162-196 Innovation Drive, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2 Tel: (204) 453-1301; Fax: (204) 474-7552; www.kanebiotech.com White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 2 1.0 Introduction For centuries, scientists thought infectious diseases were spread through the air or by direct person-to-person contact. They believed the surrounding hard surfaces played little or no role. 9 Until 1987, even the Centers for Disease Control and the American Hospital Association focused on the spread of infection from one person to another, thinking that flu infections were not spread from contaminated hard surfaces. 9 Conventional strains of the flu only lasted a few hours on hard surfaces. That thinking changed with the H1N1 pandemic as this virus lives longer on hard surfaces than the typical flu, which survives just a few hours. Also, the bacterial pathogens commonly isolated from hospital and food processing industry environment can survive on hard surfaces for months (Table 1). 21 Furthermore, almost all bacteria live in biofilms (slime) that they form on either living or non-living surfaces and are similar to plaque formation on teeth. Thus, preventing and/ or removing bacterial biofilms on hard surfaces with antibiofilm-antimicrobial disinfectant is critical in controlling infectious diseases.
Table 1 Persistence of clinically relevant bacteria on dry inanimate hard surfaces
Pathogen Duration of persistence (Range) Acinetobacter spp. 3 days to 5 months Escherichia coli 1.5 hours to 16 months Campylobacter jejuni Up to 6 days Enterococcus spp., including VRE and VSE 5 days to 4 months Klebsiella spp. 2 hours to >30 months Listeria spp. 1 day to months Pseudomonas aeruginosa 6 hours to 16 months; on dry floor: 5 weeks Salmonella typhi 6 hours to 4 weeks Salmonella typhimurium 10 days to 4.2 years Staphylococcus aureus including MRSA 7 days to 7 months
Although currently marketed disinfectants are effective against free-living (planktonic) bacteria, they are ineffective against bacteria in biofilms that can be 1000 times resistant to antimicrobials. These disinfectants mostly contain the active ingredients such as quaternary ammonium compounds, alcohol, biguanides, bisphenols, heavy metal derivatives, hypochlorite and phenols. These compounds might have some biofilm inhibition activity, but none of them have any effect on bacteria in preformed biofilm. The major players in disinfectant industry include Clorox, S.C. Johnson and Reckitt & Benckiser. Clorox product-line includes Clorox, Formula 409, Liquid-Plumr, Pine-Sol, S.O.S. and Tilex. While S.C. Johnson has products such as Windex and Drano, Reckitt & Benckiser has Lysol for multipurpose applications. Thus, there is an unmet market need for disinfectants with both the antibiofilm and antimicrobial activity. This white paper describes the ability of KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant to eliminate biofilm embedded bacteria on hard surfaces. The recent Health Canada approval of this disinfectant (DIN # 02374463) for domestic use led to submission of post-DIN application for other applications such as in food and beverage manufacturing, hospitality industry, hospitals, institutions, livestock production, and clean rooms. The following sections describe biofilm formation & challenges, how KBI Disinfectant works, its antibiofilm- antimicrobial efficacy and also its applications in reducing the microbial contaminations in industries and hospital-acquired infections.
2.0 Biofilm Challenges Bacterial biofilms are slime that may consist of several types of bacteria. A common example of biofilm is the plaque that forms on teeth. In technical terms, bacterial biofilms are a structured community of bacteria enclosed in a self-produced extracellular polysaccharide matrix. The plaques are formed by extracellular polysaccharides, which are complex sticky sugar chains located on the outer part of the bacterial cell. These sugar chains are one of natures strongest glues, which weave the bacteria together and attach them to White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 3 surfaces. They start with an individual bacterial cell (also called free-living or planktonic cell) and these free- living cells are the building blocks of biofilms (Figure 1). Bacterial cells attach to a hard surface using their gluey extracellular polysaccharide structures. This is the first step in biofilm formation, followed by the bacterial cell- cell attachment. This sequence of events leads to a highly structured and organized ecosystem that is self- sustaining and provides a continuous source of contamination. Biofilms can form on any hard surfaces including kitchen counter tops, hospital beds, food processing equipments, and cooling water towers.
