The prince

Machiavelli
Dedication
Summary
Machiavellis dedication of The Princewith the heading Niccol Machiavelli to the Magnificent oren!o de
Medici"is a letter to oren!o de Medici# who was the nephew of $iovanni de Medici %eo &' and (ecame
du)e of *r(ino in +,+-. Machiavelli offers his (oo) with customary humility# commenting that it is stylistically
simple and unworthy of his audience. Machiavelli descri(es his (oo) as a summary of his understanding of the
deeds of great men#" intended to help oren!o de Medici achieve eminence as a prince.
Analysis
Machiavelli (egins (y offering a short defense of why he# an ordinary citi!en# should )now more than rulers
a(out the art of ruling. /e uses a metaphor to 0ustify himself1 a person standing on a mountain is (est positioned
to survey the landscape (elow# and a person standing (elow is (est positioned to survey the mountain. Similarly#
writes Machiavelli# to comprehend fully the nature of people# one must (e a prince# and to comprehend fully
the nature of princes one must (e an ordinary citi!en." 2mplicit in this claim is the idea that the removed
perspective of an o(server is a more relia(le guide than practical e3perience# and a (etter means of improving
the art of ruling.
The dedication gives the reader an idea of Machiavellis intended audience. Though the (oo) has a scholarly
tone# it is not for fellow scholars. The Prince is meant to advise# instruct# and influence the minds of rulers. 2t
was# originally# a )ind of practical how4to" guide for aspiring princes. 5nly later did The Prince (ecome
regarded as an important treatise on political philosophy.
Summary 6hapter 21 The 7inds of Principalities and the Means (y 8hich They 9re 9c:uired
Machiavelli descri(es the different )inds of states# arguing that all states are either repu(lics or principalities.
Principalities can (e divided into hereditary principalities and new principalities. New principalities are either
completely new or new appendages to e3isting states. ;y fortune or strength# a prince can ac:uire a new
principality with his own army or with the arms of others.
Summary 6hapter 221 /ereditary Principalities
6hapter 22 is the first of three chapters focusing on methods to govern and maintain principalities. Machiavelli
dismisses any discussion of repu(lics# e3plaining that he has discussed them at length on another occasion"a
reference to ;oo) + of his Discourses.
Machiavelli notes that it is easier to govern a hereditary state than a new principality for two main reasons.
<irst# those under the rule of such states are familiar with the princes family and are therefore accustomed to
their rule. The natural prince only has to )eep past institutions intact# while adapting these institutions to current
events. Second# the natural disposition of su(0ects in a hereditary state is to love the ruling family# unless the
prince commits some horri(le act against his people. =ven if a strong outsider succeeds in con:uering a princes
hereditary state# any set(ac) the outsider encounters will allow the prince to recon:uer the state.
Summary 6hapter 2221 Mi3ed Principalities
Machiavelli e3plains why maintaining a new principality is more difficult than maintaining a hereditary state. 2n
the first place# people will willingly trade one recently arrived ruler for another# hoping that a new ruler will (e
(etter than the present one. This e3pectation of improvement will induce people to ta)e up arms against any
relatively unesta(lished prince. 9lthough the people may :uic)ly reali!e that their revolt is ineffective# they will
still create great disorder. <urthermore# when a prince ta)es over another princes domain# he finds himself in a
tric)y situation with regard to the people who put him in power. /e cannot maintain the support of these people
(ecause he cannot fulfill all of their e3pectations that their situation will improve. ;ut he also cannot deal too
harshly with them (ecause he is in their de(t. 2mmediately after ta)ing power# the prince is in danger of losing
his newly gained principality.
8hen a prince successfully suppresses a revolt# however# the ruler can easily prevent further revolt (y harshly
punishing the re(els and decimating his opposition. The ruler can deal more harshly with his su(0ects in
response to the revolt than he would (e a(le to normally.
+
2t is much easier to maintain control over a new principality if the people share the same language and customs
as the princes own country. 2f this is the case# the prince has to do only two things1 destroy the family of the
former prince# and maintain the principalitys laws and ta3es. People will live :uietly and peacefully so long as
their old ways of life are undistur(ed.
New states that have different languages and customs from those of the prince are more difficult to maintain.
5ne of the princes most effective options is to ta)e up residence in the new state. ;y living there# the prince can
address pro(lems :uic)ly and efficiently. /e can prevent the local officials from plundering his territory. The
su(0ects will (e in close contact with the prince. Therefore# those who are inclined to (e good will have more
reason to show their allegiance to the prince and those who are inclined to (e (ad will have more reason to fear
him. 2nvaders will thin) twice (efore attempting to ta)e over the state.
9nother effective method of dealing with linguistic and cultural differences is to esta(lish colonies in the new
state. 2t is less e3pensive to esta(lish colonies than to maintain military occupation# and colonialism only harms
inha(itants who pose no threat to the prince (ecause they are scattered and poor. 9s a general rule# men must (e
either pampered or crushed. 9 prince should in0ure people only if he )nows there is no threat of revenge. Setting
up military (ases throughout the new state will not effectively )eep order. 2nstead# it will upset the people# and
these people may turn into hostile enemies capa(le of causing great harm to the princes regime.
9 prince who has occupied a state in a foreign country should dominate the neigh(oring states. /e should
wea)en the strong ones and ensure that no other strong foreign power invades a neigh(oring state. 8ea)er
powers will naturally side with the strongest power as long as they cannot grow strong themselves. The prince
must remain master of the whole country to )eep control of the state he has con:uered.
Princes should always act to solve pro(lems (efore pro(lems fully manifest themselves. Political disorders are
easy to solve if the prince identifies them and acts early. 2f they are allowed to develop fully# it will (e too late.
Men naturally want to ac:uire more. 8hen they succeed in ac:uiring more they are always praised# not
condemned. ;ut rulers who lac) the a(ility to ac:uire# yet still try at the cost of their current state# should (e
condemned.
2n order to hold a state# a prince must understand statecraft and warcraft. The two are intertwined. 8ar can (e
avoided (y suppressing disorder. /owever# one can never escape a war1 war can only (e postponed to the
enemys advantage.
Summary 6hapter 2>1 8hy 9le3anders Successors 8ere 9(le to 7eep Possession of Darius 7ingdom after
9le3anders Death
There are two ways to govern a principality. The first involves a prince and appointed ministers. 8hile the
ministers help govern# everyone remains su(servient to the prince. The second way involves a prince and
no(les. No(les are not appointed (y the prince# (ut they (enefit from their ancient lineage and have su(0ects of
their own. 5f (oth these scenarios# the prince is regarded as (eing much stronger if he uses ministers# since he is
the only ruler in the country.
2t is much harder to ta)e over a country if a prince uses ministers# (ecause ministers have little incentive to (e
corrupted (y foreign powers or to turn on their prince. <urthermore# even if they were to turn against the prince#
they would not (e a(le to muster support from any su(0ects (ecause they hold no personal loyalties. 2t is easier
to con:uer a country governed with the cooperation of no(les# (ecause finding a discontented no(le eager for
change is always possi(le. Moreover# no(les command the loyalty of their own su(0ects# so a corrupted no(le
will corrupt the support of his su(0ects.
9lthough it is easier to ta)e over a state ruled (y no(les# it is much harder to maintain control of that state. 2n a
state ruled (y no(les# it is not enough to )ill the former rulers family# (ecause the no(les will still (e around to
revolt. /olding onto a state with ministers is much easier# (ecause it merely re:uires )illing off the one prince
and his family.
Machiavelli asserts that the rules he proposes are consistent with historical evidence# such as 9le3anders
successful con:uest of 9sia and the re(ellions against the ?omans in Spain# <rance# and $reece.
Analysis Chapters IIV
Machiavelli (uilds his case through a com(ination of historical e3amples and methodical argument. The first
step in his argument is to esta(lish the terms and categories that he will use to ma)e sense out of the multitude
of different political situations that e3ist in the real world. The clear4cut distinctions Machiavelli ma)es (etween
@
different )inds of states(eginning with principalities and repu(licsare very effective insofar as they ena(le
him to present his ideas clearly and concisely. 8hether his categories do 0ustice to the comple3ity of political
history is a different :uestion. Machiavelli creates an impression of directness and practicality (y presenting the
world in simple# clearly defined terms.
9t the same time# Machiavelli does not rely heavily on theory or a(stract thought to ma)e his pointsA these
chapters illustrate his reliance on history as the (asis for his theory of government. /e sets out to answer the
:uestion /ow (est can a ruler maintain control of his stateB" /is response# a set of empirically verifia(le rules
and guidelines# is derived from a study of the con:uests of the past# especially those of the <rench# the ?omans#
and the $ree)s.
5ne important difference (etween Machiavellis philosophy and other philosophies of government lies in his
description of the ordinary su(0ect. 9ristotles political writings descri(e a citi!enry that is (y nature political
and very interested in the welfare of the community. Though 9ristotle disregards the ma0ority of people who
live within the $ree) city4statewomen and slaveshe considers the free citi!ens to (e the very reason for the
states e3istence. Machiavelli# on the other hand# sees the ordinary citi!en as a piddling# simpleminded creature.
Such people will either love or hate their ruler# depending on whether they are harmed or in0ured# (ut as long as
the prince can maintain control# he need have little concern for their welfare.
Thus# the purpose of government is not the good of the people (ut the sta(ility of the state and the perpetuation
of the esta(lished rulers control. Machiavelli does not concern himself with what goes on inside the state (ut
what occurs e3ternally. 9 successful prince must always (e aware of foreign powers and the threat of invasion.
9 focus on power diplomacy and warcraft# at the e3pense of domestic affairs# is a distinctive element of
Machiavellis pro0ect.
<inally# the guidelines set forth in The Prince have often (een characteri!ed as amoral" (ecause some of
Machiavellis advice)illing off the family of the former ruler# the violent suppression of revolts and
insurrectionsseems cruel# (rutal# and perhaps downright evil. 8hereas the ancient $ree)s conceived of a
close relationship (etween ethics and politics# Machiavelli seems to separate these disciplines altogether.
Nonetheless# to deny that Machiavellis political theory accommodates any form of morality and ethics would
(e inaccurate. <or e3ample# religion does play a role in Machiavellis state. Moreover# although Machiavelli
does not use the words ethical" or moral" as such# later chapters of The Prince suggest that rulers have duties
or o(ligations that could (e considered ethical or moral.
Summary 6hapter >1 /ow to $overn 6ities and Principalities That# Prior to ;eing 5ccupied# ived *nder
Their 5wn aws
Machiavelli descri(es three ways to hold states that have (een accustomed to living freely under their own laws.
The first is to devastate them. The second is for the con:ueror to occupy them. The third is to allow the state to
maintain its own laws# (ut to charge ta3es and esta(lish an oligarchy to )eep the state friendly. The third option
is advantageous (ecause the newly imposed oligarchy will wor) hard to secure the authority of the con:uering
prince within the con:uered state (ecause it owes its e3istence to the prince and cannot survive without his
support. Thus# as long as the goal is not to devastate the other state# it is easiest to rule it through the use of its
own citi!ens.
6omplete destruction is the most certain way of securing a state that has (een free in the past. 9 prince who
does not ta)e this route places himself in a position to (e destroyed himself. No matter how long it has (een
since the state was ac:uired# re(ellions will always revive the legacy of ancient institutions and notions of
former li(erty# even if the state has (enefited from the princes rule. This sense of tradition will unify the people
against the prince.
5n the other hand# cities or provinces that are accustomed to (eing ruled (y a prince are easy to ta)e over once
the ruling family has (een destroyed. People in such states are accustomed to o(edience and do not )now how
to live in freedom without having someone to rule over them. Therefore# the new prince can win the province
and hold onto it more easily.
2n repu(lics %or former repu(lics'# sentiments of hatred and revenge against the con:uering prince will run
strong. The memories of ancient li(erty never die# so a prince will (e (etter off destroying the repu(lic or
personally occupying the con:uered state.
C
Summary 6hapter >21 6oncerning New Principalities 9c:uired (y 5nes 5wn 9rms and 9(ility
Princes should strive to imitate the e3amples set (y great rulers of the past# even if that means setting lofty
goals. This way# if a prince fails to meet those lofty goals# his actions will nevertheless enhance his reputation as
a great or powerful ruler.
5ne way that rulers ac:uire states is through their own prowess# meaning their own a(ilities# rather than the
good fortune of no(le (irth# inheritance# or luc)y circumstances. ?elying on ones personal prowess is a very
difficult method of ac:uiring a state. /owever# a state ac:uired (y a rulers natural s)ill will prove easier to
maintain control over. =3amples of rulers who triumphed on the strength of their own powers include Moses#
6yrus# ?omulus# and Theseus.
?ulers who rely on prowess instead of fortune are generally more successful in holding power over states
(ecause they can meet the challenge of esta(lishing a new order. Nothing is more dangerous or difficult than
introducing a new order. This is (ecause those who (enefited from the old order will fiercely oppose the prince
who tries to introduce a new order# whereas those who stand to (enefit from the imposition of a new order will
offer only lu)ewarm support. 9 prince who relies on his a(ility to persuade others to support him will (e una(le
to succeed against such opposition. /owever# a prince who relies on his own prowess and can force the issue"
will usually succeed. 9t times# forcDingE the issue" might literally mean the use of force. This can (e
dangerous# (ut if the ruler succeeds in his use of force# he will (ecome strong# secure# and respected.
Summary 6hapter >221 6oncerning New Principalities 9c:uired with the 9rms and <ortunes of 5thers
Sometimes private citi!ens (ecome princes purely (y good fortune. Such people (uy their way into power#
receive favors from someone else in power# or (ri(e soldiers. Such princes are wea) not only (ecause fortune
can (e capricious and unsta(le# (ut also (ecause they do not )now how to maintain their position. They do not
have loyal troops who are devoted to them. They do not )now how to deal with pro(lems# command troops# or
)eep their power in the face of opposition. Princes who succeed on their own prowess have (uilt a strong
foundation for themselves. Princes who succeed due to the sway of fortune or the goodwill of others lac) such a
foundation from which to rule and will have difficulty (uilding a foundation :uic)ly enough to prevent power
from slipping out of their hands. Thus# although princes who rely on fortune reach their position easily#
maintaining that position is e3tremely difficult.
aying a solid foundation is a crucial prere:uisite for maintaining power. 9 prince must eliminate rival leaders
and win the favor of their followers. Machiavelli cites the life of 6esare ;orgia %also called Du)e >alentino' as
an e3ample. The son of Pope 9le3ander >2# ;orgia was a man of great courage and high intentions. /e was
made du)e of ?omagna through the good fortune that his father# as Pope 9le3ander >2# had amassed a great
deal of power. /owever# he was una(le to maintain his rule# even though he made competent attempts to
consolidate his new power. /is efforts included the use of force in the strategic con:uest of foreign lands. /e
tried to ma)e himself loved and feared (y his su(0ects. /e wiped out disloyal troops and esta(lished a loyal
army# and he maintained a friendly yet cautious relationship with other )ings and princes. Despite all his efforts#
he was una(le to complete the consolidation of his power when his father died# and his good fortune was
reversed. /e did# however# lay a strong foundation for future rule# as only a man of great prowess could.
Analysis Chapters VVII
The coldhearted# calculating logic for which Machiavelli is renowned shines through in 6hapter >. /is
argument that devastating a region is often the most relia(le way of securing power does not even attempt to
address the moral or ethical o(0ections to his advice. /is rationale is strictly pragmatic1 the only reason to spare
the institutions of newly con:uered states is that )eeping old institutions alive might help )eep citi!ens happy#
su(dued# and su(missive under the new ruler.
Moreover# in 6hapter ># Machiavelli sets out his conception of the natural state of a populace. /e writes that
most su(0ects are used to o(eying" and that they cannot live as free su(0ects without someone telling them
what to do. This argument echoes Machiavellis assertion in 6hapter 222 that men are naturally disposed to old
ways of life" and therefore har(or an inclination to follow tradition. These passages underline the assumption
that men are# (y nature# followers. =ven rulers are followers to some e3tent1 Machiavelli notes at the start of
6hapter >2 that aspiring princes are always inclined to imitate" the e3amples of great men.
Machiavelli imagines su(0ects who are self4interested# (ut not to an e3treme degree. They are not concerned
with forms of enlightenment or self4improvement# yet they still notice %and appreciate' improvements in their
F
overall well4(eing. Though generally o(edient and complacent# they will not hesitate to rise up against their
ruler should he offend them. The Prince devotes little space to the concerns of su(0ects# and Machiavellis
picture of the common people# though detailed# is not comple3. ouis &2>s famous statement# =tat# cest
moi" %The state is me"'# accords with the philosophy espoused in The Prince1 The ruler is the state# and the
state is ruler. The people hardly matter.
This idea does not necessarily contradict Machiavellis view that the effectiveness of government depends on
the firm support of its people. ?ather# it implies that Machiavelli is not concerned with understanding what
motivates the people to lend support to a ruler. The only important :uestion is whether such support e3ists.
The primary virtue of Machiavellis prince is self4reliance. 9 prince who manages to gain power (y relying on
his own prowess will succeed at maintaining power (ecause his prowess will have (uilt him a firm foundation
for ruling. /e will have the loyalty of his army and the respect of those he has con:uered and the leaders of
surrounding principalities. /e therefore will (e (etter e:uipped to deal with pro(lems and difficulties# without
relying on the help of others. Thus# the more self4reliant the prince# the more he will prove capa(le of success.
Summary 6hapter >2221 6oncerning Those 8ho ;ecome Princes (y =vil Means
Machiavelli continues to descri(e the ways that a man can (ecome a prince. 2n addition to fortune and prowess#
criminal acts or the approval of his fellow citi!ens can facilitate a mans rise to power.
Those who come to power (y crime )ill fellow citi!ens and (etray friends. They are treacherous# pitiless# and
irreligious." Princes who commit criminal acts can achieve power# (ut never glory.
7ing 9gathocles of Syracuse is an e3ample of a man who rose to power through crime. 9gathocles was a
common citi!en who 0oined the militia# rose to a leading ran) in the army# and then assem(led a meeting of the
senate at which he ordered his men to )ill all the senators and to install him in power. 9gathocles reign was
characteri!ed (y constant difficulties and threats to his power. /owever# he withstood them and maintained his
rule. 5nce in power# 9gathocles proved as competent as any eminent commander# (ut the severity of the crimes
he committed during his ascension preclude his (eing considered great. 6ruelty# which is itself evil# can (e used
well if it is applied once at the outset# and thereafter only employed in self4defense and for the greater good of
ones su(0ects. ?egular and fre:uent perpetration of cruel actions earns a ruler infamy. 2f a prince comes to
power (y crime and wishes to (e successful# he# li)e 9gathocles# must only use cruelty in the first sense.
Therefore# when a prince decides to sei!e a state# he must determine how much in0ury to inflict. /e needs to
stri)e all at once and then refrain from further atrocities. 2n this way# his su(0ects will eventually forget the
violence and cruelty. $radually# resentment will fade# and the people will come to appreciate the resulting
(enefits of the princes rule. Most important# a prince should (e consistent in the way he treats his su(0ects.
Summary 6hapter 2&1 6oncerning the 6ivil Principality
The other way a prince can come to power is through the favor of his fellow citi!ens. Princes who rise through
this route are heads of what Machiavelli calls constitutional principalities.
Machiavelli argues that every city is populated (y two groups of citi!ens1 common people and no(les. The
common people are naturally disposed to avoid domination and oppression (y the no(les. The no(les are
naturally disposed to dominate and oppress the common people. The opposition (etween the two groups results
in the esta(lishment of either a principality# a free city# or anarchy.
The power to form a principality lies with either the no(les or the people. 2f the no(les reali!e they cannot
dominate the people# they will try to strengthen their position (y ma)ing one of the no(les a prince. They hope
to accomplish their own ends through the princes authority. The people will follow the same course of actionA if
they reali!e they cannot withstand the no(les# they will ma)e one of the people a prince and hope to (e
protected (y the princes authority.
9 prince placed in power (y no(les will find it more difficult to maintain his position (ecause those who
surround him will consider themselves his e:uals and his selection as prince ar(itrary. /owever# a prince
created (y the people stands alone at the top. Not only are no(les much harder to satisfy than the people# they
are less honest in their motives (ecause they see) to oppress the people. The people# on the other hand# only
see) to (e left alone. 2f the people are hostile to the prince# the worst that can happen is desertion. /owever# if
the no(les are hostile# the prince can e3pect (oth desertion and active opposition. No(les are astute and cunning
and always safeguard their interests.
,
No(les will either (ecome dependent on the prince or remain independent of his control. 9 prince should honor
and love those no(les who have (ecome dependent on him. No(les who remain independent are either timid or
am(itious. Timid no(les are (enign# (ut a prince should (e wary of am(itious no(les# since they will (ecome
enemies in times of adversity.
9 prince created (y the people must retain the peoples friendship# a fairly easy tas). 9 prince created (y the
no(les must still try to win over the peoples affection# (ecause they can serve as protection from hostile no(les.
;enevolence is the (est way to maintain the mandate of the people. 2f people e3pect hostility from a prince (ut
instead receive )indness and favors# they feel a great o(ligation to their prince.
Principalities usually face difficulties when switching from a government with limited powers to one that is
more a(solute. To ma)e this transition# a prince can either rule directly or through magistrates. The prince is
more vulnera(le in the latter case (ecause he is dependent on the will of his magistrates. 2n times of adversity#
the magistrates may depose him# through direct action against him or simply (y diso(eying his orders.
Moreover# if the magistrates do revolt# the prince will (e una(le to assume a(solute power# (ecause the people
are accustomed to o(eying the magistrates rather than the prince. 2n prosperous times# it is fashiona(le to
declare allegiance to a prince. ;ut during times of danger# trusted men (ecome scarce. 9 wise prince must find a
way to ensure that his citi!ens are always dependent on his authority. Thus# they will always remain loyal.
Analysis Chapters VIIIIX
These chapters descri(e how different types of princes should esta(lish power# within a states environment of
fluctuating power dynamics. Machiavelli ma)es an elo:uent argument for the importance of a domestic power
(ase. /e does not hesitate to ac)nowledge the necessity of cruelty and crime in esta(lishing this power and even
e3plains how to use cruelty most effectively. /e does not advise moderation in the degree of cruelty used# (ut
rather a limit on how long e3treme cruelty is to (e employed. That is# Machiavelli does not say that princes
must (e cruel (ut not e3tremely cruel. 2nstead# he argues that cruel acts must (e committed as necessary# (ut all
at once and then ceased# so that the populace will forget them. This )ind of argument is e3tremely pragmatic
and ignores all :uestions of right and wrong. Ta)ing historical e3amples as the (asis for his argument#
Machiavelli simply descri(es how power has effectively (een deployed and consolidated in the past# and does
not assume that human nature will ta)e a turn for the (etter in the future.
=ven when princes do not need to rely on cruelty# Machiavelli still descri(es a necessary# dangerous game of
internal politics# which involves the pitting of one group of citi!ens against another. 9s a guiding principle# a
princes power invaria(ly depends on internal support. 8hether a prince uses cruelty or (enevolence to o(tain
that support is secondary to the necessity of gaining the support itself.
Machiavelli is more than the amoral pragmatist he is sometimes made out to (e. The distinction made (etween
power and glory indicates that# in Machiavellis view# some princes are (etter than others. 8hile any prince can
achieve and maintain power# glory remains a more elusive goal. 9lthough Machiavelli is primarily concerned
with how princes perform as rulers# he also gives an assessment of the different )inds of princes. Machiavellis
view is that the prince who rises and survives (y means of treachery and the prince who succeeds (y his innate
prowess are (oth technically princes. ;ut he also admits that the two are not e:ual in honor or glory# and#
perhaps# even moral worth.
Moreover# Machiavelli also characteri!es the use of cruelty as evil." 2n some cases# cruelty is a necessary evil#
and using it can (e 0ustified in the interests of some greater pu(lic good# li)e internal sta(ility or protection from
invasion. Get Machiavellis very recognition of the intrinsic immorality of cruel (ehavior contradicts the
depiction of The Prince as a completely amoral (oo).
Machiavellis description of class conflict in 6hapter 2&# which states that there is an inevita(le tension (etween
common people and no(les# is also worth noting. Superficially# this statement (rings Machiavelli in line with
political philosophers such as 7arl Mar3# who view class conflict as an inevita(le aspect of civili!ed society.
;ut Machiavellis description of classes" is much less sophisticated than that of Mar3. More fundamentally#
Machiavelli does not see class conflict as a driving force (ehind political structures. ?ather# it is one of a
num(er of challenges that a prince must learn to negotiate if he is to (e successful. 6onse:uently# in descri(ing
the great struggle (etween commoners and no(les# Machiavelli does not side with either group. 2nstead# his
stance is more detached# focusing only on a hypothetical princes relationship with these groups.
-
5ne of the most significant components of Machiavellis argumentative style is his use of definition (y division#
a rhetorical device that can (e :uite convincing. This device can (e descri(ed schematically as 9 prince must
accomplish &. 9ccomplishing & entails either method G or method H. G is prefera(le to H# so a prince should
choose method G." 2t is a logical and practical line of reasoning# (ut if the original assumption lin)ing the chain
of logic is fallacious# then all the conclusions that follow are necessarily :uestiona(le. 2f G and H arent the only
way to accomplish &# then the course of action that Machiavelli proposes for a prince is not necessarily the (est
possi(le option. 5ne might as)# for e3ample# whether there are other ways of (ecoming a prince (esides
prowess# fortune# crime# and favor. 9nd it may (e possi(le that there are other# more various factions within
cities (esides commoners and no(les. <or that matter# it can (e argued that there are other more su(tle ways to
win support than cruelty and (enevolence.
Summary 6hapter &1 /ow the Strength of 9ll Principalities Should ;e Measured
9lthough a prince should always aim to )eep an army of si!e and strength e:ualing that of any aggressor# it is
0ust as important to maintain defenses and fortifications. These defensive preparations not only provide security
(ut also deter enemies from attac)ing.
Some might argue that if an enemy lays siege to a fortified city# the people inside# upon witnessing their
countryside pillaged and possessions destroyed# will turn against their prince. ;ut a prince who has made
ade:uate defensive preparations can actually inspire his su(0ects during such times. To do so# he must convince
the people that the hardships are only temporary and# more importantly# create feelings of patriotism and
enthusiasm for the citys defense. This way# when the siege is over# the grateful and o(liged people will love the
prince all the more.
Summary 6hapter &21 6oncerning =cclesiastical Principalities
=cclesiastical principalities# regions under the control of the 6atholic 6hurch# are different from other )inds of
principalities. Ta)ing control of these principalities is difficult# re:uiring either unusual good fortune or
prowess. Machiavelli sarcastically remar)s that principles of religion# rather than governments# rule
ecclesiastical principalities# so the prince does not even need to govern. =cclesiastical principalities do not need
to (e defended# and their su(0ects re:uire no administration. Nonetheless# these states are always secure and
happy. Since these principalities are sustained (y higher powers which the human mind cannot comprehend#"
delving further into why this is the case would (e presumptuous.
2t is useful# however# to loo) at how the 6hurch has o(tained its great temporal power. 2taly was once divided
among the pope and the city4states of >enice# Naples# Milan# and <lorence. =ach of these powers was wary of
the others and prevented the intervention of any foreign power. Papal power was fairly wea) during this time#
due to disagreement among the ?oman (arons and the short duration of papacies. ;ut Popes 9le3ander >2 and
Iulius 22 greatly increased the power of the 6hurch (y using armed force to wea)en the other factions#
accumulating wealth to strengthen the 6hurchs own position# and nurturing factionalism within any remaining
factions.Thus# the current 6hurch# under the leadership of Pope eo &# has (een made strong through the force
of arms. 2t is now hoped that Pope eo will use his goodness and virtue to maintain its power.
Analysis Chapters XXI
9lthough 6hapter & focuses partly on maintaining the well4(eing of the people in a city during a period of
difficulty# Machiavelli views this only as a necessary step in ma)ing the city itself strong and immune from
attac). 5ne surprising characteristic of The Prince is how completely it defines the city as an entity e3isting to
serve its ruler rather than its populace. The discussion of fortification emphasi!es this conception of the city1
o(taining the support of the people is not a goal in itself (ut rather a means for ensuring that the city remain
fortified and resistant to foreign con:uest. The purpose of convincing the people that their hardships are
temporary# for e3ample# is not to lighten the (urden of the people whose city is (esieged# (ut rather a way to
ensure the defense of the city. The ultimate goal is not happiness (ut patriotism1 the defense of the state and its
ruler. 8hile Machiavelli often advocates the use of military force# he also recogni!es that military strength
alone cannot maintain a states strength. 9lthough the fortification of cities has a military value# Machiavelli
focuses on fortification as a tool (y which a prince can solidify popular support in times of war or siege.
6hapter &2 may initially seem inconsistent with the rest of Machiavellis writing. /is ac)nowledgment that
ecclesiastical principalities are not su(0ect to the historical patterns he o(serves# and his description of their
J
immunity from (ad rulers and war# initially seem to point to a respect for religion and ac)nowledgment of a
higher moral plane on which a state can e3ist. ;ut Machiavellis remar)s in this chapter are (itterly ironiche
actually opposes the presence of the 6hurch in politics altogether# a view that he ma)es e3plicit in his
Discourses. 2n reality# Machiavelli understands ecclesiastical principalities to (e e3amples of the effective
consolidation of power# much in the same way as the e3amples of successful princes that he cites. /e focuses on
the factors that ultimately led to the 6atholic 6hurch gaining control over 2talian principalities# and reveals that
these factors were not essentially different than those used (y other princes to gain power. i)e other princes#
the 6hurch used armed force# the accumulation of wealth# and astute political strategy in order to gain control.
=ven though Machiavelli opens the chapter professing that ecclesiastical principalities e3ist in their own
category# ultimately he views them 0ust as he does any other state.
