than any other data value.
2-& Other $ypes of Graphs
I. 1areto Charts4 used to represent a frequency distribution for a categorical variable, and the frequencies are
displayed by the heights of vertical bars, which are arranged in order from highest to lowest.
2uggestions for Drawing 1areto Charts!
+% ?ake the bars the same width.
(% Arrange the data from largest to smallest according to frequencies.
.% ?ake the units that are used for the frequency equal in size.
-.a#ple 1! The World "oller 1oaster 1ensus "eport lists the following number of roller coasters on each continent.
"epresent the data graphically, using a 2areto 1hart.
Africa +7
Asia .+'
Australia ((
-urope /+.
@orth America 6/.
&outh America /'
&ource4 www.rcdb.com
II. $i#e 2eries Graphs4 represents data that occur over a specific period of time
2teps!
+% :raw and label the , and y a,es.
(% Aabel the , a,is for years and the y a,is for the frequencies.
.% 2lot each point according to the table.
/% :raw line segments connecting ad;acent points. :o not try to fit a smooth curve through the data points.
-.a#ple 2! :raw a time series graph to represent the data for the number of airline departures !in millions% for the
given years.
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6ear +BB/ +BB' +BB6 +BB7 +BB5 +BBB ()))
)o. of
departures 7.' 5.+ 5.( 5.( 5.. 5.6 B.)
&ource4 The World Almanac and Book of Facts
III. 1ie Graphs4 circles that are divided into sections or wedges according to the percentages of frequencies in
each category of the distributions.
2teps!
+% &ince there are .6) degrees in a circle, the frequency for each class must be converted into a proportional
part of the circle. This conversion is done by using the formula :egrees # . .6)

n
f
(% 1onvert each frequency into a percentage.
.% Cse a protractor and a compass to draw the graph and label each section with the name and percentages.
/%
-.a#ple %! The following data are based on a survey from American Travel &urvey on why people travel. 1onstruct a
pie graph for the data and analyze the results.
1urpose )u#ber
2ersonal 3usiness +/6
Disit friends or relatives ..)
Work-related (('
Aeisure (BB
I7. 2te# and *eaf 1lots4 data plot that uses part of the data value as the stem and part of the data value as the leaf
to form groups or classes.
2teps!
+% Arrange the data in order.
(% &eparate the data according to the first digit.
.% Cse the leading digit as the stem and the trailing digit as the leaf.
-.a#ple &! The @ational =nsurance 1rime 3ureau reported that these data represent the number of registered vehicles
per car stolen for .' selected cities in the Cnited &tates. or e,ample, in ?iami, one automobile is stolen for every .5
registered vehicles in the city. 1onstruct a stem and leaf plot for the data and analyze the distribution. !The data have
been rounded to the nearest whole number.%
.5 '. '. '6 6B 5B B/
/+ '5 65 66 6B 5B '(
') 7) 5. 5+ 5) B) 7/
') 7) 5. 'B 7' 75 7.
B( 5/ 57 5/ 5' 5/ 5B
7. 8ac4-to-bac4 2te# and *eaf 1lot4 uses the same digits for the stems of both distributions, but the digits that
are used for the leaves are arranged in order out from the stems on both sides.
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