Figure 1: Biofilm Formation
According to an estimate by the National Institute of Health (NIH, USA), about 80% of all human bacterial infections are caused by biofilms. 24 From a medical perspective, both commensal and pathogenic microorganisms form biofilm-like conglomerates that are associated with the epithelial or endothelial lining; embedded in the lung, intestinal or vaginal mucus layer; attached to the teeth or medical implant surfaces, or formed intracellularly or formed on hard surfaces. Biofilm formation and persistence has profound implications for the patient, because microorganisms growing as biofilms are 100-1000 times less susceptible to antibiotics and host defenses than free-living bacteria. Biofilm-associated resistance could be attributed to the following: (i) antimicrobials fail to penetrate beyond the surface layers of biofilm; (ii) antimicrobials may be trapped and destroyed by enzymes in the biofilm matrix; (iii) presence of non-growing bacteria (persister cells) against which antimicrobials are not active; (iv) expression of biofilm-specific genes; and (v) overexpression of antimicrobial-destroying enzymes in response to hostile environmental conditions. Many biofilm infections are notoriously difficult to resolve and they commonly manifest as chronic or recurrent infections. Biofilm infections constitute a number of clinical challenges, including diseases involving uncultivable species, chronic inflammation, impaired wound healing, and rapidly acquired antibiotic resistance.
3.0 How KBI Disinfectant Works KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant contains synergistic antibiofilm-antimicrobial combination comprising Chlorhexidine (CHX) and Sodium Metaperiodate (SMP). Both the compounds have a broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity and sodium metaperiodate also has a broad-spectrum antibiofilm activity. When the biofilm is disrupted by sodium metaperiodate, chlorhexidine rapidly kills bacteria embedded in biofilm on a hard surface (Figure 2). While chlorhexidine kills bacteria by disrupting bacterial cell membrane, sodium metaperiodate disrupts biofilms by oxidizing carbons bearing hydroxyl groups in polysaccharides, thereby cleaving C-C bonds. 38 When these two compounds are used in combination, sodium metaperiodate increases the antimicrobial activity of chlorhexidine. 15
Bacteria embedded in a biofilm Polysaccharide matrix Bacteria embedded in a biofilm Polysaccharide matrix White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 4 Figure 2: KBI Disinfectant in Action
4.0 Antibiofilm Efficacy of KBI Disinfectant 4.1 Synergistic Activity: The synergistic antimicrobial and antibiofilm efficacy of Chlorhexidine (CHX) and Sodium Metaperiodate (SMP) combination was tested against E. coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa growth and biofilm formation using a standard 96-well crystal violet staining biofilm assay. Bacteria were grown in Tryptic Soy Broth (TSB) medium in a 96-well microtiterplate in the absence and presence of CHX and SMP alone and combination (CHX+SMP). The combination of CHX and SMP inhibited significantly more E. coli and P. aeruginosa growth and biofilm compared to CHX or SMP alone (Figure 3). SMP breaks down polysaccharide matrix releasing biofilm embedded bacteria Bacteria CHX kills bacteria by rupturing cell membrane Polysaccharide matrix Bacteria SMP breaks down polysaccharide matrix releasing biofilm embedded bacteria Bacteria CHX kills bacteria by rupturing cell membrane Polysaccharide matrix Bacteria White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 5
Figure 3: Synergistic Inhibitory Effect of Chlorhexidine (CHX) and Sodium Metaperiodate (SMP) Alone and in Combination on Growth and Biofilm Formation of E. coli, and P. aeruginosa
4.2 Antibiofilm Activity: Two different types of in vitro models such as Minimum Biofilm Eradication Concentration (MBEC) Assay (Innovotech, Edmonton, AB, Canada) and CDC biofilm reactor (CBR) Assay (BioSurface Technologies, Corp., Bozeman, MT) were used to evaluate the efficacy of KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm. Both the assay methods are approved by the USA standard setting organization American Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM International) for evaluating antibiofilm activity of disinfectant product on hard surfaces. While biofilm is formed under a low shear force using MBEC assay, CBR assay represent biofilm formed under high shear force. 1, 5
P. aeruginosa produced 4.46 log 10 CFU/mm 2 and 8.38 log 10 CFU/cm 2 biofilm on MBEC pegs (low shear force) and in CDC biofilm reactor (high shear force), respectively. By using two different methods, we were able to study the antibiofilm activity of disinfectants against biofilm produced under two different shear forces. However, the MBEC assay of low shear biofilm may be more relevant to Hard Surface disinfectants compared to CDC Biofilm Reactor assay of high shear biofilm. Biofilm produced under high shear force was more robust and therefore, it was more resistant to disinfectant treatment than biofilm formed under a low shear force. While KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant killed 100% biofilm-embedded P. aeruginosa cells grown under a low shear force, about 4 log reduction (more than 99.99% kill) was observed under high shear force (Figure 4). When tested in comparison with commercially available Quaternary Ammonium Chloride (Quats) disinfectant product, KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant was 10-100 times more effective in killing biofilm embedded P. aeruginosa cells. Superior antibiofilm activity of KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant under both the assay conditions could be attributed to antibiofilm compound sodium metaperiodate in the formulation.