Summary 6hapter &221 6oncerning >arious 7inds of Troops# and =specially Mercenaries
9ll princes must (uild on strong foundations. The two essential components of a strong state are good laws and
good armies. $ood laws cannot e3ist without good armies. The presence of a good army# however# indicates the
presence of good laws.
There are three types of armies1 a princes own troops# mercenary troops# and au3iliary troops. Mercenary and
au3iliary troops are useless and dangerous. Mercenaries are disunited# undisciplined# am(itious# and faithless."
;ecause their only motivation is monetary# they are generally not effective in (attle and have low morale.
Mercenary commanders are either s)illed or uns)illed. *ns)illed commanders are worthless# (ut s)illed
commanders cannot (e trusted to suppress their own am(ition. 2t is far more prefera(le for a prince to command
his own army.
/istorically# dependence on mercenaries ruined 2taly. During the (rea)up of 2taly# which the 6hurch supported
in hopes of increasing its own stature# many townships hired mercenaries (ecause they had little e3perience in
military matters. Since the mercenaries were more concerned with increasing their own prestige and status than
with ta)ing ris)s or accomplishing military o(0ectives# the conflicts (etween these mercenary forces devolved
into a series of ineffective# staged# pseudo4(attles# ultimately degrading 2talys political and military might.
Summary 6hapter &2221 6oncerning 9u3iliary# Mi3ed# and Native <orces
9u3iliary troopsarmies (orrowed from a more powerful stateare as useless as mercenaries. 9lthough they
often fight well# a prince who calls on au3iliaries places himself in a no4win situation. 2f the au3iliaries fail# he
is defenseless# whereas if the au3iliaries are successful# he still owes his victory to the power of another.
9u3iliary troops are often s)illed and organi!ed# yet their first loyalty is to another ruler. Thus# they pose an
even more dangerous threat to the prince than mercenaries.
2f a prince does not command his own native troops# the principality can never (e secure. Depending on outside
armies is essentially the same as depending on good fortune. The use of au3iliaries and mercenaries is effective
during prosperous times# (ut in times of adversity# reliance on (orrowed troops# li)e reliance on fortune# is a
perilous lia(ility.
Summary 6hapter &2>1 9 Princes 6oncern in Military Matters
The only thing a prince needs to study is the art of war. This is the primary discipline of the ruler. Mastery of
this discipline can ma)e even a common citi!en a great ruler. The easiest way to lose a state is (y neglecting the
art of war. The (est way to win a state is to (e s)illed in the art of war.
Machiavelli offers an analogy# as)ing us to picture two men1 one armed# the other unarmed. 2t would not (e
reasona(le to e3pect the armed man to o(ey the unarmed man. Nor would it (e reasona(le to e3pect the
unarmed man to feel safe and secure if his servants are armed. The unarmed man will (e suspicious of the
armed man# and the armed man will feel contempt for the unarmed man# so cooperation will (e impossi(le. 9
prince who does not understand warfare attempting to lead an army is li)e the unarmed man trying to lead the
armed.
The prince must spend all of his time studying the art of war. This study is (oth a physical and mental process.
The prince must train his (ody to hardships and learn to hunt wildlife. /e must study geography and its effect
on (attle strategy. /e must read history and study the actions of great leaders. 9 prince must prepare rigorously
during peacetime in order to (e well prepared for wartime.
Analysis Chapters XIIXIV
K
Machiavellis famous statement that the presence of sound military forces indicates the presence of sound
laws" is a succinct description of the relationship (etween war and the formation of states in The Prince.
8arcraft is conventionally understood as the component of statesmanship that involves the e3pansion of the
state (y con:uering neigh(ors and esta(lishing colonies. ;ut Machiavelli argues that successful warcraft is not
0ust one component among other e:ually important components of statesmanship. 2nstead# it is the very
foundation upon which all states are (uilt. Machiavelli defines the term warcraft" :uite (roadly. <or him# the
idea encompasses more than 0ust the direct use of military force. 2t comprises international diplomacy# domestic
politics# tactical strategy# geographic mastery# and historical analysis. Perhaps influenced (y the conte3t in
which he was writing# Machiavelli viewed war as something that never could disappear completely# nor did he
even conceive of the a(sence of war as a goal. =ven in the most peaceful of times# the clouds of war always
threaten.
Machiavellis advocacy of the use of internal troops# rather than mercenaries or au3iliaries# follows naturally
from previous chapters# in which he asserts the need for self4reliance and the pro0ection of power. /istorical
anecdotes are prevalent throughout these chapters. Machiavellis reference to 2taly in the conte3t of mercenaries
is significant# since he wrote The Prince partly to help 2taly (ecome more sta(le and powerful in the face of its
aggressive neigh(ors. /owever# in these chapters Machiavelli does not refer to 2talys history more than that of
other countries# so it is not readily apparent at this point in the (oo) that he intends to single out his home
country.
2n 6hapter &2># Machiavelli shifts his focus from the role of the prince to the personality of the prince. 8hile
previous chapters have focused upon the correct actions for the prince to perform and the characteristics of a
strong state# in this chapter Machiavelli e3amines the psychology of a good prince. Machiavelli writes that the
prince ought to read history# and reflect upon the deeds of outstanding men# L e3amine the causes of their
victories and defeats# and there(y learn to emulate the former and avoid the latter." The portrait of an ideal
prince does not descri(e a ruler who e:ually values politics# philosophy# and art as aspects of his rule# (ut one
who focuses e3clusively on the military strength of the state that he governs.
Summary 6hapter &>1 6oncerning Things for 8hich Men# and Princes =specially# 9re Praised or 6ensured
Machiavelli turns the discussion from the strength of states and principalities to the correct (ehavior of the
prince. Machiavelli admits that this su(0ect has (een treated (y others# (ut he argues that an original set of
practicalrather than theoreticalrules is needed. 5ther philosophers have conceived repu(lics (uilt upon an
ideali!ed notion of how men should live rather than how men actually live. ;ut truth strays far from the
e3pectations of imagined ideals. Specifically# men never live every part of their life virtuously. 9 prince should
not concern himself with living virtuously# (ut rather with acting so as to achieve the most practical (enefit.
2n general# some personal characteristics will earn men praise# others condemnation. 6ourage# compassion#
faith# craftiness# and generosity num(er among the :ualities that receive praise. 6owardice# cruelty#
stu((ornness# and miserliness are usually met with condemnation. 2deally# a prince would possess all the
:ualities deemed good" (y other men. ;ut this e3pectation is unrealistic. 9 princes first 0o( is to safeguard the
state# and har(oring (ad" characteristics is sometimes necessary for this end. Such vices are truly evil if they
endanger the state# (ut when vices are employed in the proper interests of the state# a prince must not (e
influenced (y condemnation from other men.
Summary 6hapter &>21 i(erality and Parsimony
i(erality# or generosity# is a :uality that many men admire. ;ut if a prince develops a reputation for generosity#
he will ruin his state. 9 reputation for generosity re:uires outward lavishness# which eventually depletes all of
the princes resources. 2n the end# the prince will (e forced to (urden his people with e3cessive ta3es in order to
raise the money to maintain his reputation for generosity. *ltimately# the princes li(erality will ma)e the people
despise and resent him. Moreover# any prince who attempts to change his reputation for generosity will
immediately develop a reputation for (eing a miser.
9 parsimonious# or ungenerous# prince may (e perceived as miserly in the (eginning# (ut he will eventually
earn a reputation for generosity. 9 prince who is thrifty and frugal will eventually have enough funds to defend
against aggression and fund pro0ects without having to ta3 the people unduly.
M
2n history# the actions of Pope Iulius 22# the present )ing of <rance# and the present )ing of Spain all support the
view that parsimony ena(les the prince to accomplish great things. Some might argue that successful leaders
have come to power and sustained their rule (y virtue of their generosity# such as 6aesar. ;ut if 6aesar had not
(een )illed# he would have found that maintaining his rule re:uired moderating his spending.
2n sum# generosity is self4defeating. $enerosity uses up resources and prevents further generosity. 8hile
parsimony might lead to ignominy# generosity will eventually lead to hatred.
Summary 6hapter &>221 6oncerning 6ruelty1 8hether 2t 2s ;etter to ;e oved Than to ;e <eared# or the
?everse
6ompassion# li)e generosity# is usually admired. ;ut a prince must (e careful that he does not show compassion
unwisely. 2f a prince is too compassionate# and does not ade:uately punish disloyal su(0ects# he creates an
atmosphere of disorder# since his su(0ects ta)e the li(erty to do what they pleaseeven to the e3tremes of
murder and theft. 6rime harms the entire community# whereas e3ecutions harm only the individuals who
commit crimes. Some measure of cruelty is necessary to maintain order. ;ut a prince should (e careful in his
e3ercise of cruelty# tempering it with humanity and prudence.
Machiavelli then as)s whether (eing feared or loved is prefera(le. 2deally# a prince should (e (oth loved and
feared# (ut this state of affairs is difficult to attain. <orced to ma)e a choice# it is much (etter to (e feared than
loved. This is (ecause men# (y nature# are ungrateful# fic)le# dissem(ling# an3ious to flee danger# and covetous
of gain." 2n times of remote danger# they are willing to ta)e ris)s for their prince# (ut if the danger is real# they
turn against their prince. 2t is easy to (rea) a (ond of love when the situation arises# (ut the fear of punishment
is always effective# regardless of the situation.
8hen inducing fear# however# a prince must (e careful to avoid inducing hatred. /e must ma)e sure that any
e3ecutions are properly 0ustified. 9(ove all# a prince should never confiscate the property of his su(0ects or ta)e
their women# since these actions are most li)ely to (reed hatred. 2f a prince must confiscate property# he must
ma)e sure he has a convincing reason. 8ith ones army# however# there is no such thing as too much cruelty.
7eeping an army disciplined and united re:uires cruelty# even inhuman cruelty.
Analysis Chapters XVXVII
6hapter &> attac)s the conceptions of virtue proposed (y classical philosophers. Machiavelli critici!es the
concept of a good life#" the 9ristotelian doctrine that demands virtuous actions in all types of (ehavior.
Machiavelli de(un)s 9ristotles metaphysical approach to politics (y arguing that metaphysics is inconsistent
with the real world. *ltimately# a philosophy must (e 0udged (y its practical conse:uences. ;ecause virtue# as
an a(stract concept# does not concern itself with such conse:uences# it can never serve as an effective guide for
political action. Machiavellis definition of virtue is not the same as that of classical philosophers. 8hile
9ristotle and others define virtue in relation to a highest good# Machiavelli defines it simply as that which
receives the praise of others. Thus# generosity is a virtue only (ecause other people praise it.
<rom this premise# Machiavelli (uilds a case for the necessity of committing certain crimes. 9 prince# if he truly
wishes to safeguard his state# will inevita(ly (e forced to act in a manner that others consider evil or deplora(le.
9lthough Machiavelli only mentions cruelty and stinginess in 6hapters &>2 and &>22# the argument could
e3tend to other so4called vices# such as stu((ornness or cowardice. The mind of Machiavellis prince is cold and
calculating# concerned with ends rather than means. >irtually any action that contri(utes to the overall goal of
maintaining control of the state is accepta(le to him.
*nli)e the previous chapters# which contain specific instructions regarding domestic# international# and military
affairs# these chapters deal with general trends of popular opinion that might affect the princes actions.
Machiavelli urges the prince not to worry too much a(out what others might thin) of his actions and to act only
in the way that will result in the (est practical advantagewhich will often garner greater approval from other
people in the long run. 2n most cases# the prince must favor miserliness over generosity# and cruelty over
(enevolence. ;ut Machiavelli does not advocate wholesale cruelty or a complete lac) of generosityA it is
possi(le for a prince to (e too miserly or too cruel. 9 prince might choose cowardice over couragefor
e3ample# fleeing a palace under siege instead of remaining and rallying the people(ut the effectiveness of
either option depends on the surrounding circumstances. The advice put forth in these chapters is su(stantially
less concrete than that offered in previous chapters.
+N
Machiavellis oft4:uoted line 9nyone compelled to choose will find far greater security in (eing feared than in
(eing loved" is sometimes misinterpreted to suggest that a prince need not worry a(out pu(lic opinion. ;ut
Machiavelli e3plicitly argues the contrary1 it is critical that a prince avoid the hatred of his su(0ects. The
statement is less radical than it might seem. People# states Machiavelli# are all self4interested to a certain degree.
During difficult times# this sense of self4interest is stronger than any sense of o(ligation toward the ruler or the
state. No matter how strongly they might love their prince# people will not follow orders if it means sacrificing
their own well4(eing. The only motivating factor that can guarantee citi!ens o(edience to a princes orders is
the threat of punishment.
9lthough Machiavellis conclusions may seem distur(ing# if we consider contemporary society# we might
conclude that little has changed since the era of The Prince. =ven today# while some people certainly follow
laws (ecause they feel that they have a moral o(ligation to do so# or (ecause they respect the institution that
ma)es the laws# many others follow them simply (ecause they fear the punishment that comes with (rea)ing
those laws. Supporters of the death penalty in the *nited States usually argue that the use of capital punishment
acts as a deterrent# discouraging the general populace from committing capital crimes.
Summary 6hapter &>2221 2n 8hat 8ay Princes Should 7eep Their 8ord
Machiavelli ac)nowledges that a prince who honors his word is generally praised (y others. ;ut historical
e3perience demonstrates that princes achieve the most success when they are crafty# cunning# and a(le to tric)
others. There are two ways of fighting1 (y law or (y force. aws come naturally to men# force comes naturally
to (easts. 2n order to succeed# the prince must learn how to fight (oth with laws and with forcehe must
(ecome half man and half (east.
8hen a prince uses force# he acts li)e a (east. /e must learn to act li)e two types of (easts1 lions and fo3es. 9
fo3 is defenseless against wolvesA a lion is defenseless against traps. 9 prince must learn to act li)e (oth the fo3
and the lion1 he must learn# li)e the fo3# how to frighten off wolves and# li)e the lion# how to recogni!e the
traps. 2n dealing with people# a prince must (rea) his promises when they put him at a disadvantage and when
the reasons for which he made the promises no longer e3ist. 2n any case# promises are never something on
which a prince can rely# since men are (y nature wretched and deceitful. 9 prince should (e a master of
deception.
/owever# a prince must (e careful to e3ude a virtuous aura that (elies his deceitful mind. Pope 9le3ander >2
was one ruler who e3celled at this art. 9 prince should present the appearance of (eing a compassionate#
trustworthy# )ind# guileless# and pious ruler. 5f course# actually possessing all these virtues is neither possi(le
nor desira(le. ;ut so long as a prince appears to act virtuously# most men will (elieve in his virtue. 2f the
populace (elieves the prince to (e virtuous# it will (e easier for him to maintain his state. Moreover# men will
0udge their prince solely on appearance and results. Thus# it doesnt matter to the people that a prince may
occasionally employ evil to achieve his goal. So long as a prince appears virtuous and is successful in running
the state# he will (e regarded as virtuous.
Summary 6hapter &2&1 The Need to 9void 6ontempt and /atred
9 prince must avoid (eing hated and despised at all costs. 9 prince may (e critici!ed for a lac) of virtue# (ut he
will never (e hated for it. /owever# a prince will (e hated if he ta)es the property or women of his su(0ects. 9
prince must also avoid ro((ing his su(0ects of their honor. 9 prince will (e despised if he has a reputation for
(eing fic)le# frivolous# effeminate# cowardly# or irresolute. 2f a prince is regarded highly (y his su(0ects# he will
(e shielded from conspiracies and open attac)s.
9 prince should worry a(out two things1 internal insurrection from his su(0ects and e3ternal threats from foreign
powers. Defending against foreign enemies re:uires a strong army and good allies. 9 strong army always leads
to good allies.
9 prince can defend against internal insurrection (y ma)ing sure he is not hated or scorned (y the people. This
is a powerful defense against conspiracies. 9 conspirator will have the courage to proceed with his conspiracy
only if he (elieves the people will (e satisfied when he )ills the ruler. ;ut if the people would (e outraged (y
the rulers death# the conspirators will never have the gall to carry out the conspiracy. ;y default# conspiracies
are at a disadvantage. They re:uire the support of many people# each of whom faces severe punishment if the
conspiracy is discovered. <urthermore# each of these people can profit richly (y informing the prince a(out the
++
conspiracy. 9 prince has on his side the entire government# his allies and the laws of the state. 2f he secures the
goodwill of the people# he seems invulnera(le in the eyes of conspirators.
8henever possi(le# a prince should delegate the administration of unpopular laws to others and )eep in his own
power the distri(ution of favors.
Sometimes it will not (e possi(le to avoid (eing hated (y some mem(ers of the populace. 2f it is not possi(le for
the prince to avoid (eing hated# he must ma)e it his first priority to escape the hatred of the most powerful
parties. 2n many instances# this will mean ensuring good standing within the ran)s of the military. ;ut a prince
should not worry too much a(out satisfying the demands of the troops# especially if it comes at the e3pense of
the people. 9 num(er of later ?oman emperors were overthrown due to e3cessive cruelty performed for the sa)e
of their army. The e3ception was Septimius Severus# who# emulating (oth lion and fo3# overawed (oth his army
and his people. Most present4day princes need not fear their armies and should (e attentive to the people.
Analysis Chapters XVIIIXIX
The argument in 6hapter &>222 that princes should (e prepared to (rea) promises for practical advantage
develops Machiavellis position on virtue and vice. Machiavelli does not argue that a prince should actively
avoid doing what is good (ut that# if necessary# a prince must (e prepared to act unethically. /e does not advise
ruthlessness for its own sa)e# (ut rather indicates the perhaps unfortunate necessity of ruthlessness in
leadership.
9lthough the proposal that a prince must e3ude a false aura of virtue may seem merely one more )ind of
deception that the prince must learn to master# Machiavellis advice here remains valid even in contemporary
politics. 9lthough some of Machiavellis writing might (e dismissed as irrelevant to democratic political life#
his perceptive analysis of the importance of image is still accurate. Machiavelli points out that image is as
important as action# and that rulers must manipulate the perceptions of the populace to appear as other than who
they really are. 9 prince should eagerly ta)e credit for successes and place responsi(ility for unpopular laws on
the shoulders of no(les or lesser officials. 5f course# the princes aim is not to (e loved# (ut merely to avoid
(eing hated. 9lthough Machiavellis prince rules in an autocratic state# he must nonetheless practice the )ind of
politics of image demanded within repu(lics and democracies.
These chapters give us further insight into Machiavellis view of human nature. Men are naturally deceitful and
untrustworthy. They are li)ely to (rea) promises. They are easily impressed (y appearances and results. They
are selfish (ut somewhat naOve. They respect and praise virtue# (ut most do not possess it themselves. These
assumptions a(out the (asic (ehaviors and attitudes of the general population underlie all of Machiavellis
suggestions for the actions of princes. 2f the populace is intelligent# well4educated# and acutely aware of history#
the prince will not (e a(le to generate the deceptive image that Machiavelli argues is integral to successful
leadership. 9lthough these assumptions may or may not (e true# Machiavelli is much more willing to ma)e
unsupported generali!ations a(out human nature than a(out history. /is historical e3amples are painsta)ingly
accurate and demonstrate Machiavellis great erudition. ;ut he does not support his descriptions of human
(ehavior with the same wealth of evidence.
Machiavelli consistently refers to the ruler as he" and assumes that his gender is male. 5ne could dismiss this
fact as simply a conse:uence of historyrulers during Machiavellis time were almost always men. ;ut
Machiavellis association of leadership with masculinity e3tends (eyond simple historical conte3t. /e also
writes that a prince should avoid (ehaving effeminately at all costs# and associates effeminacy with cowardice
and fic)leness. The implication is that manliness is a prere:uisite for ruling. Machiavelli notes that 9le3ander
was thought to (e ruled (y his mother# and therefore deemed effeminate# a perception that led to his downfall.
Machiavellis definition of manliness encompasses the harder" virtues# such as courage and decisiveness# in
contrast with softer" virtues li)e compassion and generosity. 2n this sense# although cruelty is not a virtue# the
a(ility to act cruelly whenever necessary can (e considered manly# and# therefore# virtuous.
Summary 6hapter &&1 8hether <ortresses and Many 5ther =3pedients That Princes 6ommonly =mploy
9re *seful or Not
To defend against internal insurrection# princes have used a variety of strategies. Some have divided towns#
some have disarmed the populace# some have tried to woo disloyal su(0ects# and others have (uilt or destroyed
+@
fortresses. The effectiveness of each of these policies depends on the individual conditions# (ut a few
generali!ations can (e made.
/istorically# new princes have never prevented their su(0ects from having weapons. 9rming su(0ects fosters
loyalty among the people and defends the prince. Disarming su(0ects will (reed distrust# which leads to civil
animosity. ;ut if a prince anne3es a state# he must disarm his new su(0ects. /e can allow his supporters in the
new state to )eep their arms# (ut eventually they must also (e made wea)er. The (est arrangement is to have the
princes own soldiers occupying the new state. /owever# wea)ening an anne3ed territory (y encouraging
factionalism only ma)es it more easily captured (y foreigners# as the >enetians learned.
Princes (ecome great (y defeating opposition. Thus# one way they can enhance their stature is to cunningly
foster opposition that can (e easily overcome. Moreover# fostering su(version in a new state will help reveal the
motives of potential conspirators.
Some princes have chosen to (uild fortresses to cur( re(ellion. 5thers have destroyed them# in order to maintain
control in newly ac:uired states. The usefulness of fortresses depends on the specific circumstances. ;ut a
fortress will not (e a(le to protect a prince if he is hated (y his su(0ects. The issue is not whether a prince
should (uild a fortress. ?ather# a prince should not put all his trust in a fortress# neglecting the attitudes of his
people.
Summary 6hapter &&21 8hat a Prince Must Do to ;e =steemed
$reat enterprises and no(le e3amples are two ways for a prince to earn prestige. =3amples of great campaigns
include those of 7ing <erdinand of Spain# who s)illfully used his military to attac) $ranada# 9frica# 2taly# and
<rance. These campaigns focused his peoples attention and prevented attac)s against <erdinand.
No(ility can (e achieved (y the grand pu(lic display of rewards and punishments. 9(ove all# princes should
win a reputation for (eing men of outstanding a(ility.
9 prince can also win prestige (y declaring himself an ally of one side of a conflict. Neutrality alienates (oth
the victor and the loser. The victor sees the neutral prince as a dou(tful friendA the loser sees the neutral prince
as wea) coward. Someone who is not your friend will always re:uest that you remain neutral# while a true
friend will always as) you for your armed support. 9 prince can escape short4term danger through neutrality#
(ut at the cost of long4term grief. 2nstead# a prince should (oldly declare support for one side.
2f the prince allies with someone stronger than himself# and this ally wins# then the prince protects himself
through the alliance# (ecause the victor will feel an o(ligation to the prince. 2f this stronger ally loses# at least
the prince will win the protection and shelter of the ally. 2f the prince is stronger than either opponent# an
alliance essentially means the destruction of one side through the help of another.
2f possi(le# a prince should avoid siding with an ally whose power is greater than his own. >ictory in this
situation will only put the prince at mercy of that ally. /owever# sometimes such an alliance is unavoida(le.
;ecause of these instances# a prince should never (elieve that a completely safe course e3ists. 2nstead# he should
assess the ris)s presented (y all options and choose the least ris)y course of action. 9 prudent prince can assess
threats and accept the lesser evil.
9 prince should encourage his citi!ens to e3cel in their occupations# and live their lives in peace. Thus# a prince
should never discourage or e3cessively ta3 private ac:uisition or prosperous commerce. 2nstead# a prince should
reward those who contri(ute to the overall prosperity of the state. Such rewards might include annual city4wide
festivals and personal visits with guilds and family groups.
Summary 6hapter &&221 6oncerning the Princes Ministers
The selection of ministers is a critical tas) (ecause ministers give visitors their first impression of the prince.
8ise and loyal ministers contri(ute to the image of a wise prince. 2nversely# incompetent and disloyal ministers
give the prince the image of incompetence.
There are three types of intellect that men can possess1 the a(ility to understand things independently# the a(ility
to appreciate another persons a(ility to understand things# and the a(ility to do neither. The first )ind is (est#
the second accepta(le# and the third useless. 2f a prince possesses at least the second )ind of intellect# he can
0udge whether his ministers actions are good or (ad.
2f a minister thin)s more of himself than of the prince and does everything for personal profit# then he is a (ad
minister. 9 prince should recogni!e this state of affairs. $ood ministers# however# should (e rewarded to
+C
maintain their loyalty. ?ewards can (e paid in money# honor# and e3panded responsi(ilities. 2t is crucial for a
prince to have a confident relationship with his ministers.
Summary 6hapter &&2221 /ow to 9void <latterers
<latterers present a danger to any ruler (ecause it is natural for powerful men to (ecome self4a(sor(ed. The (est
way to defend against such people is to convince them that you are not offended (y the truth. ;ut if everyone
can spea) to the prince# the prince will lose respect. 9 prince should allow only wise advisers to spea) with him#
and only when he specifically re:uests their advice. 9 prince should not listen to anyone else and should (e firm
in his decisions. >acillation will lead to a loss of respect.
9 prince must always see) advice. ;ut he must see) it only when he wants it# not when others thrust it upon
him. Most important# a prince must always (e s)eptical a(out the advice he receives# constantly :uestioning and
pro(ing. 2f he ever discovers that someone is concealing the truth from him# he must punish that person
severely. 2n the end# no matter how intelligent a princes advisers might (e# a prince is doomed if he lac)s
intelligence of his own. 8ise princes should (e honored for good actions proceeding from good advice.
Analysis Chapters XXXXIII
6hapter && returns to the issue of popular insurrection and how a prince should defend against it. Machiavelli
argues that a prince must avoid hatred and suppress opposition (efore it can gain sufficient momentum to
disrupt his rule. 9lso# he does not (ase his assessment of fortresses on their military value. <ortresses can (e
worthwhile or worthless depending on the individual circumstances. The attitude of the people outweighs the
value of any physical structure. Machiavelli places emphasis on a distinctly nonmilitary aspect in his discussion
of fortresses# a (uilding traditionally associated with the military# indicating his (road interpretation of warcraft.
6hapters &&2 and &&22 underscore the importance of appearing honora(le and wise. This goal can (e achieved
partly through the selection of a loyal and competent personal staff. Machiavelli distinguishes (etween a
virtuous appearance and an honora(le# wise appearance. 9ppearing virtuousgenerous# (enevolent# and pious
is desira(le (ut not necessary. /owever# appearing honora(le and sagacious is crucial. Machiavellis
preference for some good :ualities over othersfor e3ample# courage and decisiveness over generosityis
grounded in a practical argument. $enerosity is undesira(le (ecause it wastes capital resourcesA decisiveness is
desira(le (ecause it (reeds respect among allies and su(0ects.
6hapter &&222 states that# ultimately# a prince must possess independent intellect in order to succeed. /e cannot
simply rely on the wisdom of his advisers. 2n a way# this idea supports Machiavellis allusion to the possi(ility
that a common man can (ecome a prince through the study of warcraft and through practical e3perience.
Machiavellis view of politics is more meritocratic than aristocratic# as he suggests that hereditary princes have
even more to prove than those who o(tain power through intelligence and s)ill.
Summary 6hapter &&2>1 8hy the Princes of 2taly /ave ost Their States
Machiavelli suggests that any new prince who successfully follows the advice found in The Prince will en0oy
the sta(ility of a hereditary prince# since men are more aware of the present than of the past.
9 num(er of 2talian princes have lost states through their own military faults. They fled when they should have
fought# e3pecting their su(0ects to call them (ac). These princes failed (ecause of their own incompetence and
not as a result of a string of (ad luc). They too) too much comfort in prosperous times# never anticipating
danger. 8hen they were con:uered# they hoped that the people would revolt and recall themA (ut it is always
folly to depend upon others for security. 9 princes (est defense is his own valor.
Summary 6hapter &&>1 6oncerning the 2nfluence of <ortune in /uman 9ffairs# and the Manner in 8hich 2t
2s to ;e ?esisted
9lthough it is often thought that fortune controls human affairs# fortune controls only half of ones actions#
while free will determines the other half. <ortune is li)e a flooding river1 it is only dangerous when men have
not (uilt dy)es against it (eforehand. 2taly has not (uilt dy)es# and as a result it has e3perienced tumultuous
upheaval. $ermany# Spain# and <rance have ta)en (etter care and have reaped the (enefits of sta(ility.
9s fortune varies# one man may succeed and another fail# even if they (oth follow the same path. Times and
circumstances change# so a prince must ad0ust to them in order to remain successfulA however# men tend to stay
on the course that has (rought them success in the past. 6ircumstances allowed Iulius 22 to act impetuously# (ut
+F
if he had lived longer# he would have (een ruined when circumstances changed. 5n the whole# however#
impetuosity surpasses caution. <ortune favors energetic youth over cautious age.
Summary 6hapter &&>21 9n =3hortation to <ree 2taly from the /ands of the ;ar(arians
2talys current disarray favors the emergence of a new prince who will (ring happiness to the 2talian people.
*ntil recently# there had (een a prince who seemed ordained (y heaven to redeem 2taly. ;ut a string of (ad luc)
has prevented such an outcome.
oren!o de Medici is 2talys (est hope. 2f he has learned from the great men named in The Prince# the salvation
of 2taly will not (e difficult. <or though those men were great# they were still only men# with no greater
opportunities or grace than oren!os own. Past wars and princes have failed to strengthen 2taly (ecause its
military system was old and defective.
To succeed# oren!o must create a national army. The 2talian people are good fightersA only their leaders have
failed. oren!os army needs (oth good cavalry and infantry to defeat the Spaniards and the Swiss.
Should a prince ever succeed in redeeming 2taly# he would receive unending glory and (e em(raced in all the
provinces with love.
