CHAPTER 2

Atoms, Molecules and Ions

The History of Atomic Theory
Circa. 400-5 C. !ree" #$iloso#$er %emocritus #ro#oses t$e idea o& matter 'ein( made
u# o& small, indi)isi'le #articles *atomos+.
,ate -.t$ Centur/. ,a)oisier #ro#oses t$e ,a0 o& conser)ation o& mass and
Proust #ro#oses t$e ,a0 o& Constant Com#osition.
Earl/ -1t$ Centur/. 2sin( t$e #re)iousl/ unconnected ideas a'o)e, 3o$n %alton
&ormulates $is Atomic T$eor/
-.04--3o$n %alton #ro#osed t$e atomic t$eor/ o& matter *'ased on "no0led(e at t$at time+5
-. All matter is made o& atoms. T$ese indi)isi'le and indestructi'le o'6ects are t$e ultimate
c$emical #articles.
2. All t$e atoms o& a (i)en element are identical, in 'ot$ 0ei($t and c$emical #ro#erties.
Ho0e)er, atoms o& di&&erent elements $a)e di&&erent 0ei($ts and di&&erent c$emical
#ro#erties.
4. Com#ounds are &ormed '/ t$e com'ination o& di&&erent atoms in t$e ratio o& small 0$ole
num'ers.
4. A c$emical reaction in)ol)es onl/ t$e com'ination, se#aration, or rearran(ement o& atoms7
atoms are neit$er created nor destro/ed in t$e course o& ordinar/ c$emical reactions.
88T9: M:%I;ICATI:<= HA>E EE< MA%E T: %A,T:<?= THE:R@
-. =u'atomic #articles 0ere disco)ered.
2. Isoto#es 0ere disco)ered.
=cientist EA#eriment Bno0led(e !ained Relatin( to
Croo"es Cat$ode Ra/ Tu'e <e(ati)e #articles o&
some "ind eAist
Electron
3.3 T$omson Cat$ode Ra/
%e&lection
MassCC$ar(e ratio o&
t$e electron
determined
Electron
Milli"an :il %ro# EA#eriment C$ar(e on t$e electron Electron
Rut$er&ord, Marsden
and !ei(er
!old ;oil EA#eriment <ucleus Present in
atom
T$e nucleus o& an
atom and t$e #roton
C$ad0ic" T$ere is a neutral
#article
<eutron
In t$e &irst #art o& t$e 20t$ Centur/, &ollo0in( C$ad0ic"Ds disco)er/ o& t$e neutron, o$r
#ro#osed t$e idea t$at t$e atom 0as made u# o& t$e nucleus containin( #rotons and neutrons t$at
0as 'ein( or'ited '/ electrons in s#eci&ic, allo0ed or'its. T$is #article model o& t$e electron and
atom 0as eA#anded a &e0 /ears a&ter o$rDs ori(inal ideas to incor#orate t$e 0a)e nature o& t$e
electron
! Hunt, C$a#ter 2 -
Particle C$ar(e Mass Position
Proton E- -amu <ucleus
<eutron 0 -amu <ucleus
Electron -- -C-.4F amu :utside nucleus
Fundamental Chemical Laws
- ,A9 :; C:<=ER>ATI:< :; MATTER5 matter can neit$er 'e created nor
destro/ed in a c$emical reaction. Antoine ,a)oisier *-G44--G14+ Hence t$e need &or 'alanced
eHuationsII
EA. In a com'ustion reaction, 4F ( o& et$anol reacts 0it$ 1F.0 ( o& oA/(en to #roduce
0ater and car'on dioAide. I& 54.0 ( o& 0ater is #roduced, $o0 muc$ car'on dioAide is #roducedJ
2, ,A9 :; %E;I<ITE PR:P:RTI:<5 a (i)en com#ound al0a/s contains eAactl/ t$e
same #ro#ortion o& elements '/ mass. *Proust+
EA. a sam#le o& c$loro&orm is &ound to contain -2.0 ( car'on, -0F.4 ( o& c$lorine and
-.0- ( o& $/dro(en. I& a second sam#le o& c$loro&orm is &ound to contain 40.0 ( o& car'on, $o0
man/ (rams o& c$lorine and (rams o& $/dro(en does it containJ
ELEMENTS
all matter com#osed o& onl/ one t/#e o& atom is an element. 12 naturall/ occurrin(,
all ot$ers manmade.

