However, continuum models are more complex and require control of

several numerical model parameters to ensure accuracy of results.

Advanced Eulerian-mesh based continuum models usually use explicit
finite element method due to its ability to handle very high
deformations and complex contacts (ice-soil and soil-pipe). The
explicit method utilizes a non-iterative (implicit) time integration
procedure using very small time steps and does not check for solution
convergence after every step. An appropriately selected time step
(either calculated by the FE program or specified by the user) generally
ensures stability and accuracy of solution, but may yield inaccurate
results without any warning messages in some incorrectly set-up
analyses. Careful model setup, including appropriate mesh refinement
and solution control parameters, and post-analysis checks are necessary
to ensure accuracy of results.

Validation of this approach using large scale field test data is necessary
before its use in design due to the novel nature of this approach,
numerical modeling complexities, and reduction in conservatism
compared to the current state-of-practice. A recent study by Philips et
al. (2010) compares continuum model predictions against centrifuge
test data and PRISE equations. They conclude that numerical modeling
can provide invaluable insight; and highlight the importance of
achieving a steady state in gouging simulations and the need to use
finer meshes and develop better constitutive models.

Finite Element Modeling Approach

Abaqus/Explicit Coupled Eulerian Lagrangian (CEL) technique is used
in the present study to analyze the ice-gouging process. Abaqus CEL
approach has previously been used by J ukes et al. (2008) and Phillips et
al. (2010) for simulation of the ice-gouging process. This method uses
the Eulerian mesh for components of the model that can undergo
extreme deformations (plastic strain in the soil below and in front of the
ice keel is of the order of 1000%) and the Lagrangian meshes for the
other components. The Eulerian mesh is fixed in space and material
flows through the mesh, unlike the conventional Lagrangian mesh that
is attached to and deforms with the material.

Finite element modeling techniques used in the present study are briefly
described in this section. Additional details are included in Lele et al.
(2011). The soil is modeled using an Eulerian mesh with 8-noded linear
reduced integration hexahedral elements (type EC3D8R). The pipe and
ice keel are modeled with Lagrangian meshes. Ice keel is currently
modeled as rigid (conservative assumption); however, appropriate ice
mechanics based material models may also be used for defining ice
keel behavior. The pipe is modeled using linear reduced integration
shell elements (type S4R). Only half of the geometry is modeled by
utilizing model-symmetry and applying appropriate symmetry
boundary conditions. A schematic representation of the model is
shown in Fig. 4.

Necessary contact definitions and model constraints are defined in an
initial step and the simulation is conducted using two analysis steps as
described below.

Initial Step:
Define boundary conditions to prevent flow of soil material
outside the Eulerian mesh region
Define contact between ice keel and soil, and soil and pipe
Define necessary boundary conditions to prevent rigid body
rotation of ice-keel
Specify initial geostatic stresses state due to soil overburden
Step-1: Gravity loading
Impose gravity loading on the soil at the beginning of the step.
Dynamic effects due to this sudden loading are small due to
initial geostatic stresses defined earlier.
Continue simulation with no additional loading for few seconds
(simulated time) to allow small numerical fluctuations due to
application of gravity loading to dampen out.
Step-2: Ice-gouging simulation
Apply velocity boundary condition in the gouging direction to
the ice-keel. All other degrees of freedom for the keel are
constrained.


Fig. 4 Finite Element model

The pipe in the model is sufficiently separated from the initial position
of the keel to ensure that the gouging process has reached a steady state
when the keel passes over the pipe (of the order of ten times the gouge
depth as a rule of thumb). At the end of the simulation the keel has
traveled beyond the pipe, but must stop a sufficient distance away from
the boundary of the soil included in the model to minimize the effect of
boundary conditions.

The 8-noded linear hexahedral (brick) element with reduced integration
formulation includes only one solution point at the center of the
element. Hence, an appropriate level of mesh refinement is necessary to
ensure accuracy of results in complex ice-gouging simulations. Fig. 5
shows the level of pipe-soil mesh refinement necessary to ensure
accurate simulation of pipe-soil interaction. The mesh includes
sufficient elements along the circumference of the pipe to model
curvature, and the soil mesh also includes several elements along the
pipe diameter. A sufficiently refined mesh is also necessary in the
gouge region to accurately model ice-soil interaction.



Fig. 5 Mesh refinement in the pipe-soil contact region

Due to the level of mesh refinement needed and necessity of including
a large soil region to minimize any effects of model boundary
conditions, the FE model meshes may include a large number of
elements (of the order of hundreds of thousands to a few million
depending on pipe/keel geometry). Meshing techniques such as biased
element size, with finer mesh in the gouge region and coarser mesh
away from the gouge may be employed to reduce the total number of
elements and hence the computational time.
617