Analysis Chapters XXIVXXVI
6hapter &&> discusses the role of fortune in the determination of human affairs. Many thin)ers have
considered the :uestion of whether a mans actions are a manifestation of his own free will# or if they are simply
determined (y fate or his environment. Machiavelli attempts to compromise (etween free will and determinism
(y arguing that fortune controls half of human actions and leaves the other half to free will. ;ut Machiavelli
also argues that# through foresighta :uality whose importance Machiavelli stresses throughout The Prince
people can shield themselves against fortunes slings and arrows. Thus# Machiavelli can (e descri(ed as
confident in the capa(ilities of human (eings to shape their destinies# (ut s)eptical that such control is a(solute.
Machiavelli ends The Prince with an impassioned plea to redeem 2taly. Stylistically# he a(andons his detached
tone and utili!es e3hortation and poetry to communicate nationalistic fervor. /e implores oren!o# to whom the
(oo) is dedicated# to deliver 2taly. Despite Machiavellis efforts# the country would not (e truly unified for
another three and a half centuries. Some have argued that The Prince is really the manifestation of Machievellis
desire to see a strengthened 2taly# not a detached wor) of political science. /istorical references to 2taly
dominate the (oo)# and Machiavelli clearly conceives the (oo) as a means to e3pedite the successful unification
of 2taly. ;ut The Princes clear application to Machiavellis home country does not distract from the (oo)s
relevance to philosophical :uestions. 9t the very least# it must (e said that the (oo)s influence spread further
than the specific audience to which it was addressed.
9 desire to strengthen 2taly might also serve as Machiavellis ethical 0ustification for the advice he has given.
Machiavelli has previously argued that a prince cannot achieve success without sometimes resorting to
ruthlessness. ;ut Machiavelli never 0ustifies the o(tainment of political success as a worthwhile goal in itself.
/is concern with 2taly would 0ustify his logic1 if the ultimate end is the glory of 2taly# the end would 0ustify the
means.
The Prince is full of historical references# (ut the final chapters place the (oo) in a historical conte3t. Moreover#
these chapters give us some insight into the mind of the author and his motives for writing the (oo). They
suggest that Machiavelli is not as dia(olical as he is often portrayed.
6onte3t
;iographical and /istorical ;ac)ground
Niccol Machiavelli was (orn on May C# +F-M# in <lorence# 2taly# and passed his childhood peacefully#
receiving the humanistic education customary for young men of the ?enaissance middle class. /e also spent
two years studying (usiness mathematics# then wor)ed for the ne3t seven years in ?ome for a <lorentine
(an)er. 9fter returning to <lorence in +FMF# he witnessed the e3pulsion of the Medici family# oligarchic despots
who had ruled <lorence for decades# and the rise of $irolamo Savanorola# a Dominican religious !ealot who
too) control of the region shortly thereafter.
+,
2taly at that time (ecame the scene of intense political conflict. The city4states of <lorence# Milan# >enice# and
Naples fought for control of 2taly# as did the papacy# <rance# Spain# and the /oly ?oman =mpire. =ach of these
powers attempted to pursue a strategy of playing the other powers off of one other# (ut they also engaged in less
honora(le practices such as (lac)mail and violence. The same year that Machiavelli returned to <lorence# 2taly
was invaded (y 6harles >222 of <rancethe first of several <rench invasions that would occur during
Machiavellis lifetime. These events influenced Machiavellis attitudes toward government# forming the
(ac)drop for his later impassioned pleas for 2talian unity.
;ecause Savanorola critici!ed the leadership of the 6hurch# Pope 9le3ander >2 cut his reign short (y
e3communicating him in +FMJ. The ne3t year# at the age of twenty4nine# Machiavelli entered the <lorentine
government as head of the Second 6hancery and secretary to the 6ouncil of Ten for 8ar. 2n his role as
chancellor# he was sent to <rance on a diplomatic mission in +,NN. /e met regularly with Pope 9le3ander and
the recently crowned 7ing ouis &22. 2n e3change for a marriage annulment# ouis helped the pope esta(lish
his son# 6esare ;orgia# as the du)e of ?omagna. The intrigues of these three men would influence Machiavellis
political thought# (ut it was ;orgia who would do the most to shape Machiavellis opinions a(out leadership.
;orgia was a cunning# cruel# and vicious politician# and many people despised him. Nevertheless# Machiavelli
(elieved ;orgia had the traits necessary for any leader who would see) to unify 2taly.
2n +,NN# Machiavelli married Marietta di odovico 6orsini# with whom he had si3 children. Three years later#
Pope 9le3ander >2 (ecame sic) with malaria and died. 9le3ander >2s successor died after less than a month in
office# and Iulius 22# an enemy of ;orgias# was elected. Iulius 22 later (anished ;orgia to Spain# where he died
in +,N-.
Meanwhile# Machiavelli helped raise and train a <lorentine civil militia in order to reduce <lorences
dependence on mercenaries. ater that year# he served as <lorentine diplomat to Pope Iulius# whose conduct as
the warrior pope" he o(served firsthand. 2n +,+@# the Medici family regained control of <lorence# and
Machiavelli was dismissed from office. 9 year later he was wrongly accused of participating in a conspiracy to
restore the repu(lic# held in 0ail for three wee)s# and tortured on the rac). /e left <lorence for the :uiet town of
Sant9ndrea and decided to pursue a career in writing. 2n +,+C he (egan writing his Discourses on the <irst Ten
;oo)s of Titus ivius# a (oo) that focused on states controlled (y a politically active citi!enry. 2t was not
finished until +,@+# mainly (ecause he interrupted his wor) on Discourses to write The Prince.
Machiavelli desperately wanted to return to politics. 5ne of his goals in writing The Prince was to win the favor
of oren!o de Medici# then4governor of <lorence and the person to whom the (oo) is dedicatedA Machiavelli
hoped to land an advisory position within the <lorentine government. ;ut Medici received the (oo)
indifferently# and Machiavelli did not receive an invitation to serve as an official. The pu(lics reaction to The
Prince was also indifferent at first. ;ut slowly# as word spread# the (oo) (egan to (e critici!ed as immoral# evil#
and wic)ed.
;esides the Discourses# Machiavelli went on to write The 9rt of 8ar and a comedic play# The Mandra)e. 9fter
oren!os premature death in +,+M# his successor# $iulio# gave Machiavelli a commission to write The
<lorentine /istory as well as a few small diplomatic 0o(s. Machiavelli also wrote The ife of 6astruccio
6astracani in +,@N and 6li!ia# a comedic play. 2n +,@-# $iulio de Medici %now Pope 6lement >22'# at
Machiavellis urging# created a commission to e3amine <lorences fortifications and placed Machiavelli on it.
2n +,@J# the diplomatic errors of the Medici pope resulted in the sac) of ?ome (y 6harles >s mercenaries. The
<lorentines e3pelled their Medici ruler# and Machiavelli tried to reta)e the office he had left so (efore. ;ut his
reputation got in the way of his am(itions. /e was now too closely associated with the Medicis# and the
repu(lic re0ected him. Soon# Machiavellis health (egan to fail him# and he died several months later# on Iune
@+# +,@J.
Philosophical 6onte3t
The most revolutionary aspect of The Prince is its separation of politics and ethics. 6lassical political theory
traditionally lin)ed political law with a higher# moral law. 2n contrast# Machiavelli argues that political action
must always (e considered in light of its practical conse:uences rather than some lofty ideal.
9nother stri)ing feature of The Prince is that it is far less theoretical than the literature on political theory that
preceded it. Many earlier thin)ers had constructed hypothetical notions of ideal or natural states# (ut
Machiavelli treated historical evidence pragmatically to ground The Prince in real situations. The (oo) is
+-
dedicated to the current ruler of <lorence# and it is readily apparent that Machiavelli intends for his advice to (e
ta)en seriously (y the powerful men of his time. 2t is a practical guide for a ruler rather than an a(stract treatise
of philosophy.
Machiavellis (oo) also distinguishes itself on the su(0ect of free will. Medieval and ?enaissance thin)ers often
loo)ed to religion or ancient authors for e3planations of plagues# famines# invasions# and other calamitiesA they
considered the actual prevention of such disasters to (e (eyond the scope of human power. 2n The Prince# when
Machiavelli argues that people have the a(ility to shield themselves against misfortune# he e3presses an
e3traordinary confidence in the power of human self4determination and affirms his (elief in free will as opposed
to divine destiny.
Since they were first pu(lished# Machiavellis ideas have (een oversimplified and vilified. /is political thought
is usuallyand unfairlydefined solely in terms of The Prince. The ad0ective Machiavellian" is used to mean
manipulative#" deceptive#" or ruthless." ;ut Machiavellis Discourses# a wor) considera(ly longer and more
developed than The Prince# e3pounds repu(lican themes of patriotism# civic virtue# and open political
participation.
7ey facts
<* T2T= P The Prince
9*T/5? P Niccol Machiavelli
TGP= 5< 85?7 P Political treatiseA letterA manual
9N$*9$= P 2talian
T2M= 9ND P96= 8?2TT=N P Started in Iuly +,+C# finished in +,+FA <lorence# 2taly
D9T= 5< <2?ST P*;269T25N P +,C@# after Machiavellis deathA first =nglish translation appeared in +-FN.
T/=M=S P Statesmanship and warcraftA goodwill and hatredA free willA virtueA human nature
P52T269 65NT=&T P The Prince was written during a time of political tur(ulence as a practical guide to
help oren!o de Medici stay in power. oren!o did not agree with many of Machiavellis suggestions. The
(oo) appeared on the popes 2nde3 of Prohi(ited ;oo)s" in +,,M.
6hapter +
/einrich von 5fterdingen is the protagonist of the (oo). /e lives in a village with his parents and is a student
from a private teacher# who taught him already many things. /einrich thin)s of a story which he has heard from
a man. 8hen he goes to (ed he has a fantastic dream and at the end# he meets the famous (lue flower# (ut sadly#
his dream is distur(ed and he wa)es up. /e tal)s a(out dreams with his parents and his father tells him a story.
/e also once had a dream which finally resulted into proposing to his mother. ;ut his father isnt a man# who
thin)s dreams are something of greater importance. <inally# his mother wants to visit her father in another city
and /einrich should go with her. She hopes that the young man will find a girl and collect new e3periences#
(ecause he never normally went outside of his home town. The mothers home town is 9ugs(urg.
6hapter @
/einrich feels sad that he has to leave his home town and his father. They are accompanied (y some merchants.
The merchants tal) a(out singers and poems and /einrich is very e3cited to hear more a(out them. /e as)s
them if they can tell him some things and so they do.
They tell him the role of a poet in life. Poets are a(le to directly stir the heart with their poems and they thin)
its a mysterious (ut wonderful gift. They also tell a story# which outlines the power of a good poem and how
they can direct" human hearts.
6hapter C
2n this chapter# /einrich is told another story# which fills the entire third chapter of the (oo).
2n summary# its a(out a )ing and his princess. The )ing loves poems and his daughter# of course. /e has to find
a suita(le man for his daughter# (ut he cant find anyone. Theres always something wrong with his candidates.
5ne day# the daughter goes outside and rides on her horse. She goes into the forest and sees a remote house. She
goes in and sees that there live to men# a (oy and his old father. She passes some time with them and the men
seem not to )now that they are tal)ing with the princess of the )ingdom. The (oy falls in love with her# even
though he doesnt )now this at first. 8hen the princess leaves# the (oy finds a stone# where a poem is inscri(ed.
5(viously# the princess has lost it. The ne3t day# she returns to get it from the (oy. They meet up more often in
+J
the forest and share their first )iss with each other. The princess )nows that she cant marry him# (ecause he
was 0ust a common (oy living in the woods. Thats why they ma)e a plan. She will stay with the men for a year
and (ecome pregnant and when she returns to his father# he will have to accept his proposal.
The )ing falls in great despair# (ecause he doesnt )now# where his daughter was and no one in the )ingdom can
find her.
9 year later# during a festival# he sees his daughter approaching him with a wonderful and fantastic song. /e is
very happy to see her# (ut he also sees three other people approaching him# amongst them a (a(y. During this
whole scene# the young man is singing a wonderful poem# which convinces the )ing to ma)e him to his
daughters hus(and.
6hapter F
They )eep travelling. 9fter some days# they ma)e a stop at a castle of a )night# who has nothing (etter to do
than to invite people and ma)e party. They stay there over night and /einrich learns more a(out the life of the
)night# war and slavery.
6hapter ,
9fter some days# they approach a village. They go into a tavern# where there is an old interesting man# who
answers many :uestions. /einrich finds out that he is a miner with a lot of e3perience. /e tells him how he
(ecame a miner and what a fantastic 0o( it is. /e has heard from some villagers that there is a curious hill# of
what the farmers and villagers are afraid. This is the reason# why he is here and he offers to /einrich and the
merchants that tonight# they can go with him and investigate this mysterious place. Some farmers show them
the way# (ut they are too afraid to actually go inside. 8hen the old miner# /einrich# the merchant and some
other men go in# they find themselves in hall# which is full of (ones. Theres a way to an even (igger hall of the
hill. They see some sort of li(rary there# with a stone ta(le and stools. /einrich sees a (oo) lying opened on the
stone ta(le and loo)s in it. There are many pictures and te3ts and in some pictures# he thin)s that it is him#
which is logically impossi(le.
They hear someone else coming him and it is an old scholar# who reads (oo)s here# (ecause he li)es it there and
he can completely merge into another world. /e as)s the miner and the other persons to not tell anyone a(out
this place# (ecause then# many people will come and visit him# which would (e distur(ing.
6hapter -
They finally arrive at the city 9ugs(urg. They go to the castle# where the mothers father is having a festival
with many# many people. /einrich and his mother redress themselves and 0oin the party. /einrich is at first :uite
shy. 9 certain man draws all his attention. /e also dances with a girl called Mathilde# for whom he seems to
develop romantic feelings.
8hen they all sit a ta(le# he has the luc) to sit ne3t to Mathilde and near the man# who turns out to (e
7lingsohr# an e3traordinary poet. /e tal)s with him and 7lingsohr sees in /einrich the potential to great poetic
s)ills.
6hapter J
/einrich passes some time with 7lingsohr. /e tells him some things on nature# the nature of the heart# the
sentiment and reason. <urthermore# he tal)s a(out poetry and what a poet needs to have in order to (e a true
poet.
6hapter K
2n the afternoons# /einrich passes more time with 7lingsohr. They )eep tal)ing a(out poetry# poets and poems.
/e also has some time with Mathilde# where in the end# she tells him to (e his forever. /e tells her to (e hers
forever.
6hapter M
7lingsohr tells a really special tale. The tale itself is very comple3 and many people have pro(lems analysing or
interpreting it.
2n raw summary# its the story of the two children =ros and <a(el# their mother and father and $innistan %the
wet nurse of =ros and <a(el' how they were a(le to save the fro!en empire of the 7ing and to help Sophie %the
7ings daughter' (ecome the new ruler.
Second part of the (oo)
Sadly# the second part has never (een finished and there are only some pages# which were actually written.
+K
Madame ;ovary
$ustave <lau(ert once remar)ed# Madame ;ovary# cest moi" %Madame ;ovary is me"'. 5n the surface# this
comment seems ridiculousA the circumstances of <lau(erts life have nothing in common with those he created
for his most famous character. <lau(ert was (orn in +K@+ in ?ouen# <rance. =mma ;ovarys father is an
uneducated farmer# whereas <lau(erts father was a respected and wealthy doctor. 2n addition# =mma dreams of
(ecoming sophisticated and cosmopolitan# while <lau(ert moved in the highest literary circles in Paris. <inally#
=mma endures an unhappy marriage and see)s out lovers. 5n the contrary# the reclusive <lau(ert spent most of
his time living in solitude.
Since their (iographies are so stri)ingly dissimilar# <lau(erts comment pro(a(ly meant that he and his character
shared many of the same struggles and desires. =mma ;ovary (ecomes o(sessed with an ideali!ed vision of
romantic love. Similarly# <lau(ert (ecame fi3ated at a young age upon an older woman named =lisa
Schlessinger# with whom he fantasi!ed a(out having a romantic relationship for many years. =mma suffers from
ill health and a nervous conditionA <lau(ert also suffered from poor health and may have had epilepsy. Though
he was an esteemed writer# <lau(ert was afflicted with an a(iding pessimism that caused him to sin) into
fre:uent depressions# 0ust as =mma does when she reali!es she never can have what she most desires.
<lau(ert# too# could never attain what he most wanted. /e remained lonely and (itter throughout his life as a
writer. Though admired (y his <rench contemporaries# <lau(ert was deeply hurt (y the moral outrage Madame
Bovaryprovo)ed at its pu(lication in +K,J. The novel depicted e3tramarital se3 in what were# for the time#
graphic terms# and <lau(ert and his pu(lisher were put on trial for violation of pu(lic morals. They were
ac:uitted# (ut the e3perience intensified <lau(erts hatred of middle4class morality.
The hatred of middle4class values is strongly apparent in Madame Bovary. 2n <lau(erts lifetime# <rance was
caught in the throes of immense social upheaval. The ?evolution of +JKM and the imperial reign of Napoleon
were recent memories# and the collapse of the aristocracy was paralleled (y the rise of a new middle classor
(ourgeoisiemade up of merchants and capitalists with commercial# rather than inherited# fortunes. 9s a
mem(er of the educated elite# <lau(ert found the moral conservatism# rough manners# and unsophisticated taste
of this new class appalling. /e attac)ed the merchant class in novels such as Madame Bovary, the story of a
woman imprisoned (y her middle4class surroundings# and in another novel# Sentimental Education.
2n addition to critici!ing the middle class# <lau(erts novel also reacted against romanticism. ?omantic writers#
who were popular in <rance (etween the late eighteenth and mid4nineteenth centuries# wrote emotional#
su(0ective novels that stressed feeling at the e3pense of facts and reason. 8hen <lau(ert (egan writing# a new
school called realism had started challenging romantic idealism with (oo)s that focused on the harsh realities of
life. This school included other <rench writers such as Stendhal and /onorQ ;al!ac# as well as =nglish writers
li)e $eorge =liot and Thomas /ardy. *nli)e his contemporaries# however# <lau(ert recogni!ed a strong strea)
of romanticism in himself. 2n Madame Bovary,romanticism is present# (ut <lau(ert always treats it with irony.
<lau(ert allows himself a few romantic moments (ut recogni!es their flaws.
Though it was his first novel# Madame Bovary is <lau(erts most accomplished and admired wor). 2n many
ways# the novel provides the (lueprint for the genre of the modern novel. <or e3ample# <lau4(ert was a
pioneering stylist# matching the style of his prose to the action of his story in a remar)a(le new way. 8here
other realist novels of the mid4nineteenth century used detached# o(0ective narration# <lau(erts prose conveys
the mood of his characters. 8hen =mma is (ored and restless# the prose plods dullyA when she e3periences
sensual pleasure# it moves rapturously and swiftly. 8e fre:uently see this techni:ue of communicating mood
through language in novels today.
+M
Summary1 6hapter 2
The novel (egins at the village school# where a new student has 0ust arrived. /e is 6harles ;ovary# the son of a
former army surgeon and his wife# who lives on a small farm. 9fter o(serving 6harles on his first day at school#
we follow him as he grows up. 6harless father# who manages M5N=G poorly and philanders with all the
village harlots#" has long since lost the respect of his wife# who lavishes her effusive affections on 6harles
instead. Despite the ridiculous way she spoils him# 6harles remains an unremar)a(le childgood4natured# (ut
la!y and unimaginative. =ventually# his parents send him off to medical school# where he regularly s)ips classes
and plays dominoes instead of studying. /is la!iness causes him to fail his first attempt at the medical e3am# a
failure concealed from his father until years later. 9fter reta)ing the e3am# he passes and (ecomes a doctor. /is
mother arranges for him to practice in the village of Tostes. She also finds him a wife/eloise Du(uc# a
wealthy widow# years older than 6harles. /eloise gives 6harles little love (ut plenty of nagging and scolding.
Summary1 6hapter 22
5ne night# 6harles is called from his (ed at F 9.M. to set a simple fracture at a distant farm. /e admires the
patients daughter# a young woman named =mma# who was raised in a convent and is unhappy with country
life. Struc) (y her (eauty# he returns to visit her father# ?ouault# far more often than necessary while his leg
heals. /eloise grows suspicious and as)s around a(out ?ouaults daughter# who# she hears# is prone to putting
on airs. Iealous of =mmas loo)s and good (reeding# /eloise forces 6harles to promise never to go there again.
/e agrees (ut learns soon after that /eloises lawyer has stolen most of /eloises M5N=G# and that /eloise
lied a(out her wealth (efore the wedding. 6harless parents argue violently a(out this development# and
/eloise# shoc)ed and humiliated# dies suddenly# a wee) later.
Summary1 6hapter 222
9fter /eloises death# 6harles (efriends ?ouault and often visits his farm. /e spends time with =mma#
watching her wor) or chatting with her a(out her (oredom in the country. 9lthough he pays no attention to the
meaning of her words# 6harles soon finds himself in love with =mma# and ?ouault# a heavy drin)er who has
mismanaged his farm# agrees to give his daughter to this mee) (ut )ind and well4mannered physician. 9fter
consenting# ?ouault instructs 6harles to wait outside while he goes to the house to as) =mma. /e 9=?TS
6harles to her agreement with a pre4arranged signal# a shutter (anged against the wall. The couple must wait for
6harless mourning period to pass. They (ide the time planning the wedding. =mma wants a romantic midnight
wedding# (ut in the end she is forced to settle for a more traditional ceremony# with raucous cele(ration.
Analysis: Part One, Chapters IIII
The novels early chapters set the middle4class provincial scene and introduce the fundamental elements of
=mmas and 6harless characters. 6harless failure to pass his medical e3ams and his ina(ility to comprehend
=mmas words illustrate his dullness and complacency# and his awareness of the tiny details of her physical
(eauty (etray that he thin)s of her more as an o(0ect than as a person. <or her part# =mma possesses an
impractical# romantic# melancholy natureshe hopes for a torch4lit midnight weddingwhich even at this
early stage seems at odds with the realities of her life.
Madame ;ovary does not (egin its narrative focused on Madame ;ovary# and# throughout the first few
chapters# <lau(ert delays the introduction of the novels heroine. <lau(erts use of narrative perspective in these
chapters )eeps his reader waiting for a glimpse of his heroine# =mma. 2ts almost as if <lau(ert ma)es us
penetrate through several layers of perspective (efore we are allowed to see through =mmas eyes. The first
scene in the (oo) is told in the first4person plural. 8e" are 6harless classmates o(serving his (um(ling arrival
at his new school. Soon afterward# this narrative voice fades into the (ac)ground and <lau(ert (egins to use the
third person# restricting most of his o(servations to 6harless point of view. 9t first# 6harles seems to (e the
protagonist of the story. =mma seems somewhat peripheral# and we learn a(out her only through other
characters perceptions. 6harles finds her charming# and /eloise has heard that she puts on airs.
The novel introduces two Madames ;ovary (efore =mma1 6harless mother and his first wife. The relations
(etween these women and 6harles prefigure his relations with the Madame ;ovary" of the title. ;oth 6harless
domineering mother and his first wife render him a man who e3pects to (e controlled. The Madames ;ovary
differ from =mma. 8hereas# li)e 6harles himself# the first two Madames ;ovary are petty and unimaginative#
=mma longs for a grand# romantic life. 2n that sense# she has a hard time filling the shoes of either 6harless
mother or his dead wife# while her own :ualities are (eyond 6harless powers of comprehension.
@N
Summary1 6hapter 2>
2n spring# when 6harless mourning period for his first wife has ended# he marries =mma. The wedding is a
huge event all around ?ouaults farm# and the guests come dressed in fancy clothes that they are not used to.
9fter the wedding# they all return to the farm in a long and festive procession that stretches out li)e one long
coloured scarf that undulated across the fields." They consume a massive all4night feast that includes an
incredi(ly ela(orate three4tiered wedding ca)e. The ne3t day# after the wedding night# 6harles is o(viously
over0oyed. =mma ta)es her loss of virginity calmly and coolly in stride. 9s the couple departs for their home in
Tostes# ?ouault reminisces a(out the happiness of his own wedding day.
Summary1 6hapter >
;ac) in Tostes# =mma inspects her new home# where she ma)es 6harles remove his dead wifes dried (ridal
(ou:uet from the (edroom. 9s =mma plans further small improvements to the house# 6harles dotes on her in a
da!e of love and happiness. =mma# on the other hand# feels strangely dissatisfied (y her new lifeshe always
e3pected marriage to lead her to romantic (liss. 2nstead# she feels that her life has fallen short of the high
e3pectations she received from romantic novels1 ;efore marriage she thought herself in loveA (ut since the
happiness that should have followed failed to come# she must# she thought# have (een mista)en. 9nd =mma
tried to find out what one meant e3actly in life (y the words (liss# passion# ecstasy# that had seemed to her so
(eautiful in (oo)s."
Summary1 6hapter >2
=mma remem(ers life in the convent where she was educated. 9t first# she threw herself into religious life#
treating religion with the same passion she devoted to reading romantic novels and listening to (allads of love.
8hen her mother died# she immersed herself even more passionately into her grief. 2t pleased her to thin) of
herself as an e3ample of pure melancholy. ;ut she soon grew tired of mourning and eventually left the convent.
<or a while# she en0oyed life on her fathers farm# (ut she soon found herself (ored and disgusted with her life.
2n this state of disillusionment# she first met 6harles# (ut he did not provide the happy escape for which she had
hoped.
Analysis: Part One, Chapters IVVI
<lau(erts shifting of the point of view from character to character follows the pattern of the novels plot. 9fter
6harles marries =mma# her point of view ta)es over. This shift in perspective (egins at the end of 6hapter >
and coincides with the contrast (etween 6harless (lind love for =mma and her own disillusionment. 2n =mmas
meditation on her marital dissatisfaction# we catch our first real glimpse of her thoughts# and the stage is set for
the escalating crisis of personality that will eventually claim her life.
9 third4person narrator tells the story throughout most of Madame ;ovary# focusing primarily on =mmas
thoughts and actions. /owever# the narrators point of view does change# and the narrator adopts several
different tones. The narrator fre:uently spea)s as an outsider# commenting o(0ectively# (ut also shows us things
su(0ectively through the characters eyes# telling us what they feel and thin). <lau(ert often employs free
indirect discourse# a techni:ue in which the narrators words sound very much li)e the thoughts and speech
patterns of one of the characters# even when the narrator is not directly :uoting the character. <or e3ample#
when ?ouault remem(ers his wedding in 6hapter 2># <lau(ert writes# /ow long ago it all wasR Their son
would have (een thirty (y now. Then he loo)ed (ac) and saw nothing on the road." The narration moves
directly from transcription of ?ouaults thought to description of his action# without setting the thought apart in
:uotation mar)s. 9s a result# we must often stop to consider whether we are hearing the voice of the narrator or
that of a character.
5ne of =mmas most important characteristics is the conflict (etween her romantic nature and her tendency
toward discontent. =mmas flash(ac) shows how far (ac) her taste for romance e3tends. =ven at age thirteen#
she was una(le to resist the melancholy# romantic atmosphere of the convent and steeped herself in romantic
novels and songs# whose stories she desperately wished would (e reali!ed in her own life. =mma# however# is
easily discontented. Things that she (elieves will save her# such as the convent# the farm# and married life#
always fail to fulfill her desires. /er high spirits after the wedding# for instance# fall the moment she encounters
/eloises (ridal (ou:uet in 6harless house# and she immediately (egins to wonder why her life does not match
the sentimental fictions she had e3pected to come true.
@+
<lau(ert is often considered a realist writer. ?ealists challenged their romantic predecessors (y writing (oo)s
that focused on the details of everyday life without turning a (lind eye to their dreary aspects. <lau(ert
participates in this movement (y descri(ing his characters emotions# actions# and settings vividly and without
romantic or fantastic em(ellishment. The wedding scene that ta)es up almost all of 6hapter 2> is a classic
e3ample of what ma)es <lau(ert a realist. The wedding is a setting that <lau(ert descri(es painsta)ingly. /e
writes a(out every part of the cele(ration# often merely listing item after item. /e tells what )inds of vehicles
the guests arrive in# how they wear their hair# what fa(rics their clothes are made of# and how they appear
physically. /is description of the feast is so ela(orate that it seems li)e theres far too much food for 0ust forty4
three guests to eat. <lau(ert doesnt 0ust rattle off details. /e also implicitly comments on their social value.
8hen he tells us a(out the young girls# their hair greasy with rose4pomade# and very much afraid of dirtying
their gloves#" we can see how aw)ward and unrefined they are. 2n descri(ing the country peoples attempts to
dress up# <lau(ert po)es fun at their efforts.
Such su(tle commentary on the traits of minor characters is 0ust one of the ways in which <lau(ert frames
Madame ;ovary as a critical portrait of (ourgeois life. 2n 6hapter >2# he writes that =mma loves the flowers
and icons of her religion# (ut that real spiritual faith is alien to her constitution." This statement shows that
=mma# for all her pretensions to great sentiment# is really incapa(le of deep feeling. The narrators remar) also
satiri!es (ourgeois churchgoers who ma)e a great show of religion (ut possess little genuine piety.
Summary1 6hapter >22
During her honeymoon in Tostes# =mma feels disappointed not to (e in a romantic chalet in Swit!erland. She
finds her hus(and dull and uninspiring and (egins to resent his lac) of interest in a more passionate life. 6harles
continues to love =mma. /is mother visits and hates =mma for having won his love. 9fter she leaves# =mma
tries to love 6harles# (ut disappointment lingers. She wonders why she ever got married. Then# one of 6harless
patients# the Mar:uis d9ndervilliers# invites the ;ovarys to a (all at his mansion.