ATOMS
atom--t$e smallest #article o& an element t$at retains t$e c$emical #ro#erties o& t$at
element.
nucleus--contains t$e #rotons and t$e neutrons7 t$e electrons are located outside t$e nucleus
- #roton--#ositi)e c$ar(e, res#onsi'le &or t$e identit/ o& t$e element, de&ines
atomic num'er
- neutron--no c$ar(e, same siKe L mass as a #roton, res#onsi'le &or isoto#es,
alters atomic mass num'er
electron--ne(ati)e c$ar(e, -C-.4F t$e mass o& a #roton or neutron, res#onsi'le &or 'ondin(, $ence
reactions and ioniKations, easil/ added or remo)ed.
atomic num'er*M+--T$e num'er o& #E in an atom. All atoms o& t$e same element $a)e t$e same
num'er o& #E.
mass num'er*A+--T$e sum o& t$e num'er o& neutrons and #E &or an atom. A di&&erent mass
num'er does not mean a di&&erent element--6ust an isoto#e.
! Hunt, C$a#ter 2 2
mass num'er A
=
atomic num'er M

Please note5 actual mass is not an inte(ral num'erI mass de&ect--causes t$is and is related
to t$e ener(/ 'indin( t$e #articles o& t$e nucleus to(et$er *c$a#ter G+
ISOTOPES
isoto#es--atoms $a)in( t$e same atomic num'er *N o& #E+ 'ut a di&&erent num'er o&
neutrons. T$is leads to t$e modi&ication o& %altonDs Atomic T$eor/ a'o)e, to read.
All Atoms of the same element contain the same number of protons and electrons but may have
different numbers of neutrons
most elements $a)e at least t0o sta'le isoto#es, t$ere are )er/ &e0 0it$ onl/
one sta'le isoto#e *Al, ;, P+
$/dro(ens isoto#es are so im#ortant t$e/ $a)e s#ecial names5 I& a $/dro(en
atom 0it$ - #roton *o& course+ $as5
0 neutrons O $/dro(en
- neutron O deuterium
2 neutrons O tritium
=ince it is t$e electrons in atoms t$at a&&ect t$e c$emical #ro#erties o& a su'stance, isoto#es o&
t$e same element $a)e t$e same c$emical #ro#erties.
Task
1. Consider the following pairs; does either pair represent a pair of
isotopes?
(i)
40
K19 and
40
Ar18
(ii)
90
r!8 and
94
r!8
". #eter$ine the n%$&er of protons' ele(trons and ne%trons in'
(i)
"10
)&8"
:n some #eriodic ta'les /ou 0ill &ind atomic mass num'ers t$at are not inte(ers.
9$at does t$is meanJ A (ood startin( #oint is to anal/Ke what it does not mean.
;or eAam#le, t$e atomic mass o& Cl is o&ten Huoted on a #eriodic ta'le as 45.5 and can 'e
re#resented '/ t$e &ollo0in( s/m'ol7 45.5 Cl
-G
T$is does not mean t$at t$ere are -G #rotons, -G
electrons and -..5 neutrons in an atom o&

c$lorine. It is not #ossi'le to $a)e a &raction o& a
! Hunt, C$a#ter 2 4
neutron, t$ere can onl/ 'e a 0$ole num'er o&

neutrons in an atom. =o 0$at does it mean, and
0$ere does t$e 0.5 come &romJ Here is t$e eA#lanation.
T$e non inte(er )alues mean t$at t$ere is more t$an one isoto#e o& c$lorine t$at eAists in
nature, in t$is case 45Cl and 4GCl. A Huic" calculation 0ill tell /ou t$at t$ese t0o s#ecies $a)e t$e
same num'er o& #rotons and electrons, 'ut di&&erent *0$ole+ num'ers o& neutrons *-. and 20
res#ecti)el/+. T$at is, t$e/ are isoto#es o& one anot$er. T$ese isoto#es $a##en to eAist naturall/ in
t$e &ollo0in( a'undance7 45Cl G5P and 4GCl 25P.