Growth @ 600 nm Biofilm @ 630 nm E. coli P. aeruginosa 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Control CHX SMP CHX+SMP P e r c e n t a g e 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Control CHX SMP CHX+SMP P e r c e n t a g e Growth @ 600 nm Biofilm @ 630 nm Growth @ 600 nm Biofilm @ 630 nm E. coli P. aeruginosa 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Control CHX SMP CHX+SMP P e r c e n t a g e 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Control CHX SMP CHX+SMP P e r c e n t a g e White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 6 Figure 4: Comparison of Antibiofilm Activity of KBI Disinfectant with a Commercial Product
4.3 Antimicrobial Activity: The broad spectrum antimicrobial activity of KBI Disinfectant product is mainly due to chlorhexidine (Table 2). Chlorhexidine is a membrane-active agent, causing protoplast and spheroplast lysis. At a higher concentration, it causes precipitation of proteins and nucleic acids.
B i o f i l m MBEC Device (Low Shear Force) CBR (High Shear Force) Control KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant Commercial Product (Quat) White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 7 The antimicrobial activity of KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant was determined by Use-Dilution method as described by Official Methods of Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists. 2-4 The Use-Dilution Method determines disinfectant activity for germicidal solutions. Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella choleraesuis are tested to support broad-spectrum disinfectant activity claims. Germicides that are intended for use in hospitals or other health care facilities need to be tested against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Additional organisms that may be clinically significant are tested as an option. The Use-Dilution Method is a qualitative carrier test. Stainless steel penicylinders are soaked for 15 minutes in a broth culture of the test organism. The contaminated carriers are then removed and dried for approximately 30 minutes at 37C. This now represents a nonporous, hard, inanimate surface contaminated with a dried film of bacteria. The contaminated carriers are exposed to 10 ml of the KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant for 10 minutes at 20C. After treatment; the carriers are removed from the disinfectant and placed in 10 ml subculture broth media containing appropriate neutralizers. The subculture tubes are incubated 48 hours at 37C. The tubes are examined for growth as determined by turbidity of the media. An effective disinfectant for hospital use kills all the bacteria on 59 or 60 out of 60 carriers tested against S. aureus, S. choleraesuis and P. aeruginosa (Table 2). For additional organisms, all the bacteria on 10 out of 10 carriers tested must be killed. KBI disinfectant was effective in inhibiting pathogens including hospital related infections, medical device associated infections, antibiotic resistant pathogens and food pathogens.