Summary1 6hapter >222
9lthough enchanted (y the atmosphere of wealth and lu3ury at the (all# =mma is em(arrassed (y her hus(and#
whom she views as a clumsy# unsophisticated oaf. She is surrounded (y wealthy# elegant no(lemen and women#
among them an old man who was one of Marie 9ntoinettes lovers. 8hen the (allroom gets too hot# a servant
(rea)s the windows to let in the air. =mma loo)s outside and sees peasants gaw)ing inA she is reminded of her
life on the farm# which now feels a world away. 9 viscount dances with her# and she feels as though she has
(een cheated out of the life for which she was (orn. 5n the way home# the same viscount passes them on the
road and drops a cigar (o3# which =mma )eeps. ;ac) in Tostes# =mma is angry with everyone around her.
Summary1 6hapter 2&
<i3ated on her cigar case and her fashiona(le ladies maga!ines# =mma sin)s into fantasies of high society life
in Paris# growing despondent and misera(le and venting her self4pity (y acting sullen and capricious with her
hus(and. 9lthough 6harless (usiness prospers# =mma grows increasingly irritated with his poor manners and
dullness. 9s her restlessness# (oredom# and depression intensify# she (ecomes physically ill. 2n an effort to cure
her# 6harles decides that they should move to Gonville# a town in need of a doctor. ;efore the move# =mma
learns that she is pregnant. 8hile pac)ing# she throws her dried (ridal (ou:uet into the fire and watches it (urn.
Analysis: Part One, Chapters VIIIX
Now that we see the world of the novel fully from =mmas perspective# <lau(ert (egins to develop the (asic
conflict inherent in her situation1 =mma is una(le to accept the world as it is# (ut she cannot ma)e the world as
she wants it to (e. Now that she is married to a middle4class dullard# she cannot accept her lot. She steeps
herself in fantasy# and the pressure of her constant re(ellion against reality ma)es her restless# moody# and
eventually physically ill.
<lau(erts portrayal of the (all and the events that follow displays the ironic contrast (etween =mmas
e3perience and reality. <lau(ert conveys (oth the e3ternal reality of how =mma loo)s at the (all as well the
psychological reality of how the (all loo)s to =mma. She is so happy that she fails to reali!e that no one at the
(all is paying any attention to her# and her meaningless dance with the viscount (ecomes# in her fancy# a
tremendous romantic occurrence. 2n fact# she continues to overloo) the well4meaning love of her good4natured
(ut vapid hus(and in favor of her memories of the (all for wee)s after everyone else has already forgotten it.
@@
8hen 6harles decides to move to Gonville in an attempt to salvage =mmas failing health# she ta)es a moment
from her pac)ing to throw her (ridal wreath dramatically onto the fire. The event sym(oli!es her re0ection of the
marriage and the complacent middle4class world that have# to her mind# imprisoned her.
=mmas pre0udiced eyes intensify <lau(erts realist attention to detail. 2n particular# the details of 6harless
oafishness are greatly magnified. The narrator descri(es every noise he ma)es when he eats. <lau(ert also
devotes several paragraphs to a description of =mmas overwhelmingly (oring daily routine. =mmas (oredom
(ecomes one of the novels su(0ects and a means of developing her character. <lau(erts focus on (oredom
mar)s another of the novels departures from romanticism toward a realistic mode.
=mmas relation to her farming roots is also e3plored in this section. <lau(ert places a recollection of the past in
the middle of =mmas fantasy evening to show that she can never really escape her origins. 9t the (all# =mma
allows herself to forget that she is not a privileged mem(er of the upper4class world she is visiting# (ut when a
servant (rea)s a windowpane# =mma sees the peasants outside# and she remem(ers the simple country life of
her youth.
Part @
Summary1 6hapter 2
Part Two (egins with a description of Gonville4l9((aye# the town to which the ;ovarys are moving. The most
nota(le features of the town are the ion d5r inn# the pharmacy of Monsieur /omais# and the graveyard# where
the gravedigger# esti(oudois# also grows potatoes. The village fol) await the arrival of the evening coach. 2t
arrives late# carrying 6harles and =mma. The delay has occured (ecause =mmas little dog escaped and ran
away during the 0ourney.
Summary1 6hapter 22
6harless correspondent in Gonville# a pompous# o(no3ious apothecary named /omais# dines at the inn with the
newly arrived ;ovarys. /is (oarder# a young law cler) named eon# is invited to 0oin them. 8hile 6harles and
/omais discuss medicine# =mma and eon spend much of the meal discovering their affinities. =mma learns
that eon also loves romantic novels and lofty ideals. Sharing these leanings# the two feel an immediate
closeness and (elieve that their conversation is :uite profound. 8hen the ;ovarys arrive at their new house#
=mma hopes that her life will change for the (etter# and that her unhappiness will finally su(side.
Summary1 6hapter 222
eon thin)s a(out =mma constantly. 6harless medical practice gets off to a slow start# (ut 6harles is e3cited
a(out the coming of the (a(y. <inally# the (a(y is (orn. 2t is a girl# contrary to =mmas wishes. They name her
;erthe# and 6harless parents stay with them for a month after the christening party. 5ne day# =mma decides to
visit the (a(y at the house of her wet nurse# who as)s her for a few e3tra amenities. 5n the way there# =mma
feels wea)# so she as)s eon to accompany her. ?umors (egin to spread through the village that they are having
an affair. 9fter the visit to the nurses house# =mma and eon go for a wal) (y the river# during which they feel
passionately romantic toward each other.
Analysis: Part Two, Chapters IIII
The superficiality of =mmas romanticism (ecomes clear in her interactions with eon# who shares her love for
sentiment and passionate e3cess. =mmas conversation with eon at dinner is trite and sentimentalthey
discuss how (oo)s transport them away from their everyday lives(ut to the two of them# it seems rapturous
and meaningful. She challenges her sta(le (ut unsatisfying marriage with a relationship that is (ased on falsely
profound declarations rather than true sentiment.
The (irth of =mmas daughter underlines the materialism of her sentiments# (ut it also introduces some of the
novels feminist arguments. =mma desires to (e a maternal figure only when it seems as though the role might
(e glamorous. 9s soon as she reali!es that she cant ;*G e3pensive clothes and furniture for the (a(y# however#
her interest fades# and we see that her only interest in the child is as a vehicle for her own desires. =mma dreams
of having a son (ecause she (elieves that a male child will have the power she lac)s. This fran) statement
shows that <lau(ert was aware and perhaps disapproved of the a(ridged li(erties afforded to women in the late
nineteenth century. =mma o(serves that a man# at least# is freeA he can e3plore all passions and all countries#
overcome o(stacles# taste of the most distant pleasures. ;ut a woman is always hampered." =mmas lovers
always en0oy freedom that she cannot.
@C
<lau(erts description of the mundane world around =mma is realistic# (ut somewhat e3aggerated. /e uses
flowery# poetic language to descri(e Gonville# writing that the country is li)e a great unfolded mantle with a
green velvet cape (ordered with a fringe of S2>=?." ;ut <lau(ert also recogni!es the (anality of the setting as
a mongrel land whose language# li)e its landscape# is without accent or character." ;y descri(ing the same
scene in contrasting ways# <lau(ert accomplishes two effects. <irst# he sets himself apart from his romantic
predecessors# who would have appraised a dull scene as unworthy of their attention. Second# he contrasts the
(anality that =mma sees with the (eauty that an outsider might instead perceive. <lau(ert there(y esta(lishes
that while =mma may (e right a(out the (oredom of village life# she is also missing a layer of (eauty that her
perspective is too narrow to contain.
The villagers who surround =mma provide us with a conte3t for historically understanding =mmas social
position. The wet nurse whom =mma visits# for e3ample# lives in a small hut with the children she nurses. 8hen
she sees =mma# she (egs her for little necessitiesa (it of coffee# some soap# some (randy. 9lthough =mma
remains unhappy (ecause she cant sociali!e with the aristocracy in Paris# her visit to the wet nurse reminds us
that she is comparatively well4off. The village inn)eeper# meanwhile# is a down4to4earth woman whose only
concerns are whether the meal will (e served on time and whether the drun)ards who fre:uent the inn will
destroy the (illiards ta(le. 9lthough she does lac) imagination# she also represents something that =mma is not1
a woman who accepts and en0oys her lot in life.
Summary1 6hapter 2>
During the winter# the ;ovarys often go to /omaiss house on Sunday evenings. /ere# =mma and eon develop
a strong rapport. =ach feels powerfully attracted to the other# (ut neither has the courage to admit to the feeling.
They e3change little gifts# and the townspeople are sure they are lovers.
Summary1 6hapter >
=mma watches eon# /omais# and 6harles and decides that her hus(and is so unremar)a(le that he disgusts her.
She reali!es that eon loves her# and the ne3t time they meet# they (oth are shy and aw)ward# unsure of how to
proceed. =mma is constantly nervous# and she (egins to lose weight. She fancies herself a martyr# una(le to give
herself to love (ecause of the restrictions of her marriage. She plays the part of the dutiful wife to 6harles and
(rings her daughter# ;erthe# (ac) home from the wet nurse. Soon# however# =mmas desire for eon (ecomes
much stronger than her desire to (e virtuous# and she gives way to self4pity. She (rea)s down in tears# and
(lames 6harles for all of her unhappiness. 5ne day# a shop)eeper named Monsieur heureu3 hints to her that he
is a moneylender# in case she should ever need a loan.
Summary1 6hapter >2
=mma hears the church (ells tolling and decides to see) help at the church. The curate# 9((S ;ournisien#
preoccupied with his own pro(lems and with a group of unruly (oys in his catechism class# is o(livious to
=mmas deep distress. Soon afterward# in a fit of irrita(ility# =mma pushes ;erthe away from her# and the little
girl falls and cuts herself. =mma claims that ;erthe was playing and that she fell accidentally. =mma is frantic
and sha)en# (ut 6harles eventually calms her.
eon decides to go to Paris to study law. /e loves =mma# (ut her sentiments ma)e their romance impossi(le#
and he is utterly (ored in Gonville. /e is also tempted (y romantic adventures he suspects will await him in
Paris. 8hen he (ids =mma farewell# they are (oth aw)ward and :uiet# (ut they are (oth moved. 9fter he leaves#
6harles and /omais discuss the lures and difficulties of city life.
Analysis: Part Two, Chapters IVVI
9t the conclusion of Part Two# 6hapter 2># we learn more a(out eons feelings for =mma. 8e discover that he
feels shame at his cowardice in not declaring his love for her# that he has written and torn4up a num(er of love
letters# and that he feels frustration that =mma is married. The narrative then shifts to =mma# in contemplation
of love1
9s for =mma# she did not as) herself whether she loved him. ove# she thought must come suddenly# with great
out(ursts and lightnings#a hurricane of the s)ies# which sweeps down on life# upsets everything# uproots the
will li)e a leaf and carries away the heart as in an a(yss. She did not )now that on the terrace of houses the rain
ma)es la)es when the pipes are cho)ed# and she would thus have remained safe in her ignorance when she
suddenly discovered a rent in the wall.
@F
<lau(ert satiri!es the romantic idea of love as an overwhelming transformative force of nature (y 0u3taposing
images of hurricanes and tempests with one of the more mundane effects of weather# water damage. ;y
presenting her discovery of the dent in the wall in an ironic tone of regret# he moc)s =mmas lac) of practical
)nowledge# as well as her ina(ility and unwillingness to conceive of the actual. =mmas conflict is contained in
this passage. She yearns for unreal romantic ideals and is at first ignorant of and then disappointed (y the
imperfect realities of life# such as decay.
=mmas struggle with her conscience# as she tries to do her (est to (ecome a dutiful wife and mother even as
she is tempted (y a romance with eon# ultimately amounts to her indulgence of the romantic role of the martyr.
;ut when she shoves her infant daughter away from her in a fit of annoyance# she can no longer pretend to (e a
dutiful family woman. She is saved from an infidelity with eon only (y his decision to leave for Paris. The
incident with ;erthe demonstrates =mmas ina(ility to em(race maternal instincts. Iust (efore she pushes her
daughter# she stares at her with disgust# regarding her more as a foreign o(0ecta piece of furniture or an
animalthan as her own child.
The conversation (etween =mma and the priest offers <lau(ert a chance to po)e fun at the superficial nature of
religion among the (ourgeoisie. 8hen =mma turns to the priest# she is in real need of help. ;ut the 9((S
;ournisien is preoccupied not with spiritual matters (ut with petty (analities1 the rowdiness of his pupils and his
daily rounds. 8hen =mma says# 2 am suffering#" he misunderstands her# and assumes that she is referring to
the summer heat. The scene is humorous# (ut it also critici!es the church sharply# implying that it can only
provide surface comforts and cannot minister to =mmas very real spiritual need.
Madame ;ovary (ecame so famous in part (ecause of its innovative narrative techni:ue. <lau(ert matches his
prose style to his narrative su(0ect with remar)a(le accuracy. 8hen =mma is (ored# the te3t seems to crawlA
when she is engaged# it flies. <lau(ert widens the sym(olic reach of his novel with the development of /omais#
a character perfectly conceived to represent all that <lau(ert hates a(out the new (ourgeoisie. 9nd he introduces
foreshadowing when the sinister heureu3 hints to =mma that he is a moneylender.
Summary1 6hapter >22
9fter eons departure# =mma lapses into her old depression. She is moody# irrita(le# nervous# and misera(le.
She constantly dreams of eon# and wishes that she would have given in to her love for him. 2n this state# she
meets a rich and handsome landowner named ?odolphe ;oulanger# who (rings a servant to (e treated (y
6harles. During the treatment# Iustin# /omaiss assistant who is infatuated with =mma# faints from the sight of
the (lood. 9s =mma tends to him# ?odolphe is ta)en (y her (eauty and (egins plotting to seduce her.
Summary1 6hapter >222
Gonville is astir with e3citement for the annual agricultural fair# a festive# merry event featuring animals on
display# speeches# and pri!es. 5ne of the pri!es goes to an old and timid woman# 6atherine erou3# for fifty4
four years of service on the same farm. ?odolphe ta)es =mma inside the empty town hall to watch the
ceremony from the windowA when they are alone# he confesses his love for her. The representative of the local
prefect arrives and gives a speech a(out pu(lic morality. ?odolphe continues to spea) of his love and to urge
=mma to return his feelings. She tries to act as she thin)s is proper for a married woman (ut cant resist
intertwining her fingers with his.
Summary1 6hapter 2&
<or si3 wee)s# ?odolphe avoids =mma# calculating that his a(sence will ma)e her long for him. 8hen he visits
her at last# she is cold to him# (ut :uic)ly finds herself moved (y his romantic language. 8hen 6harles arrives#
?odolphe offers to loan =mma a horse to ride. She demurs# (ut 6harles later persuades her to accept the offer.
Soon afterward# =mma and ?odolphe go for a ride together. 2n a (eautiful forest glade# he again spea)s of his
love for her. 9t last# she gives in# and they ma)e love. 8hen she returns home# she is 0oyful# feeling that her life
has at last (ecome romantic. =mma and ?odolphe :uic)ly (egin a full4fledged affairA =mma (egins snea)ing
away from home to see ?odolphe. She acts incautiously# neglecting her duties at home in her o(session for her
new lover.
Analysis: Part Two, Chapters VIIIX
@,
i)e the wedding in Part 5ne# 6hapter 2># the agricultural fair 4realistically portrays country life and
emphasi!es =mmas unhappiness. The farmers at the fair counter =mmas yearning and dissatisfaction with
contentment. They e3perience the fair not as a frivolous provincial charade# (ut as a genuinely en0oya(le
occasion. 2n this regard# 6atherine erou3 represents =mmas opposite. *nli)e =mma# who cant reside in the
same place for more than a wee) without e3periencing a crippling longing for romantic transformation#
6atherine erou3 has served for fifty4four years on the same farm.
9s a suitor# ?odolphe differs from eon in terms of e3perience# and his seduction of =mma succeeds on the
strength of his time4honed cunning. 8hile (oth suitors are fundamentally motivated (y erotic desire# eon is
shy# sentimentally romantic# and se3ually innocent. 2n contrast# ?odolphe is aggressive# calculatingly pragmatic#
and se3ually cynical. 8hereas eon regards =mma as a potential partner in a love of e:ual terms and views her
marriage as an o(stacle to that (ond# ?odolphe views =mma as se3ual prey and her marriage as a convenient
e3cuse for seduction without worry of commitment. ?odolphe infers immediately that =mma yearns to escape
the yo)e of her marriage and desires a lover. /e sets a(out (ecoming that lover with ruthless precision.
The conte3t of the fair provides sharp ironic contrast to ?odolphes s)illful seduction of the sentimental =mma.
<lau(ert cuts (ac) and forth (etween the scene of the seduction and the speech on morality delivered (y the
(ureaucratic official at the fair. 2n every instance# the officials pompous words emphasi!e the insincere passion
?odolphe displays toward =mma. 8hen he tells her he loves her# for e3ample# the official presents a local
farmer the award for first pri!e in manure. 9s the scene continues# <lau(ert heightens the pace (y including
shorter and shorter segments from each speech# until we hear single sentences intercut with each other.
The irony of pu(lic morality contrasted with clandestine infidelity occurs again in 6harless unwitting
facilitation of ?odolphes seduction of his wife. 8hen ?odolphe offers to ta)e her riding# =mma first demurs.
;ut 6harles# (lind to ?odolphes intentions and hoping to improve =mmas health with e3ercise# insists she
accept. /e even writes to ?odolphe himself to arrange the ride. 5n the ride# of course# =mma gives herself to
?odolphe for the first time# and 6harles (ecomes the unwitting accomplice to his wifes infidelity.
8hen <lau(ert employs high lyricism to descri(e =mma as she strides across fields at midnight to rende!vous
with her lover# she suddenly (ecomes a sympathetic character. =mma (elieves herself to (e in love# and her
pretensions toward high society recede. 2ts hard to tell# however# whether her sentimental feelings of love are
real or a mere function of ?odolphes manipulations and higher social status. =mma appears to (e ignited with
real passion# (ut we )now from her earlier attempts at religious and maternal love that she is rarely serious for
long. 8e also )now that ?odolphe is an e3perienced lover who tosses women aside as soon as he grows (ored.
This foreshadowing indicates to us that =mma is doomed in this affair# and we sympathi!e with her approaching
disappointment rather than her present elation.
Summary1 6hapter &
=mma and ?odolphe (ecome more cautious# now meeting in the ar(or in =mmas garden rather than at
?odolphes house. ?odolphe :uic)ly (egins to tire of herA he finds her romantic idealism e3hausting and loses
interest in her. /e continues the affair solely (ecause of =mmas (eauty# (ut he urges her to act more cautiously.
/is attentions diminish# and she (ecomes less sure of his love. 9 letter from her father prompts a memory of her
innocent childhood days. =mma (egins to feel guilty and tries to redeem herself through sacrifice. She (ecomes
cold to ?odolphe in order to end the affair# and she tries to force herself to love 6harles.
Summary1 6hapter &2
/omais reads a paper praising a surgical procedure that will cure clu(foot. *nder pressure from =mma %who
hopes to help 6harless career'# /omais# and much of Gonville# the cautious 6harles agrees to test this
procedure on /ippolyte# a clu(footed servant at the inn. 9lthough /ippolyte is more agile on his crippled leg
than some men are on two healthy ones# he is tal)ed into the operation (y the townspeople. The attempt ma)es
6harles a local cele(rity(ut it fails. /ippolytes leg develops gangrene and must (e amputated. =mma 0udges
6harles incompetent and feels disgusted (y him. 9lthough her affair with ?odolphe has slowed down
considera(ly# she renews it now with even more passion than (efore.
Summary1 6hapter &22 =mma and ?odolphes affair (egins where it left off. 9s =mmas dissatisfaction with her
marriage (ecomes even more pronounced# she (egins to allude to the possi(ility of leaving 6harles. heureu3#
the merchant and moneylender# (egins to coa3 her into ma)ing e3travagant and unwise purchases. She goes into
@-
de(t to ;*G e3pensive gifts for her lover. ?odolphe# meanwhile# (ecomes still more easily annoyed (y =mmas
romantic sentimentality and (egins to lose patience with the affair. ;y now# =mma has (een so careless that the
whole town )nows a(out her adultery. 8hen 6harless mother comes for a visit# she guesses it too. She and
=mma fight# and 6harles convinces =mma to apologi!e to his mother a(out the fight. 9fter her apology# =mma
is humiliated and (egs ?odolphe to ta)e her away. She plans to ta)e ;erthe with her. 8ith the secret hope of
running away with ?odolphe# she (ecomes more polite and much less irrita(le with 6harles and his mother. The
lovers finali!e their plans. They decide that they will leave Gonville separately# then meet in ?ouen. /owever#
after a meeting in =mmas garden# ?odolphe tal)s himself out of the idea.
Analysis: Part Two, Chapters XXII
9s the affair progresses# it (ecomes increasingly clear that ?odolphe is interested in =mma solely for the se3ual
pleasure she affords him# and that =mmas flights of romantic fancy are sorely misplaced. =mma is never a(le
to remain happy in one situation for long# and her guilty attempt to reclaim her moral (earing (y sacrificing
herself for 6harless career is simply the particular form her inevita(le depression ta)es at this point in the story.
8hen 6harles characteristically (ungles the operation# having allowed =mma and /omais to tal) him into
performing an unsound procedure on the crippled /ippolyte# =mma rediscovers her disgust for him and returns
gladly to ?odolphes arms.
The operation on /ippolyte (rings to light not only 6harless incompetence# (ut also the real evil that pride and
pretension can perpetrate on simplicity and innocence. /ippolyte is stupid and simple# (ut he is very a(le.
/omais# on the other hand# is the picture of (ourgeois pomposity. /e loves to hear himself tal)# regardless of
the inanity of what he is saying. 6om(ined with 6harless incompetence# /omaiss )now4it4all (ehavior invites
the horrifying scourge of gangrene followed (y the gruesome agony of amputation.
The story of /ippolyte can also (e seen as an allegory for =mmas life. ;y trying to alter a mediocre marital
situation# =mma will in the end devastate (oth her family and their financesmuch as the doctors destroy
/ippolytes leg (y trying to correct a condition that /ippolyte had previously accepted as part of his life. The
nature of that destruction# a long# slow poisoning (y gangrene# is similar to the long path of increasing adultery#
immorality# and financial irresponsi(ility that =mma has ta)en.
;y this point# the process of =mmas moral degradation has already (egun# in fact. <lau(ert writes that
?odolphe has made =mma into something at once mallea(le and corrupt." =mmas growing internal
corruption is matched (y an increased attention to superficial appearances. She pays e3cessive attention to her
physical vanities# perfuming herself# polishing her nails# and ;*G2N$ e3pensive items from heureu3. 9t the
same time# she grows more and more (ra!en in her adultery# and her de(t to heureu3 increases. =mma puts
(oth her soul and her finances in hoc) for the sa)e of an illicit love affair and a few material possessions.
<lau(ert forges a strong parallel (etween =mmas moral and financial situations. 2n the end# it is her financial
situation that undoes her.
Summary1 6hapter &222
?odolphe has decided not to elope with =mma. The se3ual pleasure she provides# he decides# will not (e
enough to offset the inconvenience and drain of (eing constantly in her company. 9s he contemplates the (est
way of telling her# he reminisces a(out his former mistresses. /e then writes =mma a letter in which he says
that (ecause he loves her so much# he must (rea) off their affair# (ecause all he can offer her is pain. /is letter is
a fa(rication# (ut he feels it will satisfy =mma and minimi!e the inconvenience to him of ending the affair. /e
has the letter delivered to =mma concealed at the (ottom of a (as)et of apricots.
8hen =mma receives the letter# she is devastated. ?eading the letter in the attic# she contemplates throwing
herself out the window# (ut stops when she hears 6harles calling her. 2n her agitated state# she leaves the letter
there# forgetting to conceal it. That night# as 6harles eats the apricots ?odolphe has sent# =mma sees ?odolphes
carriage drive (y on its way out of town# and she faints. She declares that she wants to see no one# not even her
daughter. She develops a high fever and remains close to death for the ne3t month and a half. 6harles calls in
doctors from all over the region# (ut none of them can cure her. ;y 5cto(er# however# =mma (egins to recover
her health.
Summary1 6hapter &2>
@J
6harles has a num(er of worries. =mmas ill health terrifies him# and his financial situation is (ecoming
increasingly dire. The doctors are very e3pensive# and when heureu3 presents him with a list of =mmas de(ts#
6harles is forced to (orrow the M5N=G from heureu3 at very high interest in order to pay them off.
Meanwhile# =mma# who (elieves she has had a religious epiphany during her illness# rediscovers the 6atholic
fervor of her youth. She prays devoutly and is )inder to (oth 6harles and ;erthe. ;ut her religion disappoints
her. 9lthough she is as passionately devoted to religious practice as she once was to ?odolphe# she finds it
offers her none of the same ecstasies. She maintains her practice and )ind demeanor# however# (ecoming
friendly with the villagers# including Iustin# who (y now is completely in love with her. 5ther fre:uent visitors
are the ta3 collector# ;inet# who offers advice on uncor)ing cider (ottles# and /omais# who suggests that
6harles ta)e =mma to the opera in ?ouen. The priest and the pharmacist argue over whether or not the theater is
moral;ournisien claiming that it is irreligious and /omais defending it. =ventually# thin)ing it will (enefit
=mmas health# 6harles decides to ta)e her to the opera.
Summary1 6hapter &>
9t the opera# =mma finds herself again em(arrassed (y 6harless unsophisticated (ehavior# preoccupied with
the desire to seem cosmopolitan and aristocratic. ;ut she en0oys the opera a great dealA it reminds her of the
romantic novels of her youth and ma)es her thin) a(out events in her own life. 9t intermission# she is stunned
to hear that eon is in the crowd. She# 6harles# and eon go to a cafS. 6harles and eon tal)# and =mma is
highly impressed (y the sophistication eon has ac:uired since moving to Paris. eon (egins to ridicule the
opera (ut when he learns that =mma might stay in ?ouen in order to see the second half# he praises it
rapturously. 6harles suggests that =mma stay the ne3t day to see the rest of the opera while he returns to
Gonville.
Analysis: Part Two, Chapters XIIIXV
Throughout the novel# =mma undergoes ethical development cyclically. She tends to switch from romantic
indulgence to dissatisfaction# misery# and illness to moral resolve# and then (egins the cycle again with a new
romantic indulgence. This cycle is evident in her relationship with ?odolphe. 9fter ?odolphe cuts off their
affair# she (ecomes religious. /er insincere piety gives way to romantic yearnings# and when she meets eon at
the opera# she is ready to renew their fledgling romance. This cycle# however# cannot last forever# and when she
receives ?odolphes letter# her suicidal thoughts dar)ly foreshadow her future. 9nother element of
foreshadowing in this scene is never fully reali!ed# however. =mma discards ?odolphes note carelessly
unconcealed in the attic# (ut trustworthy 6harles never suspects her infidelities# and# even when he later finds
the note# he naively rec)ons it refers to platonic friendship.
9lthough this emotional cycle may seem li)e a reason to condemn =mma# her heart(rea) and su(se:uent illness
are in some ways a product of the society in which she lives. ?odolphe himself (lames the end of their affair on
fate#" (ut ?odolphe does have control over the end of the love affair. 9s a wealthy man# he has much more
power than =mma. 9s a woman with no way to support herself# =mma cant gain freedom (y leaving 6harles#
nor does she have the means to pursue ?odolphe. <urthermore# ?odolphes life of ease# com(ined with his
status as a man# allows him great se3ual li(erty. /e has had so many lovers that he is detached and cold. 9s a
result# he can a(andon =mma with no great feelings of regret.
The scene in which ?odolphe writes his letter to =mma e3emplifies <lau(erts ironic com(ination of humor and
pity. The te3t of the letter itself is ridiculous# full of high sentiment and e3clamation points. 2n a sense# it is
e3actly the sort of letter that the maudlin =mma might wish for. ;ut <lau(ert emphasi!es the insincerity of the
words (y depicting ?odolphes thoughts as he composes the letter. <or e3ample# when ?odolphe writes# fate is
to (lameR" he thin)s# thats a word that always helps." ;y contrasting self44congratulatory comments li)e this
one with the over(lown romanticism of the letter itself# <lau(ert heightens the insincerity of ?odolphes
sentiments. 9t the same time# he points out how deceptive the written word can (e# which reflects not only on
?odolphe# (ut on <lau(ert himself in his role as a writer.
<lau(erts awareness of the power of written language to deceive ma)es him cautious not to im(ue his
descriptions with too much heavy4handed commentary. 9s he descri(es =mmas religious ardor# he writes
almost li)e a reporter# carefully descri(ing actions without venturing any comments on them. ;ut <lau(ert
ma)es his thoughts understood even while maintaining an apparently o(0ective tone. ;y using the techni:ue of
0u3tapositionthat is# (y putting ?odolphes thoughts (eside his words<lau(ert conveys the characters
@K
malice and insincerity. =lsewhere he deploys words ironically in une3pected conte3ts to achieve similarly su(tle
effects. 2n the statement# D=mmaE fancied herself sei!ed with the finest 6atholic melancholy#" the lighthearted
words fancied herself" undermine the seriousness of =mmas emotions# ma)ing it clear that <lau(ert 0udges his
heroines sentiments to (e somewhat ridiculous. /e uses a similar techni:ue later# to let us )now that the opera
=mma li)es so much is really a mediocre production. /e writes# ucie (ravely attac)ed her cavatina in $
ma0or#" and with this simple phrase we reali!e that the singer is no great soprano# (ut 0ust a chorus girl trying to
sing difficult opera.