A simle calculation can !e alied to wor" out the a#era$e atomic mass when considerin$
all the isotoes resent in the natural samle
A*erage ato$i( $ass + , - of ea(h isotope ( ato$i( $ass of ea(h isotope)
100
Therefore in the a&o*e pro&le$
A*g ato$i( $ass + (!.) (/.) 0 (!/) (".) + !... ( a non1 integer)
100
2r easil3 written ./. 4 !. 0 .". 4!/ + !...
Anot$er eAam#le is #ro)ided '/ oron. oron $as t0o isoto#es
-0
and
--
. T$e/ $a)e t$e
a'undance -..GP and .-.4P res#ecti)el/.
A)( atomic mass O**-0+ *-..G+ E **--+ *.-.4++ O -0..
-00
Task
1. The 5o&le gas' 5eon has three isotopes of $asses ""' "1 and "0. 6f the isotopes ha*e the
a&%ndan(e 8.01-' 1.99- and 90.00- respe(ti*el3' what is the a*erage ato$i( $ass of the
neon ato$s?
2. A nat%rall3 o((%rring sa$ple of an ele$ent (onsists of two isotopes' one of $ass 8.
and one of $ass 8/. The a&%ndan(e of these isotopes is /1- and "9-. Cal(%late the
a*erage ato$i( $ass of an ato$ of this ele$ent.
!' 5at%rall3 o((%rring Chlorine $ole(%les' Cl " ha*e $asses of /0' /" and /4. The3 o((%r in
the per(entages .7.".-' !/..0- and 7.".0-. 8hat is the a*erage ato$i( $ass of (hlorine
ato$s? 8hat is the relati*e a&%ndan(e of
!.
Cl and
!/
Cl isotopes?
! Hunt, C$a#ter 2 4
Atoms may !e isoelectric % that is they ha#e the same num!er of electrons& 'i#e an
e(amle
THE PE)IO*IC TA+LE OF THE ELEMENTS,,AN
INT)O*-CTION
! (rou#s--)ertical columns7 $a)e similar #$/sical and c$emical #ro#erties *'ased on similar
electron con&i(urationsII+
" (rou# --transition elements7 all metals7 $a)e numerous oAidationC)alence states
! #eriods--$oriKonal ro0s7 #ro(ress &rom metals to metalloids to nonmetals
! MEM:RIME5
-. A,BA,I META,=
2. A,BA,I<E EARTH META,=
4. HA,:!E<=
4. <:,E *RARE+ !A==E=
! <ote di)isions o& #eriodic ta'le. Metals, metalloids, nonmetals, s, #,d, & areas
Molecules
Molecules are &ormed 0$en a de&inite num'er o& atoms are 6oined to(et$er '/ c$emical 'onds. A
molecule can consist o& t$e atoms o& onl/ one element, or t$e atoms o& man/ di&&erent elements
'ut al0a/s in a &iAed #ro#ortion. T$is means t$at molecules can 'e elements or com#ounds.
Molecules are usuall/ &ormed 'et0een non-metal elements. ;ormulae s$o0 t$e num'er o& eac$
t/#e o& atom #resent 0ritten as su'scri#ts. T$e lac" o& a su'scri#t means onl/ one o& t$at t/#e o&
atom is #resent.
EAam#les o& molecules
=u'stance and ;ormula Element or Com#oundJ %escri#tion
H2, :2 * rincl$o&+ Elements %iatomic
9ater* H2:+ Com#ound #ol/atomic
Ammonia* <H4+ Com#ound Pol/atomic
Ions
Atoms $a)e eHual num'ers o& #rotons and electrons and conseHuentl/ $a)e no o)erall c$ar(e.
9$en atoms lose or (ain electrons, t$e #roton5 electron num'ers are un'alanced causin( t$e
#articles to 'ecome c$ar(ed. T$ese c$ar(ed #articles are called ions. Positi)e ions *0$ere t$e
num'er o& #rotons is (reater t$an t$e num'er o& electrons+ are called cations, and ne(ati)e ions
*0$ere t$e num'er o& electrons is (reater t$an t$e num'er o& #rotons+ are called anions. Metals
tend to &orm cations and non-metals tend to &orm anions. T$ese o##ositel/ c$ar(ed ions &orm
ionic com#ounds '/ attractin( one anot$er. An ion made u# o& onl/ one t/#e o& atom is called a
monatomic ion7 one made u# &rom more t$an one t/#e o& atom is called a #ol/atomic ion.
! Hunt, C$a#ter 2 5
EAam#les o& ions
=u'stance ;ormulaC=/m'ol Cation or anion %escri#tion
=odium ion * <a
E
+ Cation Monoatomic
C$loride ion * Cl
-
+ Anion Monatomic
Car'onate ion * C:4
2-
+ Anion Pol/atomic
Ammonium ion * <H4
E
+ Cation Pol/atomic
Namin$ of comounds
%o /ou remem'er $o0 to name com#oundsJ
Ionic com#ounds
Co)alent com#ounds
AcidsO 'inar/ and oA/(en com#ounds
H/drates
H/drates are ionic &ormula units 0it$ 0ater associated 0it$ t$em. T$e 0ater molecules are
incor#orated into t$e solid structure o& t$e ions. To name a hydrate use the normal name of
the ionic comound followed !y the term hydrate with an aroriate refi( to show the
num!er of water molecules er ionic formula unit& E.(. Co##er*II+ sul&ate #enta$/drate.
=tron( $eatin( can (enerall/ dri)e o&& t$e 0ater in t$ese salts. :nce t$e 0ater $as 'een remo)ed
t$e salts are said to !e anhydrous .0it$out 0ater+.
<ame a*=:4+ QFH2: J
Practice ma"es #er&ect5 ,ots o& 0or"s$eets a)aila'le
! Hunt, C$a#ter 2 F