Table 2: Broad-Spectrum Activity of KBI Disinfectant
White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 8 5.0 Market Applications
Home Kitchen countertops Kitchen sink Dining table Bath tub Toilet seat
Athletic Facilities Professional Team Sports Collegiate Sports Facilities High School Sports Facilities Middle School Sports Facilities Fitness Centers Spas Aquatic Centers and Swim Clubs Athletic Training Centers
Educational Institutions Pre-schools Daycare Centers Church Nurseries Universities and Colleges High Schools Middle Schools Elementary Schools Kindergartens Vocational Schools Retreats and Conference Centers Healthcare Hospitals Emergency Rooms Out Patient Surgery Centers Physician Offices Long Term Care Facilities Physical Therapy Facilities Chiropractic offices Pharmacies Hospice Centers Home healthcare Rehabilitation Facilities Hospitality Industry Hotels Motels Resorts Restaurants
Food Industry USDA Inspected Meat and Poultry Plants Snack Food Processing Plants Dairy and Egg Plants Beverage Plants Breweries and Micro Breweries Seafood Processing Plants Frozen Pizza Plats
Animal Care Veterinary Hospitals Kennels Animal Rescue Shelters
Other Construction Companies Banks Museums Hair and Beauty Salons Barber Shops Marine and Boat Facilities Business Offices Theaters
5.1 Domestic Applications: The first comprehensive study was done by Finch et al. 12 in which bacteria were isolated from numerous surfaces throughout the home. The most notable result was that the kitchen sink was found to harbour large numbers of Escherichia coli and Enterobacter spp., whereas toilet areas showed little evidence of contamination with organisms of fecal origin. This study was followed by even larger investigation by Scott et al. 32 where the bacterial species and frequency of occurrence in 201 homes was reported. They found more than 80% of the homes examined one or more species of Enterobacteria at wet sites such as kitchen sink, and sink-U tube. The frequent occurrence of E. coli in high numbers in sink U-tubes (38.8 %) and on sink surfaces (18.7 %) indicates that these organisms may be actively growing. It was established that potentially enteropathogenic E. coli strains were present in the kitchen sink areas in 16 out of the 41 homes examined. Scott et al. 33 continued their research with an evaluation of phenolic disinfectant and hypochlorite disinfectant in household kitchens. Results indicate that the disinfectant products showed substantial, but brief, reduction in bacterial contamination. Josephson, et al. 19 monitored eight locations within kitchen area. Almost all White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 9 locations at all households exhibited contamination, with the sink and sponge samples exhibiting large bacterial concentrations. The fecal coliform concentrations in sink and sponge samples were very high, with 63 and 67% of all samples being positive, respectively. In addition, data show that normal kitchens can easily be contaminated with a variety of bacterial contaminants including fecal coliforms, E. coli, Salmonella, and Campylobacter. The failure of the disinfectant products and very high frequency of isolating food pathogens from wet areas such as kitchen sink and sink drain pipe could be attributed to biofilm formation, which acts as a source of contamination. 13 In addition, two separate studies indicate that food contact surfaces support biofilm growth which acts as a source of cross contamination with E. coli and S. typhimurium. 10, 29 Furthermore, Neth, et al. 27 demonstrated that the sanitizers and cleaning procedures failed to irradiate biofilm formed on plastic cutting board. They have noticed moderate 10% reduction in bacterial load after sanitizing and cleaning plastic cutting board. Several approaches have been developed to control microbial attachment; one approach is the development of food contact materials incorporating antimicrobial compounds. Rodrigues, et al. 31
evaluated Salmonella enterica Enteritidis adhesion and biofilm formation on regular and triclosan-impregnated kitchen bench stones (silestones). Enumeration of adhered cells on granite, marble, stainless steel, and silestones revealed that all materials were prone to bacterial colonization and no significant effect of triclosan was found. The results of these studies and an increase in the outbreaks of food-borne diseases led to realization of the need for disinfectants with antibiofilm activity.
5.2 Food Processing Industry The presence of biofilms is common in food industry. Biofilms can exist on all types of surfaces in food processing plants ranging from floors, walls, pipes and drains, and surfaces of equipment including stainless steel, aluminum, nylon, Teflon, rubber, plastic, glass. Food contact surfaces such as conveyer belts, pasteurizers, crevices, gaskets and dead spaces as well as areas that are hard to clean and sanitize, may harbour biofilms. Also of concern is the potential of attachment of microorganisms on food surfaces, which may affect the efficacy of interventions applied to carcasses, meat, produce or other foods to reduce contamination. 8 The attachment of the bacteria to the food product or the product contact surfaces leads to serious hygienic problems and economic losses due to food spoilage. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) estimates the costs associated with food borne illness to be about $5.5 billion to $22 billion a year. This doesnt include the billions lost every year due to spoiled product, which must be disposed or sold as a lesser valued product. In addition to that, a number of reports have appeared on the persistence of several food borne pathogens on food contact surfaces. For these reasons, it is considered that the presence of biofilms in the food processing systems is a serious public health risk. Although many species of bacteria are able to form biofilms in the food industry, the most important species in relation to food safety are listed below.