P9?TC
Summary1 6hapter 2
9lthough eon has all (ut forgotten =mma during his time at law school# seeing her again has reawa)ened his
old feelings for her# and he goes to see her in her hotel while 6harles is gone the ne3t day. They have an
intimate conversation a(out their discontent with life and the romantic nature of death. <inally# eon confesses
his love and )isses =mma. She refuses him# (ut he (egs for another chance# and they agree to meet at the
cathedral the ne3t day. =mma then writes him a letter in which she e3plains that she cannot (e his mistress. The
ne3t day# eon goes to the cathedral at the appointed time# (ut =mma hangs (ac)# hoping to avoid him and not
to fall in love with him again. 8hen she arrives# she gives the letter to eon# (ut he does not read it. She ta)es
up the offer of the churchs (eadle for a tour of the (uilding# (ut finally eon pulls her away. They call for a
carriage. The driver of the carriage is (affled that they would want to (e driven a(out aimlessly# with all the
curtains pulled tight# on such a pleasant day. They drive all day and into the evening# and the only sign of life
from inside the carriage is a hand that emerges to throw the torn4up scraps of =mmas letter into the wind.
Summary1 6hapter 22
=mma and eon have spent so much time in their carriage that =mma has missed the coach (ac) to Gonville.
She ta)es a private ca( to catch up with it. 8hen she returns home# she is called urgently to /omaiss pharmacy#
where /omais is having a massive fight with Iustin (ecause Iustin has ta)en the )ey to a storeroom where
arsenic is )ept. /omais tells =mma that 6harless father has died. 6harles is in mourning# and his mother
arrives for a long stay at their house in Gonville# much to =mmas dismay. heureu3 appears with another list of
de(ts and encourages =mma to o(tain power of attorney over 6harless finances in order to settle the de(ts.
6harles naively (elieves his wife when she says that this would (e the (est approach# so he agrees. /e even
agrees to send her to ?ouen for three days so that eon can draw up the papers.
Summary1 6hapter 222
2n ?ouen# =mma and eon en0oy a passionate three4day honeymoon#" ma)ing love in their /5T= ?55M#
ta)ing a (oat out to an island# and romancing under the moonlight. 5ne evening# the (oatman tells them that a
party of well4to4do young people had used the (oat the day (eforeA it turns out that ?odolphe was among them.
=mma shudders# (ut :uic)ly recovers herself# ma)ing arrangements for eon to write to her when she returns to
Gonville.
Analysis: Part Three, Chapters IIII
=mmas new love affair proves the wea)ness of her recent religious contrition. She a(andons the church as soon
as a new suitor asserts himself. =mmas attraction to the appearance of romance leads her to accept a superficial
version of love# from eon as well as from ?odolphe. eon has changed a great deal while in Paris. /is flighty
romantic sentiments have (ecome dulled (y the sophistication of the city# and <lau(ert allows us to view affairs
from eons perspective from time to time to show us the deficiency of eons emotions in relation to =mmas
desires. i)e ?odolphe# eon is concerned more with the appearance of his love than with love itself. /e often
congratulates himself" on what he (elieves to (e a particularly well4turned romantic phrase or gesture.
?odolphe appears on the scene as a masterfully suave seducer. eon# on the other hand# despite his high opinion
of himself# (ehaves li)e an impatient school(oy. 8hen =mma accepts the (eadles offer of a tour of the church#
eon cant wait to have =mma alone and doesnt even try to conceal his impatience. =mma# however# is (lind to
eons foolishness. She has so little sense of sincerity in a lover that she accepts eons playacting as
sophistication.
The carriage ride with eon is one of the most famous scenes in Madame ;ovary (ecause it illustrates
synechdoche# a literary figure in which part of something stands for its entirety. The description of the carriages
@M
movements stands in for a description of =mma and eon ma)ing love# and the panting e3haustion of the
carriage driver stands in for the panting e3haustion of the lovers within the carriage. The further the carriage
goes# the further we )now =mma and eon have gone# so even <lau(erts long list of the districts they visit
contri(utes to our growing sense of certainty that =mma and eon are consummating their affair inside the
carriage. <inally# the hand thrust forth at the very end of the scene to discard the torn pieces of =mmas letter
signals (oth =mmas se3ual clima3 and the end of all her resolutions.
The emptiness of =mmas devotion to religion is literally demonstrated as =mma passes straight from the
church into her lovers arms. The scene in the cathedral# li)e =mmas consultation with the priest in Part Two#
6hapter >2# allows <lau(ert to critici!e religion. /ere# as in that earlier scene# =mma is desperately in need of
spiritual guidance(ut the man of religion is too concerned with worldly things to lend her the help she needs.
2n this scene# she accepts the (eadles tour (ecause with her e3piring virtue# she clung to the >irgin# the
sculpture# the tom(sto anything." ;ut the (eadles la(ored descriptions of the statuary do not offer the
spiritual succor =mma needs.
The lyricism of <lau(erts prose in this section illustrates the (elief of (oth =mma and eon that their love affair
is fantastically romantic# while ironically communicating the narrators awareness that the affair is cheap and
tawdry. 5n the one hand# <lau(ert uses lyrical# poetic language to capture the mood of his characters# writing of
=mma# at times the shadows of the willows hid her completelyA then she reappeared suddenly# li)e a vision in
the moonlight." 5n the other hand# he maintains a detached irony# writing# they did not fail to ma)e fine
phrases a(out how melancholical and poetic Dthe moonE appeared to them." The narrators use of poetic
language to descri(e =mma is not sarcasticA instead# it conveys (oth the (eauty and the a(surdity of the
situation. <lau(ert is never entirely condescending towards his characters# nor does he ever entirely em(race
their naivetS.
Summary1 6hapter 2>
8hen =mma returns to Gonville# eon (egins inventing prete3ts to visit her there. /e neglects (oth his wor)
and his friends in ?ouen. =mma continues to sin) deeper into de(t to heureu3 and convinces 6harles to let her
ta)e a wee)ly piano lesson in ?ouen# secretly planning to see eon on a regular (asis.
Summary1 6hapter >
=very Thursday# =mma travels to ?ouen# where she snea)s through (ac) alleys in poor neigh(orhoods to see
her lover. She feels emotionally alive during her time with eon and is an3ious and withdrawn at home# even
though she continues to act the part of the dutiful wife. /er relationship with eon grows more intense with
each encounter# and the two (egin to view one another as characters in a romantic novel. She develops a
familiar routine of going to visit him and returning in the carriage to Gonville. 5n the road (etween ?ouen and
Gonville# she periodically encounters a deformed# (lind (eggar who terrifies her with his lurid# horri(le song. 9t
home# 6harles nearly discovers the affair when he meets =mmas alleged piano teacher and finds that the
teacher does not )now =mmas name. ;ut =mma shows him forged receipts from the lessons# and 6harles is
easily convinced that nothing untoward has occurred.
9s a means of paying her mounting de(ts# heureu3 convinces =mma# who has power of attorney over
6harless property# to sell him some of 6harless fathers estate at a loss. /e also tal)s her into (orrowing more
and more M5N=G. 8hen 6harless mother arrives to loo) over the accounts# =mma has heureu3 forge a (ill
for a smaller amount of money than she has actually (orrowed. Nonetheless# the elder Madame ;ovary (urns
=mmas power of attorney. 6harles# however# soon agrees to sign a new one.
=mma is o(sessed with her time with eon# and with e3periencing every )ind of romantic pleasure. 8hen she
stays overnight with eon in ?ouen without telling 6harles# she ma)es her hus(and feel foolish for worrying
a(out her. <rom that moment on# she goes to see eon whenever she feels li)e it# and he starts to (ecome
annoyed (y her demands on his time.
Summary1 6hapter >2
5ne day when =mma is scheduled to (e in ?ouen# /omais pays eon a visit and monopoli!es his time. =mma
is left waiting in the /5T= ?55M and (ecomes hysterically angry# accusing eon of preferring /omaiss
company to hers. She returns home in a rage# (eginning to convince herself that eon is not the man she thought
he was. =mma starts to act domineeringly toward eon# who reacts with resentment.
CN
9 de(t collector surprises =mma with a visit# and the sheriff serves a legal notice against her. She (orrows more
M5N=G from heureu3 and (egins a desperate campaign to raise M5N=G to pay her de(ts# even pawning
many o(0ects from 6harless house in Gonville. 9ll the while# she continues to spend decadently during her time
with eon# forcing him to entertain her opulently and providing him the money to do so. /e (ecomes sic) of her
petulant e3travagance# and she (ecomes disgusted with his reticence. =ach of them is (ored with their affair.
She (egins cavorting with unsavory company# even accompanying some vulgar cler)s to a disreputa(le
restaurant after a mas:uerade (all.
8hen =mma returns to Gonville after the mas:uerade# a court order awaits her# demanding that she pay K#NNN
francs or lose all her property. She again goes to heureu3 for help# (ut he refuses to loan her any more money#
sending her away. heureu3 hopes to foreclose on 6harless estate and everything the ;ovarys own.
Analysis: Part Three, Chapters IVVI
The essential superficiality of =mmas connection with eon compounds the disaster of her financial
indiscretions. 5nce her affair with eon loses its early glow# =mma loses all sense of proportion and propriety#
oscillating (etween e3tremes of self4indulgence# self4pity# depression# and guilt. =mma and eon try to ma)e
one another into romantic ideals (ut fail to connect with each other as real individuals. 9s these ideals crum(le
around their actual personalities# they (ecome increasingly disgusted with one another. =mma reacts (y see)ing
pleasure at all costs and in more egregious ways. /er initial desire to (e a cosmopolitan aristocrat gives way to
a carnal# voracious desire for pleasure# evident in her escapades with vulgar men at unsavory parties. Poor
6harles continues to facilitate his wifes infidelity# funding the trips she ta)es to ?ouen on the prete3t of ta)ing
piano lessons. The (lind (eggar =mma sometimes encounters (etween Gonville and ?ouen is one of the most
terrifying figures in the novel. /e is a sym(ol of =mmas moral wretchedness# and his mor(id presence also
signals her approaching death.
=mmas financial ruin parallels her moral ruin. 5nce she o(tains the power of attorney over 6harless finances#
her destructive :ualities spiral further out of control. =mmas attempt to transcend the values of her middle4
class e3istence fails as much out of her own free will as the circumstances in which she lives. =ven <lau(ert#
who initially descri(es =mma as a victim of circumstance# has (egun to 0udge her unfavora(ly. =mmas moral
corruption# however# remains dependent on the will of the men around her. 9t the end of Part Three# 6hapter >#
eon wonders# where could she have learnt this corruption so deep and well mas)ed as to (e almost
unsei!a(leB" The answer is ?odolphe. 9 man is responsi(le for even =mmas deepest corruption.
eons :uestion at the end of Part Three# 6hapter > is a classic e3ample of free indirect discourse# a techni:ue
that <lau(ert perfected. ;y this point in the novel# the narrative centers around =mma# (ut <lau(ert at times
shows his heroine through the eyes of others. /e does not offset eons and 6harless thoughts with :uotation
mar)s# instead he writes directly the words that pass through their minds. 9t one point# 6harles thin)s# 8hat
was the meaning of all these fits of temperB" <lau(ert )nows the answer# of course# (ut (y using free indirect
discourse# he lets us see for a moment how (ewildered 6harles is (y =mmas (ehavior.
9nother of <lau(erts techni:ues is the contrast (etween lofty# profound sentiments and mundane# ordinary
things. Spea)ing of eons love for =mma# he writes# he admired the e3altation of her soul and the lace on her
petticoat." This contrast (etween spirituality and materiality discredits the depth of eons love. /e seems to
love (lindly# caring as much for =mmas petticoats as for her soul. <lau(ert employs a similar techni:ue when
he descri(es =mma and eons wee)ly trysts in a /5T= ?55M. 2n a virtually identical tone# he descri(es
(oth the lovers vows they e3change and the decorations on the mantelpiece. This 0u3taposition renders the
great otherworldly romance =mma conceives a small and sordid affair.
Summary1 6hapter >22
5fficers come to the ;ovarys house to inventory their (elongings# which they intend to sei!e to pay =mmas
de(ts. They leave a guard (ehindA =mma hides him in the attic to )eep the development secret from 6harles.
She schemes and plans to raise the K#NNN francs. The (an)ers in ?ouen refuse to loan her the M5N=G #
however# and eon angrily refuses to steal the money from his employer. /owever# he does halfheartedly agree
to try to raise the money from among his friends and (ring it to her in Gonville. *pon her return home# =mma
gives her very last five4franc piece to the (lind (eggar. She finds that a pu(lic notice has (een posted in Gonville
announcing the auction of the ;ovarys (elongings.
C+
=mma goes to see the town lawyer# $uillaumin# who agrees to help her in return for se3ual favors. =mma
angrily refuses his offer and leaves. 6harles has still not returned home and has no idea what is transpiring# (ut
all the people of Gonville gossip and wonder what will happen. Two of the townswomen spy from an attic
window as =mma goes to see ;inet# the ta3 collector# in the attic where he is amusing himself (y ma)ing
nap)in4rings on a lathe. They see =mma (eg for more time to pay her ta3es# then attempt to seduce ;inet. 8hen
he re(uffs her# =mma decides to go to ?odolphe# hoping that what she (elieves is his love for her will ena(le
her to get the M5N=G from him (y offering herself in return.
Summary1 6hapter >222
?odolphe is indeed aroused (y the sight of =mma# (ut when he reali!es the purpose of her visit# he (ecomes
taciturn# and tells her he has no M5N=G availa(le. =mma angrily leaves# reali!ing the full e3tent of her
desperate situation. She goes to /omaiss apothecary shop# where she convinces Iustin to let her into the ca(inet
where she )nows the arsenic is )ept. She eats a (ig handful of it straight from the (ottle# then returns home#
feeling at peace. 6harles has learned a(out the auction and searches frantically for =mma. /e finds her in (ed#
and she gives him a letter# ordering him not to open it until the ne3t day.
9t first# =mma feels nothing and imagines that she will 0ust fall asleep and die. Then an in)y taste fills her
mouth# and she (ecomes violently ill# with a terri(le pain in her stomach. 6harles opens her letter and reads that
she has poisoned herself. /e and /omais desperately try to figure out what to do. /omais decides that they
must analy!e the poison and create an antidote. =mma is )ind to 6harles and little ;erthe. 6harles and /omais
summon doctors from ?ouen# including the famous doctor ariviQre# (ut there is nothing to (e done. The priest
arrives to give her the sacrament. 6harles weeps (y =mmas (edside# and =mma also weeps. The last sound she
hears is that of the (lind (eggar singing underneath her window as she dies.
Analysis: Part Three, Chapters VIIVIII
2n the chapters leading up to =mmas death# her financial situation parallels and sym(oli!es her moral depravity.
/er interactions with men throughout the chapters demonstrate her growing moral turpitude. 8hen she visits
the lawyer# he treats her as if she were a prostitute. She then flirts with ;inet# compromising her dignity even
further. <inally# she tries to go (ac) to ?odolphe# essentially willing to sell herselfin direct contrast to her
outrage when $uillaumin as)ed her to do e3actly that only a few hours earlier. <lau(ert descri(es her
une:uivocally as a prostitute# adding only that she is not in the least conscious of her prostitution." =mma is
still a(le to delude herself with sentimental and romantic ideasthe only difference (etween selling herself to
$uillaumin and to ?odolphe is that =mma can tell herself that ?odolphe loves her.
9lthough =mma has carefully constructed a romantic fantasy world for herself throughout the novel# financial
reality wrenches her# fully and finally# out of her dreams. There is no more hiding from her de(tA there is no
more eluding the facts of the world around her (y see)ing refuge in fantasy. =very attempt =mma ma)es in this
section to circumvent or overcome her pro(lems separates her from her dreams and demands that she face up to
the ruin she has made of her life. eon is una(le to help. She has no recourse. She is desperate to hide her affairs
and her financial indiscretions from 6harles. <orced to face the actual conse:uences of her actions# she decides
that she would rather die.
Summary1 6hapter 2&
6harles is devastated (y =mmas death. /e plans an e3travagant funeral# with three coffins# and arranges for his
wife to (e (uried in her wedding dress. /omais and ;ournisien# the priest# come to watch over the (ody with
6harlesA they have an argument a(out the value of prayer and 6harles rages against $od. 9s =mma is (eing
dressed for the funeral# a (lac) li:uid pours out of her mouthA later# 6harles lifts her veil to loo) at her face# (ut
utters a cry of horror. /e as)s /omais to cut away a loc) of her hair# and /omais does so# leaving a (ald patch
in the midst of her hair.
Summary1 6hapter &
?ouault# having received news that his daughter was ill# arrives in Gonville and discovers that =mma is dead.
/e attends the funeral along with 6harles and the whole town# including heureu3 and /ippolyte# who wears
his (est false leg for the occasion. Iustin does not attend# (ut visits =mmas grave in the middle of the night to
mourn privately.
Summary1 6hapter &2
C@
5ne after another of =mmas creditors contacts 6harles# demanding payment of a staggering sum of M5N=G.
6harles attempts to raise it# (ut learns that =mma has already collected all the M5N=G his patients owe him.
/e is forced to (orrow more and more# and to sell articles from around the house. /e continues to ideali!e his
wifes memory. 8hen eon is engaged to a well4(red young woman# 6harles sends him a letter of
congratulations# remar)ing that his wife would have (een happy for him. =ven when he encounters the letter
from ?odolphe that =mma had left in the attic# he assumes that it refers to a platonic affection.
6harles lives alone with his wifes memory. =ven /omais (ecomes less intimate with him# in part (ecause he is
too (usy waging a campaign to e3pel the (lind (eggar from the area. /omais is (ecoming an increasingly well4
respected man who always )eeps a(reast of the latest developments in politics and medicine.
5ne day# 6harles opens =mmas des) and discovers her letters from eon and ?odolphe. /e is forced to
confront the fact that =mma was unfaithful to him. /e sin)s into gloom and (egins to )eep even more to
himself. /e has (een forced to sell nearly everything he owns in order to )eep =mmas creditors at (ay# and his
spirit is (ro)en. 5ne day# he goes to ?ouen to sell his horse to raise more money# and he meets ?odolphe. They
have a drin) together. ?odolphe e3presses feelings of guilt for his part in 6harless ruin. 6harles tells him that
he )nows the truth# (ut does not hold a grudge against ?odolphe. /e (lames fate for =mmas (ehavior.
The ne3t day# 6harles dies in his garden. =verything he owned goes to the creditors# and ;erthe is sent to live
with his mother. 8hen 6harless mother dies# ;erthe is dispatched to an impoverished aunt# and she is forced to
wor) in a cotton mill. /omais# meanwhile# continues to thrive and is eventually awarded the egion of /onor
medal.
Analysis: Part Three, Chapters IXXI
The section following =mmas death is largely designed to convey the impact of the conse:uences =mma
evaded in death (ut (rought down on the people she left (ehind. 6harles remains faithful to her memory even
when he is consigned to a life of comparative poverty. 8hen he discovers ?odolphes letter in the attic# he
assumes it refers to a platonic friendship. 5nly =mmas drawer full of letters from her lovers serves as evidence
powerful and o(vious enough to penetrate his innocent o(tuseness. 8hen 6harles dies shortly after this
revelation# the devastation of the ;ovarys is complete. ;erthe is forced to live with a lower4class aunt and to
wor) as a common la(orer. =mmas aristocratic pretensions have imprisoned her child in a life of poverty and
dependence.
Perhaps the most powerful representation of the effect =mma had on the lives of those around her can (e
o(served in Iustin# /omaiss innocent assistant# whom she forced to play an unwitting part in her death. 5ur
sense of Iustins innocence is heightened (y the description of him as a child" when he weeps on =mmas
grave. eon and ?odolphe sleep in their respective (eds# not shedding a tear while Iustin so(s under the weight
of an immense sorrow." ;y comparing =mmas lovers and their shallow# 0aded insincerity with the honest
involuntary passion of an innocent# <lau(ert shows how hollow and (ereft of sincere emotion =mmas love
affairs have (een.
2n terms of narrative structure# the final chapter of Madame ;ovary is symmetrical with the first. =mma is
a(sent from (oth the first and the last chapters of the (oo)# which focus instead on 6harles. /er a(sence
reminds us that life continues without her# reducing her life to 0ust one among many. 9nd# 0ust as the (oo)
(egan not with 6harles (ut with an anonymous third party# it ends with /omais# who has played only an
occasional part in all of =mmas dramas. The last sentence of the (oo) descri(es the honors accorded /omais#
that torch(earer of (ourgeois mediocrity# reminding us again that Madame ;ovary is a tragedy of class.
2n the world of Madame ;ovary# a womans only power over a man is se3ual. 2n this section# men hold all of
the financial power. =mma and her maid# <SlicitS# rac) their (rains for possi(le solutions# (ut in the end# men
have the ultimate power to rescue =mma. The only strategies that =mma can employ to pull herself out of ruin
depend on her posing as a seductress. =ven =mmas death depends on Iustins suscepti(ility to her wiles.
*ltimately# women only can watch the action of men and the world. They themselves are a(le to influence the
world only se3ually# and only in a limited way. The townswomen who watch =mmas unsuccessful attempt to
seduce ;inet em(ody the status of females as spectators.
Throughout the novel# =mma has (een the victim of a string of disappointments with the physical worlds
failure to fulfill her romantic desires. /er death is her final disappointment. She (elieves that she will die
:uietly and romantically# and an ecstasy of heroism" drives her to eat the arsenic. This ecstasy" is soon
CC
transformed into (odily agony and a stin)ing mess on the floor# when she vomits# writhes in pain# and (egs for
the poison to wor) faster. The fact that the act of poisoning herself is called eating" associates it with the
physical act of consumption that has so disgusted =mma and 6harles throughout the (oo). =mmas lifelong
desire to escape the confines of the material world is thus completely destroyed (y her death.
<lau(erts realistic description of the material world persists through =mmas death scene# relentlessly
suggesting that =mmas romantic world (ears no resem(lance to reality. <lau(ert litters the scene with (anal
commentary on the furniture and the conversations of the men around =mma. /omais# who stands for (ourgeois
pomposity and (anality# seems entirely o(livious to =mmas final throes of agony. /is pompous stupidity is
contrasted with ariviQres intelligent simplicity and wit in 0ust a few short phrases. 8hen /omais says# 2
wished# doctor# to ma)e an analysis# and primo 2 delicately introduced a tu(e#" the doctor replies# you would
have done (etter to introduce your fingers into her throat."
=mmas death is firmly grounded in a very realistic description of her society. 9lthough it seems possi(le in
earlier sections that =mma will transcend her class# in this section# <lau(ert ma)es it especially clear that =mma
is a mem(er of the (ourgeois middle class. She is neither peasant nor wealthy merchant. <lau(ert highlights her
class position (y introducing minor characters with class status (oth (elow and a(ove =mmas. The first is MQre
?ollet# the nurse whom =mma goes to see in a moment of desperation. MQre ?ollet reveals her status as a
simple peasant in her a(ility to tell time (y holding her fingers up to the sun. ater# left alone in MQre ?ollets
hut# =mma cant figure out what time it is (ecause there is no cloc). 8e see that she is much less a peasant than
her nursemaid. 9t the opposite e3treme is $uillaumet# whose splendid house =mma e3amines in awe when she
goes to (eg him for M5N=G . ;y including these contrasts at such an important moment in the (oo)# <lau(ert
stresses that =mmas social class is essential to her situation and the events that (efall her.
<* T2T= P Madame ;ovary
9*T/5? P $ustave <lau(ert
TGP= 5< 85?7 P Novel
$=N?= P ?ealist fiction
9N$*9$= P <rench
T2M= 9ND P96= 8?2TT=N P 6roisset# <ranceA +K,+T+K,J
D9T= 5< <2?ST P*;269T25N P +K,J
P*;2S/=? P ?evue de Paris
N9??9T5? P 2n the first chapter# 6harless classmates narrate as a first4person plural we." 2t is unclear
whether one person or the whole class is spea)ing. <or the rest of the novel# an omniscient third4person narrator
tells the story. 9lthough the narrator appears to (e o(0ective# he often ma)es his opinion felt# especially
regarding the ridiculous attempts of his characters efforts to appear sophisticated.
P52NT 5< >2=8 P The first chapter is told from the perspective of one or all of 6harles ;ovarys
schoolfellows. 9fter that# we see the world through 6harless eyes momentarily (efore (eing introduced to
=mma. The (ul) of the novel recounts events as she e3periences them# though always in the third person and
sometimes giving us a (rief glimpse into someone elses mind. Despite the fact that the narrator limits most of
his attention to =mma# however# there is a fairly even mi3 of o(0ective o(servations of her (ehavior and
su(0ective accounts of her thoughts and feelings. <lau(ert also often uses free indirect discourse# the narrative
integration of thoughts and feelings without :uotation mar)s or attri(ution# to show what his characters are
thin)ing. 9fter =mmas death# the narration is mostly o(0ective.
T5N= P <lau(erts attitude toward his story and his heroine is evenly divided (etween sympathy and ironic
contempt. 8e )now that he identified strongly with his heroine (ecause he once said Madame ;ovary is me."
/is sympathy for her is evident in the way he descri(es her passions and the circumstances that conspire against
her. /e is also# however# very much aware of how ridiculous attempts at sophistication (y mem(ers of the
(ourgeoisie can (e# and he portrays many of his characters as foolish# ridiculous and grotes:ue.
T=NS= P Simple past
S=TT2N$ %T2M=' P The mid4+KNNs
S=TT2N$ %P96=' P <rance# including the towns of Tostes# Gonville# and ?ouen
CF
P?5T9$5N2ST P =mma ;ovary
M9I5? 65N<26T P =mma wishes for romantic love# wealth# and social status that she cannot attain (ecause
she is married to a middle4class doctor.
?2S2N$ 96T25N P =mma (egins (orrowing M5N=G to pay for gifts for her first lover# ?odolphe. 8hen he
leaves her# she falls ill# and her hus(and# 6harles# (orrows even more M5N=G to pay for her care. =mma
must now (orrow more and more to pay off her de(ts and to indulge her e3travagant tastes. She ta)es a second
lover# eon# (ut he soon grows tired of her.
62M9& P =mmas primary creditor# heureu3# insists that she pay him (ac) and o(tains a court order to sei!e
all her property.
<92N$ 96T25N P Driven to despair# =mma see)s financial help everywhere# (ut can find noneA she eats a
handful of arsenic and dies. 9fter =mmas death# 6harles loses everything. /e finds out a(out his wifes
infidelities and dies a (ro)en man. =mmas daughter# ;erthe# is sent to wor) in a cotton mill.
T/=M=S P The inade:uacy of languageA the powerlessness of womenA the shortcomings of the (ourgeois class
M5T2<S P Death and illness# windows# eating
SGM;5S P The (lind (eggar# dried flowers# the lathe
<5?=S/9D582N$ P =mmas financial ruin is foreshadowed as early as the novels first chapter# when
<lau(ert introduces the danger of poorly handled finances (y descri(ing the incompetent money management of
6harles family mem(ers. The appearance of heureu3# coupled with his early efforts to tempt =mma#
foreshadows the eventual nature of her downfall1 she will get herself further and further into de(t with the
moneylender. =mmas romantic disappointments are foreshadowed as wellA with (oth ?odolphe and eon# we
see early on that their feelings for =mma are neither as strong nor as dura(le as she might wish. <inally# the
arsenic with which =mma commits suicide is shown to us si3 chapters (efore she ends her life.
9nna 7arenina
ev %eo' Ni)olaevich Tolstoy was (orn into a large and wealthy ?ussian landowning family in +K@K# on the
family estate of Gasnaya Polyana. Tolstoys mother died when he was only two years old# and he ideali!ed her
memory throughout his life. Some critics speculate that the early loss of his mother colors Tolstoys portrayal of
the young Seryo!ha in 9nna 7arenina. 8hen Tolstoy was nine# the family moved to Moscow. Shortly afterward
his father died# murdered while traveling. ;eing orphaned (efore the age of ten# al(eit without financial worries#
left Tolstoy with an acute awareness of the power of deathan idea central to all his great wor)s and especially
evident in the strong association of the character of 9nna 7arenina with mortality.
Though an intelligent child# Tolstoy had little interest in 4academics. /is aunt had to wor) hard to persuade him
to go to university# and he failed his entrance e3am on his first attempt. =ventually matriculating at 7a!an
*niversity at the age of si3teen# Tolstoy studied law and 5riental languages. /e showed interest in the grand
heroic cultures of Persia# Tur)ey# and the 6aucasusan interest that persisted throughout his life. /e was not
popular at the university# and was self4conscious a(out his large nose and thic) eye(rows. *ltimately# Tolstoy
was dissatisfied with his education# and he left in +KFJ without a degree. The social aw)wardness of 7onstantin
evin at the (eginning of 9nna 7arenina reflects Tolstoys own discomfort in fancy social surroudings at this
time in his life.
2n +K,+# Tolstoy visited his (rother in the ?ussian army and then decided to enlist shortly afterward. /e served
in the 6rimean 8ar %+K,FT+K,-' and recorded his e3perience in his Sevastopol Stories %+K,,'. Tolstoy was a(le
to write during his time in the army# P?5D*62N$ a well4received auto(iographical novel# 6hildhood %+K,@'#
followed (y two others# ;oyhood %+K,F' and Gouth %+K,J'. /e ultimately evolved antimilitaristic feelings that
can (e seen in his implicit criticism of enthusiasm for the Slavic war in the final section of 9nna 7arenina.
2n +K-@# Tolstoy married Sofya 9ndreevna ;ehrs. /e devoted most of the ne3t two decades to raising a large
family# managing his estate# and writing his two greatest novels# 8ar and Peace %+K-,T+K-M' and 9nna
7arenina %+KJ,T+KJJ'. evins courtship of 7itty Shcher(ats)aya in 9nna 7arenina was modeled on Tolstoys
own courtship of Sofya 9ndreevna# down to details such as the forgotten shirt that delays evins wedding.
2n the years 0ust prior to his marriage# Tolstoy had visited western =urope# partly to o(serve educational
methods a(road. *pon returning# he founded and taught at schools for his peasants. /is contact with his
C,
peasants led to a heightened appreciation for their morality# camaraderie# and en0oyment of life. 2ndeed# Tolstoy
(ecame :uite critical of the superficiality of upper4class ?ussians# as we can see in evins discomfort with
ur(an high society in 9nna 7arenina. *ltimately# Tolstoy developed a desire to see) spiritual regeneration (y
renouncing his familys possessions# much to the dismay of his long4suffering wife.
Tolstoys life spanned a period of intense development for his home country. ;y the time of Tolstoys death in
+M+N# ?ussia had transformed from a (ac)ward agricultural economy into a ma0or industriali!ed world power.
This period witnessed ma0or de(ates (etween two intellectual groups in ?ussia1 the Slavophiles# who (elieved
?ussian culture and institutions to (e e3ceptional and superior to =uropean culture# and the 8esterni!ers# who
(elieved that ?ussia needed to follow more li(eral# 8estern modes of thought and government. 8e see traces of
this de(ate a(out the destiny of ?ussiawhether it should 0oin =urope in its march toward secular values and
scientific thought or re0ect moderni!ation and cherish the traditional# 9siatic elements of its culturein 9nna
7arenina. evins peasants preference for simple wooden plows over more efficient# modern agricultural tools
sym(oli!es ?ussias re0ection of the 8est. 8e also see this cultural clash in the novels portrait of the highly
rational and ultra48estern (ureaucrat 47arenincool and efficient (ut also passionless.
During this time# ?ussia was also undergoing a crisis of political thought# with a series of authoritarian tsars
provo)ing li(eral and radical intellectuals who demanded =uropean constitutional rightsor even revolution
in ?ussia. Tolstoys am(ivalent portrayal of the local elections in 9nna 7arenina demonstrates his uncertainty
a(out the potential for democracy in ?ussia1 the vote evo)es much enthusiasm among the no(lemen# (ut it also
appears ineffectual and even pointless.
Tolstoys eventual turn to religion in his own life left an imprint on all his later writings. 8or)s such as 9
6onfession %+KK@' and The 7ingdom of $od 2s 8ithin Gou %+KMC' focused on the (i(lical $ospels ideals of
(rotherly love and nonresistance to evil. 9nna 7arenina is often viewed as the turning point in Tolstoys career#
the point at which he shifted away from fiction and toward faith. The tug4of4war (etween these two forces helps
create the rich portrait of 9nna# whom Tolstoy (oth disapproves of and loves. evin emerges as the voice of
faith in the novel# with his final statement of the meaning of life corresponding closely to Tolstoys own
philosophy.
;y the +KMNs# Tolstoys reputation as a prophet of social thought attracted disciples to his estate at Gasnaya
Polyana see)ing his wisdom. 2n +KMK# Tolstoy pu(lished a radical essay called 8hat 2s 9rtB# in which he argued
that the sole aim of great art must (e moral instruction# and that on these grounds Sha)espeares plays and even
Tolstoys own novels are artistic failures. <rustrated (y the disparity (etween his personal moral philosophy and
his wealth# and (y his fre:uent :uarrels with his wife# Tolstoy secretly left home in Novem(er +M+N# at the age
of eighty4two. /e fell ill with pneumonia along the way and died several days later in a faraway railway station.
Tolstoy was mourned (y admirers and followers around the world# and to this day is regarded as one of the
greatest novelists in history.
9 Note on ?ussian Names
To =nglish4spea)ing readers# the names of the characters in 9nna 7arenina may (e somewhat confusing# as
there are a num(er of name4related conventions in ?ussian that do not e3ist in =nglish.
=ach ?ussian has a first name# a patronymic# and a surname. 9 persons patronymic consists of his or her
fathers first name accompanied (y a suffi3 meaning son of" or daughter of." /ence# evin is addressed as
7onstantin Dmitrich %son of Dmitri'# 7itty is called =)aterina 9le3androvna %daughter of 9le3ander'# and so
on. 6haracters in the novel fre:uently address each other in this formal manner# using (oth the first name and
patronymic.
8hen characters do not address each other formally# they may use informal nic)names# or diminutives.
Sometimes# these nic)names (ear little resem(lance to the characters full names. <or instance# evin is
sometimes called 7ostya %the standard nic)name for 7onstantin'# and >rons)y is sometimes called 9lyosha %the
diminutive of 9le3ei'.
<urthermore# surnames in ?ussian ta)e on (oth masculine and feminine forms. 2n 9nna 7arenina# for instance#
7arenins wifes surname ta)es the feminine form# 7arenina. i)ewise# 5(lons)ys wife has the surname
5(lons)aya# and their sons have the surname 5(lons)y while their daughters have the surname 5(lons)aya.
7eeping these conventions in mind helps to distinguish characters as they are addressed (y different names
throughout the novel. /owever# the use of these conventions varies in different editions of 9nna 7arenina# as
C-
some translators choose to simplify or eliminate name variants in order to ma)e the novel more accessi(le to an
=nglish4spea)ing audience.
Part + cap +4+J
6onfusion reigns in the 5(lons)y household in Moscow. Stiva 5(lons)y has (een unfaithful to his wife# Dolly#
with their childrens former governess. Stiva is distraught (ut not overly remorseful. Dolly# meanwhile# is
devastated and refuses to leave her rooms. The servants advise Stiva to apologi!e repeatedly# predicting that
Dolly will calm down. Stiva finally visits Dolly# (egging her to remem(er their nine years of marriage. Dolly is
inconsola(le# telling her hus(and he is disgusting and a total stranger to her.
Stiva goes to his office. /is 0o( is respecta(le and comforta(le# than)s to his charm and good connections. /e
receives a surprise visit from an old friend# 7onstantin evin# who lives in the country. Stiva introduces evin
to his (usiness partners# saying that evin is active in the !emstvo# his village administrative (oard. evin
reveals that he has :uit his post on the (oard# and tells Stiva that he has an important matter to discuss. They
arrange to meet for dinner. Stiva guesses the matter has something to do with his sister4in4law# 7itty
Shcher(ats)aya# with whom he )nows evin is in love.
8hile in Moscow# evin stays with his half4(rother# 7o!nyshev# whose philosophical mindset sometimes
perple3es evin. The (rothers discuss evins plan to visit their estranged and sic)ly third (rother# Ni)olai# who
is (ac) in Moscow with a girlfriend. 7o!nyshev advises evin not to go# saying evin cannot help Ni)olai# who
wishes to (e left alone.
evin goes to the s)ating rin) at the Hoological $ardens# where he is sure he will find the charming 7itty. She
is at the rin)# as e3pected. evin and 7itty en0oy one anothers company together on the ice until evin
confesses that he feels more confident whenever 7itty# a less accomplished s)ater# leans on him for support.
7ittys mood suddenly dar)ens# and she sends evin away. evin grows upset and goes off glumly to his dinner
with Stiva.
5ver the lu3urious meal# evin confesses to Stiva his passionate love for 7itty. Stiva encourages evin to (e
hopeful (ut warns him of a rival for her affections# an officer named 9le3ei >rons)y. Stiva then discusses his
own pro(lematic infatuation with his childrens governess. evin gently chastises Stiva for his (ehavior# (ut
Stiva laughingly calls evin a moralist.
7ittys mother# Princess Shcher(ats)aya# weighs the relative merits of >rons)y and evin as suitors. She is
disconcerted (y evins aw)wardness and generally favors >rons)y. ;ut the Princess is also aware that young
?ussian no(lewomen of the new generation prefer to choose their hus(ands for themselves rather than su(mit to
their parents arrangements.
That evening# evin calls at 7ittys home and finds her alone. 7itty is aware that she feels affection for him# (ut
she loves >rons)y. She considers avoiding evin entirely (ut then (ravely meets him and declines his marriage
proposal. Princess Shcher(ats)aya is relieved to see that no engagement has (een declared. >rons)y arrives# and
the devastated evin is impressed with this rival suitor. That night# 7itty cannot sleep# haunted (y evins face.
7ittys father has learned a(out the re(uffed proposal and is upset# as he prefers evin to >rons)y.
The ne3t morning# >rons)y goes to the train station to meet his mother arriving from St. Peters(urg. There he
meets Stiva# who has come to meet his sister# 9nna 7arenina. >rons)y tells Stiva he has met evin# whom he
finds nice (ut somewhat aw)ward. Stiva defends evin# hinting that evin might have proposed to 7itty.
>rons)y states that 7itty can find a (etter match. Meanwhile the train arrives# and >rons)y awaits his mother.
Analysis
9lthough 9nna 7arenina is renowned as a study of romantic passion# the novel shows us the dar) and
discouraging side of romance from the first page. Tolstoys novel (egins when the honeymoon is already over.
Deception and disappointment mar the marriage of Stiva and Dolly# two attractive# rich# cultured# sensitive# and
li)a(le people. 8e e3pect them to (e the ideal happy couple# (ut they are misera(le# and the source of the
pro(lem is their marriage. 2n fact# the opening of the novel# with its threat of a marital (rea)up casts a dar)
shadow over all the love and romance in 9nna 7arenina. This dar) shadow e3tends over many romantic
moments in the novel. <or e3ample# evinUs and 7ittys turn at the s)ating rin) ends with 7itty re(uffing
evins advances# )illing any sense of romance in the scene. <rom these early scenes of Stiva and Dolly and
evin and 7itty# love seems doomed from the start.
CJ
Stiva is a crucial character (ecause he is# in many ways# an advance introduction to his sister# 9nna 7arenina.
/is adultery opens the novelA her later adultery is the novels main focus. Moreover# they share personality traits
and moral attitudes. <or one thing# there is an ine3plica(le aura of innocence around Stiva. /e has made
mista)es (ut is far from a villain. ;ecause Tolstoy presents Stiva as such an affa(le and sincere character# it is
nearly impossi(le even for the most moralistic of us to condemn Stiva wholeheartedly# even if we disapprove of
his adulterous liaisons. Despite his lac) of restraint# he is not a (ad man# and is even :uite charming. /is flaw is
not willful cruelty or meanness (ut simply his amorous" nature# as Tolstoy euphemistically puts it. Stiva li)es
se3ual adventure# and in his mind it is not wrong. /e regrets not having hidden the affair more thoroughly (ut
does not regret the affair itself# which (rought him pleasure# as he openly admits. The :uestion of a right to
se3ual pleasure is further e3amined later# in his sister 9nnas situation.
Though 9nna 7arenina is on the surface a novel a(out romantic love and courtship# it is actually far more wide4
ranging in its focus# delving into pu(lic and social topics such as technology# agriculture# and administration.
Tolstoys e3plorations of social themes stri)e many readers as annoying interruptions of the love story# (ut in
fact the novels social concerns and its love theme often reinforce each other. The train# for e3ample# is a
sym(ol of moderni!ation and =uropean efficiency. ;ut it is also recurrently associated with 9nna and her
transport" of passion upon meeting >rons)y. 9nna appears in the novel near a train# and thrillingly meditates
on >rons)y as she rides the train to St. Peters(urg. Perhaps most important# a train is involved in 9nnas final
fate at the end of the novel. The train# li)e 9nnas adultery# is for Tolstoy an unfortunate product of the modern
world. The novels social themes intersect with its romantic themes again in the discussion of the
Shcher(ats)ys confusion a(out 7ittys courtship. 2t is no longer possi(le for ?ussian parents to arrange
marriages# (ut at the same time# children li)e 7itty cannot choose for themselves. The result is that no one
)nows how to proceed# and the ris)s seem huge. Moderni!ation may improve the :uality of ?ussian life# (ut it
also disrupts the fa(ric of ?ussian society and courtship.
Part + cap +K4CF
>rons)y waits for his mother at the train station. ;efore she appears# >rons)y sees a woman with gentle#
shining gray eyes whose face (ecomes animated at the sight of him. This is 9nna 7arenina# whom Stiva has
come to the station to meet. 9nna and >rons)y (riefly e3change glances. >rons)ys mother appears and
introduces >rons)y to 9nna. 9s they are leaving the station# a wor)er is run over (y a train and )illedwhether
it is suicide or an accident is unclear. 9nna gloomily views the death as a (ad omen.
Stiva ta)es 9nna to his home# where Dolly# devastated (y grief over her hus(ands adultery# wishes to see no
one. ;ut 9nna# having heard a(out the (etrayal# insists on seeing Dolly and meets her warmly and
compassionately. She does not attempt to console Dolly (ut is deeply sympathetic. She tells Dolly that Stiva is
suffering and that he is capa(le of total repentance. Dolly feels much (etter.
ater that day# 7itty arrives at the 5(lons)y residence# and 9nna receives her warmly. 9nna hears a(out 7ittys
interest in >rons)y# and says she met >rons)y at the station and li)ed him. 9t teatime# Dolly emerges from her
rooms# and 7itty and 9nna understand that Dolly and Stiva have (een reconciled. They discuss the upcoming
(all# and 7itty urges 9nna to wear a lilac4colored dress. ater# >rons)y stops (y the 5(lons)y household and
seems ashamed when he sees 9nna.
9t the (all held not long afterward# >rons)y dances the first dance with 7itty# who loo)s radiant. 9nna appears#
dressed not in lilac (ut in (lac)# which 7itty immediately reali!es is 9nnas (est color. 7itty is pu!!led (y
9nnas refusal to respond when >rons)y (ows to her. 7itty dances many walt!es with >rons)y (ut later finds
9nna and >rons)y dancing together. 9nna loo)s elated and triumphant. <or the final ma!ur)a# 7itty turns away
her suitors# e3pecting >rons)y to as) her to dance. She is stunned to see that >rons)y has spurned her to dance
the last dance with 9nna.
Meanwhile# evin gloomily reflects on his life after 7ittys re0ection. /e decides to pay a visit to his (rother
Ni)olai. *pon arriving# evin finds his sic)ly (rother much thinner than he remem(ered. Ni)olai introduces
evin to his companion# Marya Ni)olaevna# whom he saved from a whorehouse. 5ver dinner# Ni)olai spea)s at
length a(out his socialist views. Marya privately tells evin that Ni)olai drin)s too much. evin leaves# having
made Mary promise to write to him in case of need. evin returns to his country estate# grateful for the (lessings
of his peaceful e3istence.
CK
9t the 5(lons)ys# 9nna and Dolly dine together (y themselves. 9nna is unwell# and 7itty sends word that she
has a headache. 9nna e3presses her ama!ement at having danced with >rons)y. She is confident that >rons)y
will still pursue 7itty# (ut Dolly is not so sure. 9nna leaves for St. Peters(urg# relieved to escape >rons)y. 5n
the train she is tormented (y self4dou(t# unsure of who she is. 9s the train pauses at a station# 9nna glimpses
>rons)y on the platform and feels a 0oyful pride. /e has followed her from Moscow.
9rriving in St. Peters(urg# 9nna meets her hus(and# 7arenin# at the station. >rons)y watches them together and
can see that 9nna does not love 7arenin. 9nna introduces the two men# and >rons)y as)s if he may call at the
7arenin home. 9t home# 9nnas son# Seryo!ha# runs up to greet her# and 9nna feels a sudden pang of
disappointment in her son. She spea)s to her morally upright friend ydia 2vanovna and feels secure that
nothing scandalous has happened in her relations with >rons)y. 9nna dismisses her an3ieties.
8hile in St. Peters(urg# >rons)y sociali!es with his colleague Petrits)y# to whom he has lent his apartment# and
Petrits)ys lady friend# ;aroness Shilton. They lightheartedly chat (efore >rons)y leaves to ma)e appearances
at various places where he hopes to encounter 9nna.
Analysis
2n his depiction of 9nnas appearance at the train station during her first meeting with >rons)y# Tolstoy
emphasi!es 9nnas spiritual rather than physical attri(utes. This method of characteri!ing her is important# for it
reinforces the intellectual and philosophical aspect of this novel of ideas. 8hile 9nna and >rons)y are clearly
attracted to each other# their mutual interest is more a(stract than (odily# more a(out attractiveness of
personality and manner than a(out se3ual fantasy. Though 9nnas figure is ravishing# >rons)y is drawn
primarily to her gentle and tender" eyes. /er eyes are not a sultry (rown or co:uettish (lue (ut rather a su(tle
gray# the same color as the eyes of 9thena# $ree) goddess of wisdomhardly a sym(ol of un(ridled passion.
%9lthough Tolstoy may also have had in mind Sha)espeares writing# in which gray eyes represent the paragon
of female (eauty.' 9t the (all# 9nna appears not in the archetypal red of a femme fatale (ut rather in a stunning
(ut tasteful (lac) dress. These clues tell us from the very (eginning that although Tolstoy may harshly condemn
adultery on an a(stract level# he does not portray 9nna as a passion4cra!ed vi3enas popular novels of the time
often represented the straying wife.
9nnas appearance also reinforces the importance of family life in the novel. 9nna is not a vamp who thwarts
old4fashioned ?ussian family values or shows hostility to domestic harmony. 5n the contrary# her initial
appearance in Moscowand in the novelis prompted (y her desire to see a family stay together. 9nnas
mission to reconcile her (rother and his wife is successfulA she (rings a couple on the verge of separation (ac)
together. 9nna is also naturally motherly1 in her conversations with Dollys children# she shows that she is
aware of their individual personalities almost as much as their own mother is. Moreover# 9nna is clearly
devoted to her own eight4year4old son# Seryo!ha# from whom she is apart for the first time in his life when she
goes to Moscow. =ven more important# 9nna has no (one to pic) with societys e3pectations of propriety. She
does not willfully flout pu(lic norms of (ehavior. 8hen she finds herself dancing with >rons)y# she is startled
(y her own actions.
The parallel structure of 9nnas and evins story linesone of Tolstoys stro)es of genius in composing 9nna
7areninaallows us to ma)e su(tle and continuous comparisons and contrasts (etween the two characters and
their fates. 5n the most o(vious level# their stories (egin on very different notes1 9nna finds love with >rons)y
0ust at the moment when evin loses love with 7itty. 9nnas decision to act on her feelings (rings her thrills and
e3citement# whereas evins decision (rings him de0ection and depression. These contrasts# however# only point
out how similar the two characters are. ;oth 9nna and evin see) truth in their personal relationships# unwilling
to settle for anything less. 9nna discovers that she would prefer to suffer with her true love rather than continue
to lead a life of lies and deceit with a man she does not love deeply. 9nnas unconventional actions are
prompted (y a desire not for re(ellion for its own sa)e (ut for a(solute sincerity in her emotional life. Similarly#
evin# after 7ittys re(uff# does not go after the ne3t girl on his list (ut resigns himself to eternal (achelorhood
and withdraws to the country. i)e 9nna# evin wants all or nothing in love.
Part @ cap + T +J
Summary
CM
The Shcher(ats)ys are concerned a(out 7ittys health# which has (een failing ever since the (all at which
>rons)y slighted her. Though secretly convinced that love is the cause of 7ittys ill health# the Shcher(ats)ys
consult numerous doctors. Dolly attempts to tal) with 7itty a(out her feelings. 7itty is initially resistant (ut
then (rea)s down in tears. Dolly intuits that 7itty has re0ected evin only to (e forsa)en (y >rons)y# and that
the pain of this turn of events has devastated her.
9nna fre:uents a different social circle now# preferring the company of >rons)ys worldly cousin ;etsy
Tvers)oy to that of her former companion# the morally righteous ydia 2vanovna. 9t a party# rumors a(out
9nnas liaison with >rons)y spread# and 9nna falls prey to some vicious gossipers# though others defend her.
9nna and >rons)y meet at ;etsys. 9nna (egs >rons)y to drop their relationship and as) for 7ittys
forgiveness. >rons)y affirms his hope for happiness with 9nna# as her eyes assure him that she loves him.
7arenin enters (ut soon leaves# while 9nna decides to stay at ;etsys for supper. 9t home 7arenin meditates on
his feeling that something is amiss. /e feels 0ealous# though he )nows 0ealousy is illogical. 8hen he tries to
picture 9nnas personal life to himself# he (ecomes confused and uncomforta(le.
8hen 9nna arrives home from ;etsys# her hus(and confronts her# warning her a(out the ris)s of her (ehavior.
9nna (ecomes mildly indignant# affirming her right to a little merriment. 7arenin states that some things should
lie hidden in ones soul# implying that 9nnas attraction to >rons)y is one such thing. 7arenin tells 9nna he
loves her# (ut she wonders what this means. She tells him she wants to go to (ed# and withdraws.
The narrative s)ips forward almost a year# to the point at which 9nna and >rons)y have finally consummated
their affair. 9fter the deed is done# 9nna so(s# saying that all she has now is >rons)y. She tries to drive away her
thoughts. Sleeping# she dreams that (oth 7arenin and >rons)y are her hus(ands.
Meanwhile# evins sadness a(out 7ittys re0ection lingers. /e (usies himself with farm planning on his estate
and sends his (rother Ni)olai# who suffers from tu(erculosis# off to a spa in =urope for treatment. evin feels
frustrated with his farm wor) and with the stu((ornness and stupidity of his peasant wor)ers.
8hen the (ell rings one day# evin wonders whether his (rother Ni)olai has come for a visit. /e is pleased to
see that it is Stiva 5(lons)y. evin# grateful for a potential source of information a(out 7itty# ta)es Stiva out to
hunt (irds. *ne3pectedly# evin (lurts out a :uestion a(out 7itty# una(le to restrain his curiosity. 8hen Stiva
replies that 7itty is ill# evin is oddly pleased# thin)ing that he has had an effect on her.
5n the way home# evin and Stiva discuss a forest that Stiva plans to sell. evin claims the deal is shady and
accuses the merchant (uyer of intending to cheat Stiva. >isiting the merchant along with Stiva# evin refuses to
sha)e the merchants hand. Stiva ma)es the sale anyway# and later playfully accuses evin of sno((ery.
Analysis
2n these chapters we see a num(er of characters who recogni!e# or deny# their feelings. =motional self4
)nowledge (ecomes a crucial theme. 9nna and evin are at one end of the emotional spectrum# ac)nowledging
what they feel and accepting the trou(ling conse:uences that accompany their feelings# come what may. 5ther
characters# however# are less a(le to admit their inner emotions to themselves or to others. 7itty# with her
evasive and rounda(out attitude toward evin# serves as a direct contrast to 9nna and her un:uestioning
acceptance of her feelings for >rons)y. The image of evin haunts 7itty (oth while he courts her and after she
re0ects him# (ut all the while she is una(le to admit to herself that she cares for him. 7ittys alleged illness is a
clear cover4up for and result of her emotional pain. She thin)s she feels humiliation when in fact she feels a
deep affection that reveals itself as 9nna 7arenina unfolds. 7ittys conversation with Dolly# in which 7itty
(rea)s down in tears on the su(0ect of evin# mar)s one stage in 7ittys gradual acceptance of her feelings. <or
7itty# this is a slow process. The difference is stri)ing1 9nna ac)nowledges her love for >rons)y in a matter of
days# whereas 7itty ta)es years to accept her feelings for evin.
7arenin contrasts even more e3tremely with 9nnas and evins emotional self4honesty. 8hereas 7itty stifles
her feelings# 7arenin loc)s them away entirely# even going so far as to re0ect the very idea of emotional truth.
9fter 9nna returns home from ;etsys# 7arenin# in reference to 9nnas fantasies a(out >rons)y# tells her that
some things in a persons soul are (est )ept hidden. This word choice is revealing1 7arenin does not mind that
his wife may have feelings for another manhe only o(0ects to her acting on them in a way that other people
can see. <or 7arenin# repression is a way of life1 he has )ept his feelings so :uarantined that his approach to life
and love is wholly# coldly rational. 8hen coming to terms with his 0ealousy of >rons)y# 7arenin does not
succum( to passion or violence (ut tries to convince himself that 0ealousy is illogical#" as if his trou(les with
FN
9nna were a math pro(lem rather than a deeply personal matter. This dry# analytical approach defines not only
7arenins relationship to his wife (ut also his profession and attitude toward his wor). Much li)e his character
evin# Tolstoy hated (ureaucrats such as 7arenin# re0ecting their way of transforming the whole of life into
e:uations# rules# and :uotas. <or Tolstoy# such cold rationality was anti4?ussian. /e (elieved that those li)e
7arenin presented not merely romantic failure (ut a social threat as well.
The most crucial plot event in the novelthe consummation of 9nnas and >rons)ys lovepasses almost
unnoticed. 8hether Tolstoy chose to leave this love scene undeveloped for reasons of censorship or artistry# the
event is mar)ed only (y an ellipsis (etween 6hapters +N and ++. 8hatever the reason# this omission forces us to
see that titillation is not Tolstoys aim in writing the novel. 9nna 7arenina is a novel of ideas much more than a
tale of lust. 9s such# it focuses on the thoughts and feelings this love affair elicits rather than on what actually
happens in the (edroom. The (lea)ness of 6hapter ++# the scene immediately after the affair (egins# highlights
how far from se3y the situation is. >rons)ys seduction of 9nna is mar)ed (y sadness rather than happiness#
contrary to all our e3pectations. 9nna is not 0oyful (ut grieving# so((ing and declaring that she has lost
everythingright at the moment when she gets everything she has wanted. 9nnas emotions are those of a 0ilted
lover# not a fulfilled one. 8e reali!e what a tragic figure 9nna is and see that her love is mar)ed not (y pleasure
(ut (y desperation.
Part @ cap +K4CF
Summary
>rons)y continues life as usual in his regiment. Though he never lets slip that he loves 9nna# the whole of St.
Peters(urg high society )nows a(out his feelings for her. The women who once praised 9nna as righteous now
wait for a chance to sling mud in her face.
>rons)y hears a(out an upcoming officers steeplechase# so he ;*GS a new mare# named <rou4<rou# to ride in
one of the races. 5n the day of the races# >rons)y visits <rou4<rou in the sta(le# and she grows more agitated as
he approaches. >rons)y reflects on everyone pestering him a(out 9nna.
Iust (efore the horse race# >rons)y visits 9nna at her near(y summer house. She has (een thin)ing a(out him
and seems somewhat distraught. /er son# Seryo!ha# is a(sent# as >rons)y had hoped. 9nna informs >rons)y
that she is pregnant. /e urges her to leave her hus(and and live with him instead. >rons)y cannot imagine how
9nna can wish to continue living in such deceit# not reali!ing that the reason is her love for her son. Suddenly#
>rons)y reali!es he is late for the races.
>rons)y arrives at the racetrac) 0ust as <rou4<rou is (eing led out of the sta(le. >rons)ys (rother# 9le3ander#
approaches him and tells him to answer a letter their mother has recently sent. >rons)y is e3pected to do well in
the race# as his only serious rival is another officer# Ma)hotin# who rides a horse named $ladiator. Nonetheless#
>rons)y is agitated. The race (egins. 9fter a slow start# <rou4<rou outpaces all the horses e3cept $ladiator. 9t
last# <rou4<rou pulls ahead of $ladiator# and is in the lead. >rons)y is ecstatic. ;ut during a 0ump over a ditch#
he shifts in the saddle incorrectly# causing <rou4<rou to fall. The horse (rea)s her (ac) and must (e shot.
Meanwhile# the 7arenins relationship# on the surface# has remains 0ust the same as (efore. *na(le to face or
admit his own feelings for his wife# 7arenin treats 9nna with an offended hostility. /e hardly ever sees her# as
she goes away for the summer# living near ;etsy Tvers)oys home in the countryside. 9t the officers
steeplechase# which 9nna and ;etsy attend together# 7arenin o(serves that his wife only has eyes for >rons)y.
8hen >rons)y falls# 9nna weeps with alarm# and then with relief after hearing that he is safe. 7arenin offers to
ta)e 9nna home# (ut she prefers to stay. 7arenin tells 9nna that her visi(le grief upon >rons)ys fall is highly
improper. <inally# on the carriage ride home# 9nna fran)ly confesses to 7arenin that she loves >rons)y and
hates 7arenin. The shoc)ed 7arenin demands that she continue to o(serve the outward conventions of marriage
for appearances sa)e until a suita(le solution is found.
Meanwhile# 7itty and some of her family are at a spa in $ermany. The Shcher(ats)ys en0oy sociali!ing with
=uropean aristocrats as they await an improvement in 7ittys health. 5ne of the spa guests is a sno((y# elderly#
?ussian invalid named Madame Stahl# who is famously devout and is accompanied (y a young girl named
>aren)a. 7itty li)es >aren)a immensely (ut is nervous a(out meeting her. 7ittys mother learns that two spa
guests# a tattered ?ussian gentleman and his female companion# are in fact evins (rother Ni)olai and
F+
Ni)olais girlfriend. 5ne day# 7ittys mother is so impressed with >aren)a that she allows 7itty to meet the girl.
7itty is delighted# and (oth mother and daughter are enchanted (y >aren)as goodness.
<ollowing >aren)as e3ample of charity# 7itty throws herself into devotion and good deeds. She (efriends a sad
painter named Petrov# visiting him often. /owever# Petrovs wife eventually (ecomes 0ealous of 7itty# who is
upset that her good intentions have gone astray. Near the end of 7ittys treatment# her father# Prince
Shcher(ats)y# returns from his travels elsewhere in $ermany. /e entertains his family and various others at the
spa with his easy manner and funny 0o)es. The Prince chats with Madame Stahl# who he claims is (edridden not
from illness (ut from vanity# merely (ecause her legs are stu((y. /er ideali!ed# pious image of Madame Stahl
deflated# 7itty never sees the old woman in the same way again.
Analysis
5ne of Tolstoys main concerns in 9nna 7arenina is the conflict (etween inner and outer life# (etween private
passions and the pu(lic social conventions that (ind those passions. 8e see this tension in 7arenins reaction to
the news of 9nnas adultery. *nli)e 9nna# 7arenin has no e3pectation that outward appearances should match
the hearts inner feelingshe is content to live with a glaring disparity (etween the two. /e tells 9nna that she
must maintain the status :uo until he finds a suita(le solution# which effectively means living the same life of
deceit and lies with which 9nna has struggled prior to her confession. 7arenins position ensures that 9nnas
admission of adultery changes nothing. Nothing changes later# either# when 7arenin insists on formally
maintaining his marriage. 9lthough 9nna has done wrong# she at least is aligned with the side of truth. 2n
contrast# 7arenin# who technically has done no wrong# is guilty in the sense that he prefers falsity 0ust for the
sa)e of maintaining appearances.