Listeria monocytogenes:: A 2004 audit of food processing facilities by the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service reported that 27.8% of floors and drains sampled tested positive for Listeria, one of the common illness-causing bacteria found in biofilm. L. monocytogenes is a hardy pathogen with ability to proliferate in cold wet environments that are ideal for biofilm formation. In such close proximity to food preparation areas, this creates a significant potential threat of cross contamination. The most prevalent strain of L. monocytogenes (strain1/2c) found in food processing plants has good adhesion ability and requires only a short contact time for attachment. Studies have shown that this pathogen can create a biofilm in slicers and other steel utensils. 20 This fact demonstrates the importance of this biofilm as a factor in cross-contamination. The dairy industry has described the presence of Listeria in milk and dairy products which may be associated with the emergence of clinical outbreaks. It has also been shown that milk protein remains in pipes reduces bacteria, and have a possible inhibitory ability on the biofilm formation in its early stages. However, once established, milk residues in pipes provide a source of nutrients and therefore favour the survival of the biofilm. 22 Based on recent estimates from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the annual White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 10 incidence of death caused by listeriosis is about eight times greater than mortality due to Escherichia coli O157:H7 infections. 26
Salmonella spp: The incidence of human pathogens on fresh produce is a serious concern in industrialized countries. Salmonella spp. is one of the most commonly isolated pathogens associated with fresh produce where preliminary FoodNet data on the incidence of food borne illness showed Salmonella at the top of the overall incidence in the United States. 28 Outbreaks of salmonellosis have been linked to a wide variety of fresh produce including alfalfa sprouts, lettuce, fennel, cilantro, cantaloupes, unpasteurized orange juice, tomatoes, melons, mango, celery and parsley. 28, 29 Also, contamination of fruits and vegetables may occur at various stages during production, harvest, processing, and transport. According to the research findings of the USDA labs, Salmonella spp. in contact with solid inert surface and fresh cut fruits as well as vegetables are 4-5 times more resistant than their free-living counterparts. 14 Attached microorganisms (pathogens and spoilage bacteria) are not easily removed by washing with water or antibacterial agents.
Escherichia coli: Escherichia coli O157:H7 is an important causative agent of severe gastrointestinal disease in humans. E. coli O157:H7 causes the majority of sporadic and multi-person outbreaks of bloody diarrhea in the U.S. E. coli O157:H7 infection is also responsible for most cases of hemolyticuremic syndrome, a major cause of acute renal failure in children. The pathogen has a low infection dose, as low as 10100 organisms. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that E. coli O157:H7 causes more than 70,000 illnesses and 60 deaths each year in the U.S. 26 E. coli O157:H7 can persist in the farm environment, soil, water, sediment, and animal carcasses. Healthy cows are known to be the major reservoir of E. coli O157:H7. This pathogen is transmitted from contaminated cattle to farm water and soil through fecal contamination. A large number of outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7 have been associated with the consumption of contaminated ground beef and raw milk. There has also been an increase in E. coli O157:H7 outbreaks associated with produce products, such as lettuce, apple cider, cantaloupe, and alfalfa sprouts in recent years. 35 In 2006, multistate outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7 infections through consumption of contaminated spinach and lettuce resulted in 199 illnesses in 26 states and 71 illnesses in 5 states, respectively. 7 E. coli O157:H7 has shown the ability to attach, colonize, and form biofilms on a variety of surfaces. In addition, E. coli O157:H7 is able to form biofilm on produce including spinach, lettuce, Chinese cabbage, celery, leeks, basil, and parsley. E. coli O157:H7 that had attached on the surface of stainless steel was able to transfer to meat, poultry, ready-to-eat deli, and produce products. 34 Strong attachment of the transferred pathogen on produce products (cantaloupe, lettuce, carrot, and spinach) was detected (>10 3 CFU/cm 2 ) even after washing these products with water. These findings suggest the importance of biofilm formation by E. coli O157:H7 on food contact surfaces can be a concern for efficient control of the pathogen particularly in produce products that require no heating or cooking prior to consumption.