>rons)ys disaster in the horse race is a (rilliant sym(ol of the difficulties he faces as 9nnas lover. Tolstoy fills
the scene with implicit comparisons (etween the horses o(stacle course and the love affair. >rons)y is on
pu(lic display as he rides in the officers steeplechase# 0ust as his love affair with 9nna is on pu(lic display
despite all his efforts to )eep it secret. /e struggles to control <rou4<rou# a creature he does not )now well# 0ust
as he struggles to understand the still4unfamiliar intricacies of his relationship with 9nna. Moreover# much li)e
a romantic relationship# >rons)ys relationship with his horse is more of a partnership than a situation of
mastery and su(mission. /e cannot rule the horse completely (ut can only hope for the (est. <rou4<rou and
>rons)y seem to have a strong rapport# (ut the horse grows increasingly nervous as >rons)y approaches her
0ust (efore the race0ust as the relationship (etween >rons)y and 9nna (ecomes more unsettled as the lovers
grow closer. >rons)ys trou(ling conversations with 9nna and his (rother (efore the race impair his
concentration and his a(ility to ride# emphasi!ing still further the connection (etween his horse race and his
relationship. 2n light of these parallels# the race is dar)ly prophetic. >rons)ys false move on the saddle# which
inadvertently (rea)s <rou4<rous (ac) and leads to her death# foreshadows >rons)ys unintentional yet
disastrous wounding of 9nna.
7ittys involvement with >aren)a and Madame Stahl demonstrates Tolstoys a(ility to approach the central
themes and concerns of 9nna 7arenina from various angles# so su(tly that we are hardly conscious of it. 7ittys
stay at the $erman spa offers a parallel tale of a character swept away (y illusions and then rudely awa)ened to
disillusionment. Tolstoy presents 7ittys disenchantment with Madame Stahl in a way that ma)es us thin) twice
a(out 9nnas infatuation with >rons)y. 8hen 7itty (ecomes enamored with >aren)a and Madame Stahl# she is
gloriously happy to have found a higher aim for her life# a transcendent vision of charity and piety to lift her up.
;ut as 7ittys father points out to her later# Madame Stahl is less an invalid angel of virtue and goodness than a
vain woman who stays in (ed (ecause her legs are stu((y. 2n imitating Madame Stahl# 7itty performs acts of
goodness that are not sincere# as she herself admits eventually. 2ndeed# 7itty causes more harm than good when
she ma)es Petrovs wife 0ealous and upset. 2n presenting this se:uence of infatuation and disillusionment#
Tolstoy implies that 9nna may (e in love with an illusion as well# causing unnecessary harm to those around
her. 8e see what 9nna may not yet see1 >rons)y is not a Prince 6harming (ut rather an ordinary man with the
same limitations as everyone else# including 9nnas own hus(and.
Part C cap + T +K
Summary
F@
evins half4(rother# Sergei 7o!nyshev# ta)es a (rea) from his intellectual wor) (y visiting evin at his country
estate. 8hereas 7o!nyshev sees the countryside as a place of leisure# evin sees it as a place of hard la(or. The
(rothers also have different attitudes toward the peasantry1 7o!nyshev is naOvely affectionate# whereas evin
has a close familiarity with the peasants that ma)es him occasionally critical. ;ut if one were to as) evin
whether or not he loved the peasantry# he would (e una(le to answer.
5n his wal)s with evin in the country# 7o!nyshev wa3es lyrical a(out the (eauty of nature# while evin
prefers simply to loo) at his surroundings without comment. The men discuss the !emstvo (oard and the sad
state of local affairs. 7o!nyshev wonders why nothing good comes from the M5N=Glandowners pay to local
(ureaucrats# as there are no schools# doctors# or midwives to show for these payments. /e chastises evin for
withdrawing from the !emstvo# where he might have e3erted a positive impact. evin asserts that such
(ureaucratic wor) was futile and frustrating for him. The ne3t day# evin wor)s through his trou(les (y doing
hard la(or# mowing his fields alongside forty4two peasant men. The wor) e3hilarates him# and he feels a higher
force moving his scythe. ;ac) home# 7o!nyshev hands evin a letter from Dolly# in which she writes that she is
at her near(y estate of Gergushovo.
Dolly has moved to the country to reduce household e3penses# (ut she finds the hardships of rural life almost
un(eara(le. 5nly with the help of the nanny# Matryona# is Dolly a(le to set up house decently. 5ne day# evin
visits Dolly# who eagerly (roaches the su(0ect of 7itty. evin reveals that he had proposed to 7itty and (een
refused. 6ontrary to evins assumption# Dolly did not already )now a(out his re0ected proposal. Dolly affirms
that 7itty is suffering even more than evin. Dolly attempts to tal) a(out the future of a relationship (etween
evin and 7itty# (ut evin gets angry# saying that such possi(ilities are dead forever.
The ne3t day# evin inspects his hay reserves# finding that the peasants have (een cheating him of a
considera(le portion of his income# although they all cheerfully deny his claim. Despite this annoyance# evin
feels that the countryside is where he (elongs and that he is not destined to marry. ;ut when he glimpses 7itty
passing (y him in a carriage one day# his love for her suddenly returns.
7arenin stic)s to his routine doggedly after 9nnas revelation of her adultery# attempting to live as if nothing
has changed. 2nwardly# however# the pain he feels and represses leads him to curse 9nna as a depraved
woman." /e also grows more distant and cold toward his son# Seryo!ha. 7arenin recites to himself the long list
of men whom women have ruined over the course of history# from ancient to modern times. /e considers
challenging >rons)y to a duel (ut re0ects the idea out of fear of pistols. 7arenin reasons that the (est
punishment for 9nna is to )eep her (ound to him# una(le to divorce. /e writes a letter to her e3plaining this
plan to her formally.
9nna is utterly surprised (y 7arenins decision# disappointed that the divorce for which she yearns will not
come to pass. She is enraged at the prospect of prolonging her life of lies with 7arenin. She writes a letter to
him# telling him she is leaving the house and ta)ing her son with her# (ut in the end she does not send the letter.
9t a party at ;etsys# 9nna tal)s to some young mem(ers of the fashiona(le St. Peters(urg set and is struc) (y
how (ored they are despite their merry lives. 5ne of the party guests# i!a# as)s how happy one can (e lolling
around on a sofa all day.
Analysis
Though evins e3tended meditations on farming may at first appear to (e a digression away from the primary
concerns of the novel# this focus on agriculture# much li)e 7ittys e3periences at the spa# leads us toward
:uestions that are relevant to 9nnas story. evin struggles with the dilemma of how to esta(lish a sustaina(le
relationship with the natural world# which he finds (eautiful# rich# and giving# and which he loves dearly. /is
love for the countryside is evident from the (liss he e3periences in mowing all day. Get evin reali!es that (liss
is not enough# and that his relation to nature is threatened on all sides (y others# including the peasants who
mistrust him and the westerni!ed agricultural theorists who counsel fruitless so4called improvements. evin
tries hard to practice good hus(andry (ut always seems to fail. evins pro(lems with his land have elements in
common with 9nna and >rons)ys predicament. 9nna and >rons)ys love is true and natural# and their early
spiritual delight in each other is compara(le to evins feeling of rapture and fulfillment when mowing. Get we
see that# li)e evin# >rons)y and 9nna have trou(le managing this love that should (e so simple and natural (ut
that society resists from all sides. The central :uestion in (oth situations is whether society can ever learn to
accommodate naturewhether grain fields or lovewithout loss or sacrifice.
FC
2t is sym(olically important that Dolly suddenly appears in the countryside after (eing associated with the city
up to this point in the novel. <or evin# Dolly is a sort of stand4in for her sister# 7itty. evin was once in love
with Dolly too# as well as with the rest of the Shcher(ats)y family. 8e learn that evin viewed the
Shcher(ats)y girls as goddesses or dreams fleetingly descending to greet him. 9fter 7itty re0ects evin# he
)eeps her on her dreamy pedestal as an untoucha(le figure. ;ut when Dolly moves to the more rugged ?ussian
countrysidewhere she can no longer (e an ideali!ed dream (ut must deal with daily hardshipsshe (rings the
Shcher(ats)ys down to earth for evin. Dolly represents a hope that the two things evin loves most# 7itty and
the countryside# may (e united. 8hile evin still outwardly insists that his relationship with 7itty is over# we
feel that the flame of his love for her still (urns. 2deal life and real life may 0oin for evin eventually.
Tolstoys representation of 7arenin changes gradually (ut drastically# so that (y this point in the novel we are
li)ely to have a very different image of him from the image we had earlier# without fully reali!ing that our
perception of him has altered. 7arenin is a competent (ut colorless statesman1 a perfectly nice person (ut too
a(sor(ed in policy decisions and a(stract issues to develop much of a distinct personality. Tolstoy initially
depicts 7arenin in neutral situations# with characters referring to his pu(lic role as one of the most important
men in St. Peters(urg. ;ut at this point in the novel# Tolstoy reveals more of 7arenins feelings# which do not
enhance our respect for him. 7arenin (elieves himself to (e rational# (ut when he thin)s of 9nna as a depraved
woman#" we feel he e3aggerates irrationally. Similarly# when 7arenin reviews the list of men whom women
have wronged throughout history# he comes across as pretentious and comical# 0ust as he does when he re0ects
the idea of a duel (ecause he is scared of pistols. 5ur regard for 7arenin sin)s# 0ust as 9nnas regard for him
does. This shift is precisely Tolstoys intention# ma)ing us feel as if we evolve along with the heroine of the
novel.
Part C cap +M4C@
Summary
>rons)y (rings his financial accounts into (alance. Despite rumors of his huge fortune# he actually leads a
hand4to4mouth e3istence. /owever# he adheres to a rule he imposed on himself long (efore and refuses to as)
his mother for a loan. >rons)y o(eys his rules of conduct rigorously# and it is only with the recent appearance of
9nna in his life that he has felt conflicted a(out proper (ehavior.
*pon learning of 9nnas pregnancy# >rons)y feels that he should resign from military service. /e is reluctant to
give up his professional am(itions# however# especially (ecause his old school friendand friendly rival
Serpu)hovs)oy has recently found fame. Serpu)hovs)oy warns >rons)y to (e wary of women# as they can hold
a man (ac) from his full career potential.
>rons)y sets off for 9nnas country house# where she has arranged a meeting with him. 5n the way# he feels he
loves her more than ever# and his pulse :uic)ens upon his first glimpse of her. 9nna reveals to >rons)y that she
has told her hus(and a(out their adulterous affair. >rons)y fears a duel# (ut after reading 7arenins letter to
9nna he does not )now how to react. >rons)y thin)s a(out Serpu)hovs)oys advice to him (ut )nows he cannot
tell 9nna a(out it. /e advises 9nna to a(andon Seryo!ha# her son with 7arenin# and put an end to the
humiliating situation (y o(taining a divorce. 9nna (ursts out so((ing# saying that she is not humiliated (ut
proud.
7arenin delivers a speech (efore the commission on the relocation of the ?ussian native tri(es# and it is a
(rilliant success. 9nna goes to her home in St. Peters(urg to tal) with her hus(and. She reaffirms to him that she
is the one at fault (ut says that she cannot change anything. 7arenin# e3clusively concerned a(out defending his
honor# ma)es only one demandthat >rons)y never set foot in his home. 9nna and 7arenin part.
Meanwhile# evin has come to loathe the farm wor) he once en0oyed. /e feels worn down from his unending
struggle with the peasants over their reluctance to adopt new technological innovations for farming. More
tormenting is the near(y presence of 7itty at GergushovoA evin yearns to see her (ut feels he cannot. Dolly
tries to lure evin to visitand encounter 7itty(y re:uesting to (orrow a saddle from him. evin merely
sends the saddle (y courier# without visiting Dollys house personally.
The torture of (eing near 7itty (ut not with her eventually (ecomes un(eara(le# so evin ta)es off to visit his
friend Sviya!hs)y# who lives far away. 5n the way# evin stops to eat at the home of a prosperous peasant. The
FF
peasant and his healthy family impress evin# as does the farmers o(vious financial success. The old farmer
asserts that landowners cannot rely on hired men# for peasants handle a farm (est on their own.
9t Sviya!hs)ys house# evins host seems intent on arranging a marriage (etween evin and his sister4in4law.
evin does his (est to avoid tal)ing to the sister4in4law# )nowing in his heart that he can marry only 7itty or no
one at all.
9t dinner# Sviya!hs)y entertains two old4fashioned landowners who miss the (ygone days of serfdom in ?ussia.
5ne of the landowners claims that farming was (etter in those days# and that the emancipation of the serfs has
ruined ?ussia. evin meditates on the fact that# in virtually all aspects of Sviya!hs)ys life# there are huge
contradictions (etween what Sviya!hs)y inwardly (elieves and what he outwardly lives.
Sviya!hs)y argues that all farming should (e done under a rational# scientific system# whereas one of the
landowner guests asserts that farming simply re:uires a firm authority looming over the peasantry. evin agrees
that his attempts to introduce farming innovations to the peasants have (een disastrous. Sviya!hs)y maintains
that serfdom is a thing of the past and that hired la(or is the future that all ?ussian landowners must accept. /e
asserts that education is the )ey to winning over the peasants# (ut evin disagrees. Thin)ing a(out the matter
afterward# evin (elieves the answer is to treat the peasants not as an a(stract wor)force (ut as specifically
?ussian peasants whose specific traditions and nature must (e factored into all decisions involving la(or. evin
is determined to put his new theory into practice on his estate# ma)ing the peasants financial partners in the
harvest. The peasants resist# however# suspecting evin of somehow trying to cheat them.
9s evin ma)es plans to visit farms in western =urope to research his new agricultural theory# his (rother
Ni)olai visits. Ni)olai# who is even sic)er than (efore# has a(andoned Marya Ni)olaevna. Since only one room
in the house is heated# evin allows Ni)olai to sleep in his own (edroom. Ni)olais incessant coughing and
cursing )eep evin awa)e all hours of the night. 8ith his (rother o(viously dying# evin can thin) of nothing
(ut death. /e gets up to e3amine his graying temples# affirming that he has a few good years left in his life. /e
goes (ac) to (ed wondering whether there is anything he can do to help his (rother.
The ne3t day# conversation (etween the (rothers is strained# as the despairing and self4pitying Ni)olai purposely
irritates evin (y moc)ing his ideas a(out agricultural improvement. Ni)olai leaves (ut at the last minute as)s
for evins forgiveness. evin later meets a friend# to whom he spea)s a(out death. evin is aware that he must
live out his life to the end# come what may.
Analysis
2n this portion of the novel# Tolstoy shows us some of the une3pected and seemingly contradictory aspects of
>rons)ys character. Though >rons)ys methodical accounting practices appear to (e at odds with his devil4
may4care image# we see that they are as integral to his character as his wild horse4racing style. >rons)y divides
all the (ills he receives into three distinct categories# ran)ed in order of urgency of payment# and he never
deviates from this system. /e li)ewise has strict moral regulations for himself1 he may lie to a woman (ut never
to a man# and so on. 5n the whole# Tolstoy suggests that >rons)y is perhaps as much of a stic)ler for rational
systems as the other 9le3ei# 9nnas analytical hus(and. 7arenin applies his methods to pu(lic policy# whereas
>rons)y applies his to his finances. ?egardless# it is clear that (oth men value intellectual systems over
intuition# instinct# or whim. Tolstoy thus thwarts our e3pectation of a star) contrast (etween a cold# rational
7arenin and a stormy# passionate >rons)y. The two are certainly different (ut not a(solute opposites. 9nna# who
has little interest in applying systems of thought to her personal life# may (e less similar to either of them than
they are to each other. 2ndeed# she never once appeals to any rule or process of deduction to determine her
actions. 2n her ruling instincts 9nna resem(les evin more than her hus(and or her lover.
>rons)ys conversation with 9nna at the country house is the first hint at a decline in the intimacy of their
relations. <or the first time in the novel we are aware of >rons)y having a thought that he fails to share with
9nnahis memory of Serpu)hovs)oys warning a(out the dangerous effects of women on mens am(ition.
Tolstoy heightens the drama of this moment at the country house (y showing us >rons)ys thought and then
telling us of his ina(ility to communicate it to 9nna. Serpu)hovs)oys advice itself is not necessarily valid# for
9nna has proved herself a capa(le wife to the e3tremely am(itious 7arenin. 8hat is more important is that the
advice cannot (e shared# which signals the formation of a (oundary (etween >rons)ys mind and 9nnas. 9s the
novel progresses# this (oundary (ecomes increasingly insurmounta(le and foreshadows the end of their union.
F,
9nother hint of a (lea) future comes in >rons)ys reference to 9nnas humiliation#" a very pu(lic form of
shame. 9nna rightly re0ects this term# saying she does not feel humiliation. She is aware only of love# a private
emotion. >rons)ys focus on humiliation suggests that he feels (eholden to the pressure of social valuesa
pressure that represents a clear danger to their love.
Iust as >rons)ys rationality comes as a surprise# so do evins thoughts of mortality and of his own death.
Though evin is a healthy and vigorous man a(la!e with future plans# Tolstoy has him meditate on death for
several reasons. <irst# evins thoughts reveal his deep empathy with his critically ill (rother. i)e 9nna# evin
is una(le to distance himself from the suffering of anyone close to him. Second# evins reflections on mortality
endow him with a wise humility that other characters# such as 7arenin and even >rons)y# lac). evin is no
frailer than they# yet some vainglorious :uality a(out those other men ma)es it hard to imagine either of them
contemplating his own demise. =ven >rons)y# who has come near death in the horse race# has not let the
e3perience noticea(ly alter his views. evin is different1 his closeness to his ailing (rother causes him to reali!e
and accept his human nature and limited life span. <inally# evins thoughts of death align him with 9nna# who
thin)s a(out death the first moment we meet her# after the casualty in the train station. evin and 9nna are
lin)ed not only in the intensity of their lives (ut also in their recognition of the closeness of death.
Part F cap +4 ++
Summary
The 7arenins continue to live in the same house (ut are almost completely estranged from each other. 7arenin
ma)es it a rule to see 9nna every dayin order to avoid spreading rumors of separation among the servants
(ut he never dines at home. ;oth hus(and and wife fervently hope that their painful situation is temporary.
>rons)y endures a dull wee)# entertaining a visiting foreign dignitary who wishes to e3perience the true spirit
of ?ussia. 6arousing with gypsy girls# the foreigner (elieves he is discovering ?ussian culture. >rons)y is
pained (y the resem(lance (etween the foreigner and himself1 (oth are healthy# confident# rather empty
no(lemen.
?eturning home one night# >rons)y finds a note from 9nna saying that she must see him# inviting him to her
home when 7arenin is to (e at a meeting. >rons)y goes to 9nna at the appointed time (ut is shoc)ed to run into
7arenin# whose meeting has ended early. 9nna is grouchy# ma)ing (ar(ed remar)s a(out >rons)ys night with
the foreigner and the gypsy girls. >rons)y is sadly aware of how 9nna has changed# (oth morally and
physically1 she is irrita(le and has put on weight.
9nna erupts in anger toward 7arenin# calling him a puppet and an administrative machine" and reproaching
his lac) of guts. She says that in his place she would have )illed a wife li)e herself. >rons)y attri(utes 9nnas
moodiness to her pregnancy# and as)s when the (a(y is due. 9nna says that it should not (e long. She adds that
soon everything will (e resolved# as she will die shortly. >rons)y accuses 9nna of spea)ing nonsense# (ut she
declares that she has had a prophetic dreama vision of an old peasant man rummaging in a sac) and tal)ing
a(out the necessity of (eating iron. The peasant in the dream told her that she would die in child(irth.
7arenin passes a sleepless night after his run4in with >rons)y# angered that 9nna has violated the only condition
he placed on herthat she never receive >rons)y in 7arenins house. 7arenin tells 9nna he plans to initiate
divorce proceedings# and sei!es her love letters from >rons)y to use as evidence. 9nna (egs 7arenin to allow
her to )eep custody of Seryo!ha. 7arenin replies that although he no longer loves the (oy# he will ta)e him
anyway.
The ne3t day# 7arenin visits a divorce lawyer# who assumes 7arenin wishes to pursue a mutually consenting
divorce. 7arenin e3plains that he wants to prove involuntary e3posure of an adulterous affair# using the love
letters as evidence. The lawyer warns him that such cases re:uire the involvement of religious authorities# and
that often letters are not sufficient evidence. The lawyer as)s 7arenin for freedom to proceed with the specifics
of the divorce as he thin)s (est# and 7arenin agrees.
9fter (eing thwarted (y a rival at wor)# 7arenin decides to set out for the provinces in an attempt to redeem his
professional reputation. /e encounters Stiva and Dolly one day and treats them coolly. Stiva# who is in good
spirits and is en0oying his new (allerina mistress# invites 7arenin# evin# 7itty# and others to a dinner party.
7arenin initially declines# revealing his plans to divorce 9nna. Though Stiva is shoc)ed and worried a(out his
F-
sister# he insists that 7arenin come nonetheless. 9t the dinner party# 7arenin is cold toward the others. =ven so#
the food is e3cellent and the party is successful. 7itty and evin see each other for the first time since the failed
marriage proposal# and their mutual love is overwhelmingly evident. 5ver dinner# the guests discuss education
and the rights of women.
Analysis
9nnas (i!arre dream and her prophecy that her life will soon end deepen her association with death. Prior to
this point in the novel# 9nna has (een lin)ed to death only sym(olically# through the death of the wor)man at
the train station and through the (lac) dress she wears when dancing with >rons)y. 8hen 9nna
straightforwardly announces that she is convinced she will die in child(irth# the connection (etween her illicit
love and her death is cemented. /er sense that death is approaching is not rational# as it is (ased solely on a
dream(ut 9nna has never done anything for rational reasons# so her certainty a(out dying carries a great deal
of weight. 2n one sense this dream is a simple device foreshadowing 9nnas eventual death# accompanied (y a
note of the supernatural that suggests a divine force that punishes wrongdoers. ;ut her death may (e more than
a tragic side effect of her love. Tolstoy hints that 9nna may actually yearn for her own demise. 8hen 9nna
re0ects 7arenins restraint# saying that in his place she would have )illed a wife li)e herself# her suicide fantasy
is o(vious. Death may come not as a punishment (ut as the only option for a desperate woman.
The specter of dishonesty pervades the 7arenins domestic life# as they still live together in purported harmony
despite the reality of their near4complete estrangement. 7arenin is so intent on maintaining the outward
appearance of propriety that he ma)es a point of visiting 9nna once a day merely so rumors will not spread
among the servants. 9nnas worst nightmareprolonging her deceitful e3istenceis unfortunately now her
way of life. She )nows that this charade may continue indefinitely if 7arenin refuses a divorce.
Tolstoy artfully (roadens 9nna 7arenina into a social criti:ue (y showing how the 7arenins false lifestyle is
not an anomaly (ut actually :uite typical of other aristocratic ?ussians in the same social circle. Su(tly# and
without commentary or value 0udgment# the narrator mentions Stivas new (allerina mistress# showing us that
Stiva has not repented of his earlier offense to Dolly (ut has perhaps only learned to hide his misdemeanors
more carefully. Similarly# >rons)y is aware that he is only mimic)ing typical ?ussian life with his foreign
guest# playing at (eing the stereotypical high4living no(leman his guest e3pects to see. This universality of
deceitful living among the ?ussian no(ility ma)es their upcoming re0ection of 9nna all the more hypocritical.
Stivas society dinner party seems a (it 0arring# as it shows us that the carefree Stiva pursues his social calendar
as usual even after receiving the shoc)ing news that divorce proceedings are in the wor)s against his sister.
Though divorce may (e commonplace in our society# in +KJNs ?ussia it carried a great stigma# typically leaving
the guilty party socially shunned# una(le to remarry# and without custody of his or her children. 2n this light# we
might e3pect a more sensitive (rother to cancel his dinner party upon hearing such devastating news. Stiva#
however# carries on with his soiree as scheduled. 8e cannot wholeheartedly (lame Stiva# though# as he clearly
loves his sister. <urthermore# we sense that he may (e hoping to use the party to dissuade 7arenin from divorce#
though a private and solemn meeting at home would li)ely (e more fitting than a festive dinner. Still# we have
lingering dou(ts a(out the way Stiva and the other male characters in 9nna 7arenina treat women. 9s a
novelist# Tolstoy was enormously sensitive to the situation of women in ?ussia. /ere he implicitly critici!es the
womani!ing and o(livious Stiva1 9nna may (e ruined# (ut Stiva lets the party go on.
Part F cap +@4@C
Summary
5ver dinner at the 5(lons)ys# a guest ma)es a remar) that displeases 7arenin# who leaves the ta(le. /e finds
Dolly in the drawing room and reveals to her his firm plans for divorce. /earing that 9nna has cheated on
7arenin# Dolly protests that 9nna will (e ruined. 7arenin claims there is nothing he can do.
9t the same dinner# evin and 7itty spea) to each other for the first time since her re0ection of his marriage
proposal. 6learly still caring for each other greatly# they play a word game on a card ta(le through which they
apologi!e to each other for their past errors. evin proposes to 7itty again# and she accepts. ater# evin tells
FJ
his (rother Sergei of his engagement and wanders sleeplessly in the streets# over0oyed. 8hen morning comes#
evin visits the Shcher(ats)y house and em(races 7itty. 2n a happy da!e# evin goes off to ;*G flowers and
presents for the engagement cele(ration. evin# wishing to (e fully honest with 7itty# shows her his 0ournals#
which divulge the fact that he is agnostic and has not (een chaste prior to marriage. 7itty is upset (ut ultimately
forgiving.
7arenin is passed over for a government post he has (een coveting. Iust after receiving this (ad news# he
receives a telegram announcing that 9nna is gravely ill. /e arrives to learn that 9nna has delivered a (a(y girl#
and that she is suffering from a fever from which she is not e3pected to recover. >rons)y is present at 9nnas
(edside. 9nna is sure she is dying# so she (egs 7arenin for forgiveness. She also implores 7arenin to forgive
>rons)y# which 7arenin tearfully does.
8hen >rons)y is a(out to leave the house# 7arenin tells him that he has forgiven 9nna and will stay (y her
side. >rons)y departs with the feeling that his love for 9nna# which has flagged lately# is reviving. ;ac) at his
home# he cannot sleep# tormented (y the possi(ility of 9nnas death. 5nly half4aware of his actions# >rons)y
aims a pistol at his chest and fires. /e is gravely wounded (ut survives# as one of his servants :uic)ly discovers
him and sends for doctors.
7arenin# meanwhile# is surprised (y how sincerely he was a(le to forgive 9nna# and (y the tenderness he feels
toward her new(orn daughter# who is also named 9nna. ater# 7arenin overhears a conversation (etween 9nna
and ;etsy Tvers)aya. ;etsy implores 9nna to say good(ye to >rons)y (efore he leaves for the provincial
69P2T9 of Tash)ent# where he is to (e stationed. 9nna refuses# saying that there is no point in seeing >rons)y
again. 5n the way out# ;etsy (egs 7arenin to allow >rons)y to visit 9nna one last time. 7arenin answers that
such a matter is solely his wifes decision. 2n desperate grief# 9nna privately affirms to 7arenin that there is no
point in seeing >rons)y again. 7arenin says he is willing to allow the affair to continue# provided that the
family and children are not disgraced.
Stiva arrives at the 7arenin house. 9nna privately tells him that she cannot stand 7arenin any longer. Stiva says
the pro(lem is simple1 9nna married someone whom she did not love and who was twenty years her seniorA
now she loves another man# and she must decide whether or not to stay with her hus(and. 9nna says she does
not )now what to do. Stiva spea)s to 7arenin# who shows him a letter he has (egun writing to 9nna. The letter
tells 9nna that the decision a(out the future of their marriage is entirely in her hands. Stiva says that only
divorce will satisfy 9nna# (ut 7arenin reminds him of the disgrace she will suffer if she chooses such a path.
Stiva mentions that 7arenin could allow 9nna to escape pu(lic shame (y ta)ing responsi(ility for the disgrace
himself(y pretending that it was he# rather than 9nna# who committed adultery. 7arenin tearfully says that he
is willing to accept this option.
>rons)y# hearing that 7arenin has granted a divorce# visits 9nna. They ac)nowledge their mutual love. 9nna
says that 7arenin is (eing too generous with her# so she cannot accept his magnanimity in granting her wish for
divorce proceedings. >rons)y resigns his commission# and he and 9nna set off on a trip a(road# a(andoning the
idea of divorce.
Analysis
evins (liss at confirming his love for 7itty# and hearing her confirm it in return# is one of the most
unforgetta(le portrayals of romantic love in all of literature. Get this scene also fulfills a )ey function in the
novel# reminding us of Tolstoys interest in e3ploring the relationship (etween reason and instinct in human life.
evins 0oy is irrational. /is state approaches delirium as he loses control over his (ody and mind. /e wal)s in
the frigid ?ussian air without a coat# yet he does not feel cold. /e tries to eat (ut feels no need of food# even
though he has not eaten since the day (efore. /e has not slept for two nights when he shows up in the morning
at the Shcher(ats)y residence in a (lissful da!e. This irrational episode puts evin in star) contrast to 7arenin#
who# we suspect# has never had an irrational moment in his life. 2t also separates evin from >rons)y# who
always tries to maintain control over his life# as we see in his attempts to master <rou4<rou and settle his
financial accounts methodically. 8hereas evin throws himself into love (lindly and freely# >rons)y enters it in
a controlling and self4possessed spirit. 8e ultimately sense that Tolstoy admires evins love far more.