Campylobacter jejuni: Although Campylobacter does not multiply in food, its minimum infective dose is very low, less than in any other pathogen. One of the mechanisms of survival of Campylobacter spp. in the environment is the formation of biofilms. Campylobacter is capable of producing these biofilms in aquatic media or stainless steel and glass surfaces. The ability of C. jejuni to develop biofilms faster under aerobic conditions (20% O2) than in microaerophilic conditions (5% O2, 10% CO2), shows the capacity of this micro- organism to adapt the conditions of the biofilm on their behalf, acting as a reservoir of viable cells. 30 These studies highlight the role of biofilms for the maintenance of Campylobacter in environments of processed food, increasing the risk of contamination.
Bacillus spp: Bacillus spp. is found throughout dairy processing plants. Bacillus survives heat processing and accumulates in pipelines and joints in the processing environment. If hot fluid continuously flows over a surface for over 16 h, Bacillus and other bacteria that survive pasteurization process may form a biofilm. 8
White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 11 One of the main problems of the food industry is represented by the survival of food borne pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms due to an insufficient disinfection of surfaces or instruments that come in contact with food. Biofilms formed on these surfaces are the main cause of contamination of the final product. Lee and Frank 23 found that L. monocytogenes adhering for 8 days were 100 times more resistant to hypochlorite sanitizer than those adhering for only 4 days. In addition, biofilms formed on the raw meat surfaces and in processing environment also offer considerable problems of cross contamination, disinfectant resistance and post-processing contamination. These findings highlight the need for disinfectants that have both the antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity for prevention and removal biofilms on hard surfaces or food contact surfaces.
5.3 Hospital-Acquired Infections The hospital-acquired (Nosocomial) infections are infections acquired from the hospitals as well as any other health care facility such as nursing homes and health clinics. The importance of hospital-acquired infections seems to have become better understood only in these past few decades. Hospital-acquired infections have been a huge burden on the overall population. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has attributed hospital-acquired infections as the fourth leading cause of deaths after heart disease, cancer and stroke. In the United States, about two million hospital-acquired infections occur every year leading to more than $5 billion in added medical cost per annum. 39
It is believed that the majority (80%) of health care infections are caused by the microbial flora that patient bring with them to the health care facility. 36 This micro-flora seems to be opportunistic to the new environment and is able to take advantage of new routes that medical procedures offer including surgery, implanted medical devices, and reusable medical devices. Other hospital-acquired infections (10% to 20%) develop following contamination found within the health care environment including hospital bed, furniture, clothing, toilets, air, water, and health care personnel. About 6070% of hospital-acquired infections are associated with some type of implanted medical device. It is estimated that over 5 million medical devices or implants are used per annum in the U.S. alone. The worldwide production of biomedical devices and tissue engineering-related materials is about $180 billion a year industry and expanding rapidly. Regardless of the sophistication of the biomedical implant (catheters versus a three-dimensional stem cell-containing polymer scaffold), all medical devices or tissue engineering constructs are susceptible to microbial colonization and infection. Antimicrobial resistance in bacteria including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), vancomycin- resistant Enterococci (VRE), and carbapenem resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae is also a major worldwide health care issue. Particularly, MRSA infection kills ~19,000 hospitalized American patients annually, which is similar to the number of deaths due to AIDS, tuberculosis, and viral hepatitis combined. A significant risk factor for these healthcare associated infections is the extensive use of implanted prosthetic biomaterials for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, which can be colonized by staphylococci giving rise to device-related infections involving biofilms. The challenge of staphylococcal biofilm infections is compounded by the existence of multiple biofilm mechanisms in both S. aureus and S. epidermidis. The elderly population and patient with weakened immune system are vulnerable to hospital-acquired infections caused by Legionella pneumophila. Legionella pneumophila infection can cause Legionnaires' disease and Pontiac fever, a severe form of pneumonia. The symptoms of Legionnaire's disease include confusion, headache, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, fever, chills, and myalgia as well as a non-productive cough. Pontiac fever is a milder flu-like illness without pneumonia. Each year, between 8,000 and 18,000 people are hospitalized with Legionnaires' disease in the U.S. Mortality rate is reported to be 15-25%. Anyone can get legionellosis, but the risk of developing Legionnaires' disease is greater for men who are middle aged and older. The bacteria are found in water sources. They can multiply in stagnant water at certain temperatures (between 25C and 45C). People become infected by breathing in droplets, mist or steam containing the bacteria. White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 12 In addition, mold is a major contributor of health care infections. The mold Candida species for example, is the fourth leading cause of hospital-acquired blood stream infections in the US hospitals. 17 Data has shown that patients who acquire candidemia are likely to die during hospitalization as a result of the infection. 17 According to Gudlaugsson and associates, the prevention of health care infections caused by Candida species should be a high priority for any health care facility.
6.0 References 1. American Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM) Standard Test Method for Testing Disinfectant Efficacy against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm using the MBEC Assay (Protocol # E2799- 11). 2. Association of Official Analytical Chemists AOAC Official Method 955.15 Testing Disinfectants against Staphylococcus aureus. 3. AOAC Official Method 964.02 Testing Disinfectants against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. 4. AOAC Official Method 955.14 Testing Disinfectants against Salmonella choleraesuis. 5. ASTM Standard Test Method for Quantification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilm Grown with High Shear and Continuous Flow using CDC Biofilm Reactor (Protocol # E2562-07). 6. Bernstein, D., Schiff, G., Schler, G., Prince, A., Feller, A., and Briner, W. (1990) In vitro virucidal effectiveness of a 0.12% chlorhexidine gluconate mouthrinse. Journal of Dental Research 69, 874-876. 7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, (2006) Multistate outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 infections, NovemberDecember 2006. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/2006/december/121406.htm. 8. Chmielewski, R.A.N, and Frank, J.F. (2003) Biofilm formation and control in food processing facilities. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 2, 22-32. 9. Cozad, A., and Jones, R.D. (2003) Disinfection and the prevention of infectious disease. American Journal of Infection Control 31, 243-254. 10. De Wit, J.C., Broekhuizen, G., and Kampelmacher, E.H (1979) Cross contamination during the preparation of frozen chickens in the kitchen. Journal of Hygiene, Cambridge 83, 27-32. 11. Emilson, C.G. (1977) Susceptibility of various microorganisms to chlorhexidine. Scandinavian Journal of Dental Research 85, 255-265. 12. Finch, J.E., Prince J., and Hawksworth, M (1978) A bacteriological survey of the domestic environment. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 45, 357-364. 13. Furuhata, K., Ishizaki, N., and Fukuyama, M. (2010) Characterization of heterotrophic bacteria isolated from the biofilm of a kitchen sink. Biocontrol Science 15, 21-25. 14. Gawande, P.V. and Bhagwat, A.A. (2002) Inoculation onto solid surfaces protects Salmonella spp. during acid challenge: a model study using polyethersulfone membranes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68, 86-92. 15. Gawande, P.V., LoVetri, K., Yakandawala, N., Romeo, T., Zhanel, G.G., Cvitkovitch, D.D., and Madhyastha, S (2008) Antibiofilm activity of sodium bicarbonate, sodium metaperiodate and SDS combination against dental unit waterline associated bacteria and yeast. Journal of Applied Microbiology 105: 986992. 16. Griffiths, W., Favet, J., Eggimann, P., Auckenthaler, R., Peduzzi, R., Chevrolet, J.C., and Dommeyer, A. Development of a chlorhexidine mouthwash for oro-pharyngeal decontamination (OPD) to be used in a future clinical study in critically ill patients-1 st communication. http://pharmacie.hug- ge.ch/rd/posters/escp00_wg_des.pdf. 17. Gudlaugsson O., Gillespie, S., Lee, K., Berg, J.V., Hu, J., Messer, S., Herwaldt, L., Pfaller, M., and Diekema, D. (2003) Attributed mortality of nosocomial candidemia, revisited. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 37, 1172- 1177. 18. Hiom, S.J., furr, J.R., Russell, A.D., and Dickinson, J.R. (1992) Effects of chlorhexidine diacetate on Candida albicans, C. glabrata and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 72, 335-340. White Paper on KBI Antibacterial Disinfectant 13 19. Josephson, K.L., Rubino J.R., and Pepper, I.L. (1997) Characterization and quantification of bacterial pathogens and indicator organisms in household kitchens with and without the use of a disinfectant cleaner. Journal of Applied Microbiology 83, 737-750. 20. 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Environmental Microbiology Volume 13 Issue 1 2011 (Doi 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2010.02308.x) Jin-Hyung Lee Moo Hwan Cho Jintae Lee - 3-Indolylacetonitrile Decreases Escherichia Coli O157-H7 Biofilm F PDF