5ur view of 7arenin is 0olted in these chapters when he (rea)s into tears and volunteers to accept guilt in the
divorce proceedings. The tears themselves are a shoc)# as we have (een told that 7arenin hates nothing more
than crying# which he considers irrational and odious. /ere# however# 7arenins intellectual and logical armor is
FK
pierced# and we get a glimpse of an emotional man within. Moreover# his assumption of guilt is une3pectedly
and e3traordinarily altruistic. 9s an important pu(lic personage# 7arenin is well aware of the disgrace that
would fall upon him and undou(tedly destroy his career. /onor is a paramount personal consideration for him
he says 0ust a few chapters earlier that he is even willing to allow 9nna to carry on her liaison as long as she
does not threaten the honor of the family. /ere# however# 7arenin is willing not only to accept a divorce for
9nnas sa)e (ut also to sacrifice his own honor in the (argain. This sudden selflessness utterly sha)es up our
view of 7arenins character# derailing our more cynical 0udgments a(out his attitude toward 9nnas adultery.
7arenin is no passionate hero# (ut he is not a machine# as 9nna calls him# either.
9nnas death(ed plea for forgiveness for herself and >rons)y# and 7arenins surprising assent# raise important
:uestions a(out the moral and theological importance of forgiveness in this novel. Several of the staple
6hristian teachings of selflessnessturning the other chee) to wrongdoers# giving away ones cloa) when ones
coat has (een stolen# and so onare repeatedly cited in 9nna 7arenina. 7arenin# in his sudden generosity#
e3emplifies these tenets in his willingness to forgive and forget everything. 8e see similar generosity in evins
and 7ittys forgiveness of each others past decisions and actions. ;ut forgiveness does not have a simple
function in the novelA it is not a cure4all that can (e universally offered and accepted. 2ndeed# the epigraph that
(egins 9nna 7arenina is a :uotation from the New Testament %?omans +@1+M' that evo)es the harsher morality
of the 5ld Testament from which it is (orrowed %Deuteronomy C@1C,'1 >engeance is mineA 2 shall repay." This
emphasis on vengeance# the very opposite of forgiveness# suggests that violent retri(ution may ultimately win
out over mee) humility. 2ndeed# we see that 9nna as)s for 7arenins forgiveness (ut does not necessarily accept
it# fleeing a(road with >rons)y at the end of Part <our. The role of forgiveness is not a clear4cut one in the
world of the novel1 though a powerful healing force in evin and 7ittys relationship# it may ultimately (e
re0ected in favor of vengeance in 7arenin and 9nnas.
Part , cap + T +-
Summary
9s evin and 7ittys wedding date is set# evin remains in his (lissful da!e. /e performs all the duties e3pected
of him (ut is almost mad with 0oy. Stiva reminds evin that he must go to confession (efore his wedding. evin
meets with the priest and confesses that he dou(ts everything# including the e3istence of $od. The priest sternly
warns evin that the 6hristianity of his future offspring is at sta)e. ater# evin en0oys a (achelor party with his
(rother Sergei and Sergeis university friend# 7atavasov. The (achelors as) evin if he is prepared to give up
his freedom for the constraints of marriage. evin# feeling insecure and wondering why 7itty should ever love
him at all# as)s 7itty whether she wants to go through with the wedding. They have a (rief argument (ut are
reconciled.
That evening# the wedding guests await the groom in the church. evin is late (ecause a mi34up involving his
clothes has left him without a proper shirt to wear. The ceremony is delayed and the guests (ecome impatient#
(ut evin finally arrives at the church. 7itty cannot understand the priests words as she hears them# for she is
swept away (y love. evin cries during the ceremony. The wedding concludes ma0estically# and evin and 7itty
leave for his country estate.
>rons)y and 9nna# meanwhile# travel in 2taly for three months together and settle down and rent a pala!!o.
>rons)y# see)ing distraction# is delighted to meet an old school friend# $olenishchev. $olenishchev and 9nna
get along well. >rons)y listens as $olenishchev e3pounds on the (oo) he is writing# and 9nna tells
$olenishchev that >rons)y has ta)en up painting.
9nna# for her part# has (een very happy. <ar from ?ussia# she feels no more disgrace. >rons)y is less contented#
however1 all his desires are satisfied# so he misses desire itself. /e (egins to paint a portrait of 9nna. /earing of
a ?ussian painter named Mi)hailov who lives in their town# >rons)y reflects on the new generation of ?ussian
intellectuals who have talent (ut lac) education. 9nna# intrigued# proposes visiting Mi)hailov.
8hen >rons)y and 9nna arrive at Mi)hailovs studio# the artist is flattered to receive attention from wealthy
?ussians. /e shows them a painting in progress# a scene from the life of Iesus 6hrist. 9nna and >rons)y praise
Mi)hailovs rendering of Pontius Pilate# and 9nna delights in the e3pression of pity on Iesus face. The visitors
en0oy even more a landscape painting of ?ussian (oys rela3ing (y a river. >rons)y as)s whether the latter
FM
painting is for sale and hires Mi)hailov to paint 9nnas portrait. >rons)y a(andons his own portrait of 9nna and
(ecomes dissatisfied with their 2talian life.
evin slowly ad0usts to married life. /e imagines that 7itty needs only to (e loved# forgetting that she has
desires and aspirations of her own. 7itty throws herself into house)eeping with gusto in a way that initially
annoys evin (ut then pleases him. Vuarrels occasionally erupt. 5ne day# evin gets lost on the way home from
the fields# and 7itty is 0ealous and suspicious of where he has (een. /e is offended (ut then forgives her.
Meanwhile# evin continues wor) on his (oo) a(out the ?ussian agricultural system# (ut his slow progress
distresses him. /e chastises himself for (eing spoiled (y married life# and silently reproaches 7itty for her lac)
of interest in anything other than house)eeping. evin receives a letter from Marya Ni)olaevna# saying that she
is (ac) with his (rother Ni)olai# who is dying of consumption. evin says he must visit Ni)olai# and 7itty
insists on going with him. evin does not want her to come# resenting his lac) of freedom and shuddering at the
idea of 7itty meeting a former prostitute. evin and 7itty fight# (ut finally he allows her to come along.
Analysis
evins confession to the priest (rings religion out from the (ac)groundwhere it has (een consistently
throughout 9nna 47areninaand into focus in the foreground. i)e many thin)ers of his era# Tolstoy was
s)eptical of religious faith (ut also yearned for its potential for transcendence. 2n the novel# Tolstoy gives evin
his namesa)e in the novel# as ev is Tolstoys first namethis same am(ivalence toward religion. evin is a
deeply soulful person# as we see in his ecstasy in (oth farming and marriage. /owever# though he has the
spirituality that faith demands# he lac)s (elief in its dogma and rituals. 8ith characteristic candor# evin tells
the priest that he dou(ts the e3istence of $oda remar)a(le statement even for evin. This contradiction#
however# is e3actly Tolstoys point1 evin is in the church not (ecause of faith (ut (ecause of social convention#
as a confession certificate is re:uired for marriage. Tolstoy invites us to see religion as divided (etween
spirituality on one hand and social e3pectations on the other. /e does not attac) religion (ut merely suggests
that o(servance of its social institutions often replaces true spirituality.
Meanwhile# the account of >rons)y and 9nnas time in 2taly hints at the lovers future difficulties as refugees
from ?ussian social conventions. 9t first glance# they seem to live in an e3patriate paradise1 they are wealthy#
have servants and a (eautiful pala!!o# and pass their time strolling and painting# with no enemies to attac) or
demean their love. 9nna is happier than she ever imagined# and >rons)y feels that all his desires are satisfied.
Nonetheless# there is trou(le in this seeming paradise. >rons)y misses desirein particular# we feel he misses
the professional am(itions that guided his life in ?ussia. =ven in e3ile# ?ussia draws the lovers (ac) into its
grip. Significantly# the people important to 9nna and >rons)y in 2taly are ?ussians$olenishchev and
Mi)hailov. No 2talians are significant enough to (e named in the novel. The painting that >rons)y loves most is
not the portrait of Iesusa re(el li)e him and 9nna(ut rather a ?ussian landscape. <or all his love of 2taly#
>rons)y is pulled (ac) toward the very country where he and his lover are damned# defiled# and e3cluded.
Social conventions# we see# are not easy to escape. They are part of us# and we continue to live within them
even when suffering (ecause of them.
9s Tolstoy continues to develop the plots involving evin and 9nna in parallel# he invites us to compare the
differing honeymoons of the novels two recently formali!ed romantic relationships. Despite the fact that
evins ma0estic church wedding contrasts star)ly with 9nnas scandalous flight to 2taly# the two unions are
surprisingly similar. The difference (etween their respective legal statuses hardly matters when we focus on
their internal dynamics. ;oth couples settle in the countryside# leaving (ehind social am(itions# and (oth
struggle with the disorientation that comes from having their desires satisfied. >rons)y finds total satisfaction to
(e ir)some# and evin admits to 7itty that he is discontented even though he is happy. ;oth men are una(le to
do the wor) they dream of doing1 >rons)y is antsy after resigning from his regiment# and evin cannot (ring
himself to wor) on his (oo) on agriculture. The similarities (etween >ron)y and evin remind us not to
e3aggerate the importance of 9nnas so4called immorality. ?elationships are relationships whether or not they
(ear social or religious stamps of approval. Tolstoy encourages us to loo) (eyond social rules and to e3amine
the inner wor)ings of romantic unions with an open mind.
Part , cap +J4CC
Summary
,N
2n a dingy /5T= 2N the provinces# evin meets Ni)olai# who is clearly at deaths door. 7itty insists on seeing
Ni)olai too# and he greets her pleasantly. evin cannot (ear to loo) at Ni)olai# (ut the more practical 7itty
immediately gets down to wor) to lessen the dying mans suffering# displaying remar)a(le compassion and
empathy for him. 7ittys tenderness touches Ni)olai. evin meditates on how he fears death more than 7itty#
even though he is more intelligent than she. /e concludes that he is self4centered whereas she is selfless.
The ne3t day# Ni)olai ta)es communion and feels (etter# passing a half4hour without coughing. ;ut then the
cough returns. Ni)olai tells 7ittywhom he calls (y her ?ussian name# 7atiato leave the room# as he will
die soon. /e continues to linger (etween life and death# however. 7itty# meanwhile# feels ill and vomits. 9fter
several tedious days of waiting# Ni)olai finally passes away. The doctor tells 7itty that she is vomiting (ecause
she is pregnant.
7arenin# meanwhile# cannot grasp what has led him to his current misery. 9s)ed to pay one of 9nnas overdue
(ills# he nearly (rea)s down. /is career is at a standstill. The narrator fills us in on 7arenins childhood1 an
orphan# 7arenin grew up with many awards and distinctions (ut without intimacy in his life. Now# his friend
ydia 2vanovna urges him to trust in Iesus and offers to run his household. <orlornly in love with 7arenin
herself# ydia 2vanovna has replaced erotic passion with religious love. /owever# she is spiteful toward 9nna#
refusing to ac)nowledge 9nnas letter pleading to see Seryo!ha. ydia 2vanovna informs 7arenin that 9nna is
in St. Peters(urg# which ma)es 7arenin glum. /e asserts that he cannot thwart 9nnas maternal love for her son.
ydia 2vanovna maliciously as)s whether 9nna truly loves her son.
Seryo!has (irthday arrives# and his 0oy in getting gifts is heightened (y his pride that his father has received an
official award. The (oy (om(ards his tutor with :uestions a(out his fathers award# (ut the tutor insists he
concentrate on schoolwor). Seryo!ha wonders why the tutor does not love him. ydia 2vanovna has told
Seryo!ha that his mother is dead to him# (ut he still hopes to see 9nna again. 7arenin visits Seryo!ha and
:ui!!es him on his religious lessons. Seryo!ha does not do well# and 7arenin is disappointed in his sons
progress.
*pon returning to St. Peters(urg# >rons)y and 9nna stay in a fine /5T=. They hope to resume their social life
(ut are thwarted. =veryone shuns them# even ;etsy Tvers)aya# who e3plains that she cannot ris) the pu(lic
shame of sociali!ing with 9nna. 9nna receives 7arenins denial of her plea to see Seryo!ha and is devastated.
Determined to see her son anyway# she (uys him toys for his (irthday and visits the 7arenin home one morning#
hiding her face until she has entered.
The servants recogni!e 9nna and (ring her to Seryo!ha. Mother and son chat# and 9nna cries with 0oy and
regret. Seryo!has former nanny# also visiting him# informs 9nna that 7arenin is soon to enter the room. 9nna
hurries away (ut encounters 7arenin on her way out. 9s she leaves# she reali!es that she never got the chance to
give Seryo!ha his toys. ?eturning to the /5T= 2N a da!e# 9nna is una(le to fathom her present situation.
Moreover# she suddenly feels less love toward her infant daughter# 9nnie. 9nna mentally reproaches >rons)y
for a(andoning her lately.
>rons)y returns to the /5T= to find 9nna with Princess 5(lon4s)aya# an old# unmarried aunt of 9nnas with
a (ad reputation. 9nna announces that she plans to attend the opera that evening. >rons)y (egs her not to#
warning her of the fact that the mem(ers of high society at the theater will scorn and humiliate her. /e (elieves
that she wishes to deli(erately provo)e and insult conventional society.
Nevertheless# 9nna leaves for the opera. >rons)y follows later and watches in horror as 9nna is insulted (y
ac:uaintances in the neigh(oring (o3. 9nna returns home angry and desperate. >rons)y reassures her of his
love# and the two depart for the countryside.
Analysis
Iust (efore we see 9nna reach the depths of humiliation in her pu(lic disgrace# Tolstoy shows us a glimpse of
9nna in private# at her most tender and maternal moment. The author 0u3taposes the two e3tremes of 9nnas
personality1 0ust as we have never seen her so (ra!enly in the pu(lic eye as during her time at the opera# so too
have we never seen her :uite so loving and motherly as when she secretly (rings (irthday presents to her son.
8e have fre:uently heard that she loves Seryo!ha# (ut her tears of 0oy at seeing him prove that love. The
(irthday scene is crucial (ecause it reminds us that the love for which 9nna lives is not 0ust romantic love (ut
parental love as well. /er life is defined (y the fact that she cares for certain people and does not care for others.
2n this regard# she is not a di!!y romantic dreamer li)e <lau(erts deluded Madame ;ovary. 9nna does not
,+
throw away her past in pursuit of a dashing love interest (ut simply and passionately tries to find and stic) (y
true love in all its forms# whether lover or son.
These chapters all center on human isolation# e3ploring this concept from different angles through the
e3periences of different characters. 7arenins loneliness nearly pushes him to a nervous (rea)down as his
family life and professional career fall apart. The man who once seemed invinci(le now appears surprisingly
frail. Tolstoy suggests that isolation can topple even giants. 8e learn that 7arenin was an orphan# raised without
parental intimacy. 2n giving us 7arenins childhood history# the author invites us to conclude that 7arenins later
pursuit of status and honor is an attempt to fill the void left (y the lac) of family love. Seryo!ha may well feel
this same lac) of love# and we fear that he may grow up to (e 0ust li)e his father. 8hen Seryo!ha as)s his tutor
a(out official awards and wonders why the tutor does not love him more# we see that the (oy mi3es intimacy
and honors in his mind as much as his father does.
9nnas humiliation in the theater is# of course# another case of isolationa painful# forced ostracism. The dying
Ni)olai is isolated as well# and 7ittys companionship is li)e a medicine to him. Though Ni)olai does not
recover# 7ittys )indness ma)es his final days far less lonely and frightening than they might have (een. The
healing power of 7ittys company for Ni)olai reminds us that simple togetherness can have a miraculous effect
in curing the great ill of isolation that afflicts man)ind.
Part - cap + T +-
Summary
Dolly# unhappy with her own run4down estate# moves in with evin and 7itty for the summer. 7ittys friend
>aren)a and evins half4(rother# Sergei# are also present. Sergei is friendly despite the others awe of his fame.
Dolly and 7itty even discuss the possi(ility of setting him up with >aren)a. evin is s)eptical of this idea#
e3plaining that Sergei is used to a spiritual life whereas >aren)a is more earthy. evin tells 7itty that he envies
Sergei# who lives for duty and thus can reach satisfaction. 7itty as)s why evin is not satisfied himself. evin
mentions his wor) frustrations (ut affirms he is happy overall.
Sergei and >aren)a do indeed li)e each other greatly# and Sergei fantasi!es a(out proposing marriage. 5ne day#
the two go out pic)ing mushrooms together# and (oth of them suddenly reali!e Sergei is on the verge of
proposing. 9t the last minute# however# he is una(le to (ring himself to do so# as he wishes to (e loyal to the
memory of a deceased lover from his youth. The opportunity gone# Sergei and >aren)a (oth reali!e they will
never marry each other.
5ne day# Stiva arrives with a friend# the handsome >eslovs)y. Stiva mentions that >eslovs)y has visited 9nna.
Dolly asserts that she will visit 9nna too# though 7itty is reluctant to go. >eslovs)y flirts with 7itty# which
ma)es evin insanely 0ealous. evin and 7itty :uarrel and evin apologi!es# promising to ma)e >eslovs)y feel
welcome on their hunting trip the ne3t day.
Setting out with Stiva and >eslovs)y# evin is ashamed of his earlier anger# for he now finds >eslovs)y comical
and good4natured. ;ut once they (egin hunting# the presence of the somewhat hapless >eslovs)y again (others
evin# distracting him and causing him to shoot (adly. The others (ag far more game# and evins irritation
grows. >eslovs)y stupidly sets his gun off accidentally and gets their cart stuc) in a marsh.
The men discuss a railroad magnate neigh(or whose fortune evin disdains# considering it ill gotten# the
product of financial tric)s# not hard wor). Stiva moc)s evin for (eing a no(leman who does not wor) for his
fortune# and evin is ir)ed. evin goes to (ed frustrated# while the other two go off in pursuit of farm girls#
which Stiva says is accepta(le as long as his wife does not find out.
8a)ing early the ne3t morning# evin goes off hunting alone. /is dog flushes out several enormous snipe#
which evin )ills effortlessly. Delighted# evin returns hours later with nineteen (irds. /is 0oy disperses#
however# when he learns that Stiva and >eslovs)y have eaten all the food. 7itty then discusses her need to go to
Moscow to see an o(stetrician. evin initially resists# (elieving doctors to (e unnecessary# (ut finally assents.
>eslovs)y engages 7itty in a conversation a(out whether love can (e a(ove social conventions# (ut she finds
his tone o(0ectiona(le. 7itty and evin :uarrel and ma)e up once more. <inally# evin# again annoyed at
>eslovs)ys flirtation with 7itty# )ic)s him out of the house# despite his awareness that such an action is
ungracious.
,@
Dolly stic)s to her plan of visiting 9nna. She plans to hire her own horses rather than as) for evins# as she is
reluctant to see) his aid for a potentially shameful mission. evin# however# insists on giving Dolly his horses.
During the trip# Dolly reflects on love and marriage# remem(ering a peasant girls comment that motherhood is
(ondage. She understands 9nnas need to live her life on her own terms# and wonders whether she too could
love and (e loved in a real way.
Analysis
2t might seem pu!!ling that Tolstoy suddenly chooses to focus on the courtship of two fairly marginal
characters# Sergei and >aren)a# at a point in the novel when evins and 9nnas relationships are in full swing.
/owever# the endearing and aw)ward romance (etween these two minor characters offers us an important
contrast to other instances of love we glimpse in the novel# and ma)es us reflect on the nature of relationships in
general. Sergei and >aren)a are (oth spiritual creatures1 Sergei is a (orn intellectual# and >aren)a is often
termed a (orn saint. They (oth seem to dwell in the air rather than in the flesh. evin and 7itty are (oth aware
of their differences from these two1 evin cannot follow Sergeis highly analytical approach to lifes :uestions#
and 7itty cannot follow >aren)as e3ample of moral good wor)s at the $erman spa. ;ut Tolstoy suggests that
spiritual gifts may (e a disadvantage in life and love# as we watch Sergei and >aren)as touching (ut pathetic
attempt to ma)e romantic contact. Sergei dreams of declaring his love (ut ultimately can only dare tal) a(out
mushrooms. Their limitations are clear. Tolstoy may value purity of mind and heart# (ut he appreciates the
worldly wisdom of physical (eings still more.
evins hunting frustrations give us an interesting insight into his psyche. /is difficulty in (agging game may
(e attri(uted to simple (ad luc)# or to the annoyance of having others near(y(ut it may also go much deeper.
8hen Tolstoy shows evins annoyance with >eslovs)y# we suspect that the reason for evins poor shooting
may (e unconscious anger. /e certainly resents >eslovs)ys flirtations with 7itty# as we have seen earlier.
evins irritation# however# may also have a philosophical and social dimension1 he may (e angry at the
irresponsi(le lifestyles these ?ussian no(lemen en0oy. >eslovs)ywhose name contains the ?ussian word for
merrily#" veselolives for pleasure and thin)s only of himself. /e nearly shoots his comrades (y accident and
laughs a(out it later# and he gets the cart stuc) in the marsh through pure o(liviousness. >eslovs)y and Stiva
also go((le up the food meant for evin# again simply without thin)ing. 5n the whole# >eslovs)ys womani!ing
and pleasure see)ing are e3aggerations of similar traits in Stiva# and they sym(oli!e the harmful selfishness of
the ?ussian no(le classes that evin generally disli)es. evin wishes to care for and (e mindful of something
larger than his own urgesA these other men do not.
Dollys decision to visit 9nna is an e3traordinarily significant event. 2t reveals not 0ust Dollys strength of
charactershe dares to call on a woman shunned (y society# simply (ecause she loves her(ut also a
dimension of Dollys inner thoughts that we have not seen (efore. /er willingness to hire her own horses# rather
than use evins for fear of shaming him# shows that she is well aware of the stigma that her visit may (ring. 8e
never dou(t Dollys true love for 9nna in paying her this visit# as Dolly is nothing if not sincere in her
e3pression of affection. ;ut on a deeper level# Dolly mentally puts herself in 9nnas place throughout her trip#
vicariously trying out 9nnas e3periences. 9lthough happily devoted to her children# Dolly wistfully recalls
overhearing a peasant say that motherhood is (ondage. Dolly goes on to associate 9nna with a freedom from
this (ondage# for 9nna has a(andoned her son. 9nna represents freedom and happiness for Dolly# and her
e3ample is provocative# prompting Dolly to thin) a(out her own life philosophically. The clima3 of Dollys
interior monologue comes when she wonders whether she could (e loved in a real wayhinting that she )nows
that the slic) Stiva does not have real love for her.
Part - cap +J4C@
Summary
=n route to 9nnas house# Dolly encounters 9nna# >eslovs)y# Princess 5(lons)aya# and evins friend
Sviya!hs)y on horse(ac). Dolly is startled (y 9nnas (oldness in riding horse(ac)# which society considers
improper for ladies. Dolly disli)es Princess 5(lons)aya# who sponges off of her rich relatives. Dolly )nows that
she loo)s older than 9nna. 9nna spea)s of her great# unforgiva(le" happiness1 having survived past fears and
torments# she says she only wants to live. She tal)s a(out >rons)ys estate management and the first4class
hospital he is (uilding for the local peasant community.
,C
Dolly stays in a room that 9nna calls inferior (ut that is in fact very lu3urious. Dolly feels very self4conscious
a(out her sha((y clothes. 9nna presents her (a(y daughter# who is illegitimate (ut technically a 7arenin. Dolly
is trou(led (y the childs disagreea(le governess and (y 9nnas ignorance of nursery matters. 2ndeed# 9nna
even admits she feels superfluous in the infants up(ringing. 5verall# 9nnas life pleases Dolly# who envies
9nnas freedom and love. 2n private# >rons)y implores Dolly to persuade 9nna to get a divorcewhich
7arenin had agreed to earlierso that >rons)y and 9nna might petition the emperor for a legal adoption of
their daughter. Dolly promises to spea) to 9nna later.
5ver a costly dinner# the group discusses such topics as 9merican efficiency in (uilding# government a(uses#
and the !emstvo system. 8hen someone mentions that evin has retired from !emstvo activity# >rons)y asserts
that it is important for a no(leman to fulfill his duties# as he does in serving as 0ustice of the peace. Dolly#
annoyed (y >rons)ys slighting of evin# affirms evins responsi(le character. 9nna remar)s that >rons)ys
official duties are distancing him from her.
Playing cro:uet afterward# Dolly disli)es >eslovs)ys flirtations with 9nna. ater# 9nna in:uires a(out evin#
wanting the (est for 7itty. Dolly mentions 9nnas possi(le divorce for the sa)e of future children. 9nna
announces that (ecause of her illness she can have no more children# saying she thin)s it is for the (est. Dolly
wonders how 9nna will hold on to >rons)y when her (eauty inevita(ly fades. 9nna says she cannot humiliate
herself (y writing to 7arenin for a divorce. Dolly suddenly reflects on her own family life with warmth# noting
that 9nna ta)es medicine to fall asleep. ?ather than stay several days as planned# Dolly decides to return home
the ne3t day.
8hen >rons)y announces he must travel to 7ashin province for some important local elections# 9nna receives
the news with a strange calm. evin# now living in Moscow (ecause of 7ittys pregnancy# also goes to the
elections. /e is frustrated (y the (ureaucratic proceedings# (ut Sergei e3plains to him the importance of the
elections# in which the old4guard marshal of no(ility will (e replaced (y a younger man more supportive of the
!emstvo system. 8hen the vote is cast# the younger party wins. evin runs into the landowner he met during his
visit to Sviya!hs)ys house and has a conversation with him. The landowner says that the elections have little
significance and reports that he is still farming at a net lossA in fact# he is pessimistic a(out the state of ?ussian
landowners in general. evin tells Sviya!hs)y# who is also present at the elections# that the local court is an
idiotic institution.
Soon# evin grows de0ected and yearns to flee the elections. *ltimately# a venomous no(leman named
Nevedovs)y is elected marshal of the no(ility. >rons)y hosts a party for the victor (ut receives a worried note
from 9nna telling him to return home immediately# as their infant daughter is ill. 9t home# 9nna fumes over her
utter lac) of freedom# her ina(ility to travel on a whim as >rons)y can. >rons)y returns and as)s why 9nna is
irrita(le# once again affirming his love for her. 9nna says she refuses to (e separated from >rons)y again. She
agrees to write 7arenin for a divorce# which they e3pect him to permit.
Analysis
2n this section# Tolstoy uses the dinner party discussion of local politics to e3plore the notion of social
commitment. >rons)y comes across as high4minded in his elo:uent assertion that ?ussian no(les must serve
their governmental duties# affirming a vital political and social role for the aristocracy. ;ut his praise of social
duty may (e hollow# an idea put forth for show (ut lac)ing su(stance0ust li)e >rons)ys state4of4the4art
hospital# which seems to have (een constructed more with the aim of (eing an architectural wonder than a
practical facility. >rons)y may feel lofty social sentiments# (ut we trust evin more# understanding his
complaints that the local courts are (ureaucratic and inefficient. evin has had more hands4on political
e3perience than >rons)y# having served on a !emstvo# so we give his cynicism a(out ?ussian local politics
more weight. Moreover# the local elections at 7ashin ma)e us feel the futility of local social institutions even
more sharply. Despite all the fanfare# most local landowners appear to agree that the vote is meaningless. 9ll the
(luster and attention leads to nothing of importance. 9s >rons)y figures large in the elections# we may associate
this empty (luster with his character.
Tolstoys (rand of feminism# in the sense of attention to the political and social oppression of the women of his
era# is strongly evident in these chapters# (eginning with the unforgetta(le portrait of Dolly meeting the happy
9nna on horse(ac). 9t the time# as the narrator hints# it was almost scandalous for a grown woman to ride on
horse(ac). Tolstoy thus purposely portrays 9nna in a radically unconventional pose. The sym(olic contrast with
,F
Dolly is noticea(le. 8e note that Dollys 0ourney to 9nnas house is ena(led entirely (y men1 Dolly is
transported (y a male driver# on horses (orrowed from another man# evin. 9nna# on the other hand# is in
control of her own movement# guiding the horse directly. 8hen Dolly compares herself to 9nna immediately
upon meeting her# noting the differences in the aging of their faces# we feel that Dolly is already envious of
9nnas independence and its (enefits. Get Tolstoy reminds us that 9nnas independence is far from complete#
noting how she fumes over the fact that >rons)y en0oys far greater rights than she. >rons)y can travel at will#
while she is stuc) at home. Sym(olically# 9nna is on the road to womens emancipation (ut has not yet arrived.
Tolstoys treatment of motherhood here may indicate the limitations of his feminist sympathies. 9s 9nna
pursues her freedom# Tolstoy deprives her of a maternal rolenot only does she lose custody of Seryo!ha and
feel am(ivalence toward her (a(y girl# (ut her illness also leaves her una(le to have any more children. Some
readers feel that Tolstoy demonstrates an old4fashioned se3ism in insisting that an independent woman
automatically (ecomes (oth infertile and a (ad mother. ;ut we should not necessarily la(el Tolstoy a
misogynist. The se3ist ideas that appear heresuch as Dollys idea that 9nna will (e una(le to )eep >rons)y
after her (eauty fades# which e:uates a womans desira(ility only with her physical appearanceare not
necessarily Tolstoys. The author may circulate ideas that provo)e dissent and reflection in the reader without
agreeing with them himself. 2n any case# we must e3ercise caution in assessing Tolstoys views toward women.
P9?T J cap + T +-
Summary
2n Moscow# evin and 7itty await the (irth of their child. 7itty notes how an3ious and wary evin is in the city
compared to the countryside. /e disli)es the mens clu( and its attendant sociali!ing (ut has few other ways to
pass the time. 2n her condition# 7itty rarely goes out. 5n one occasion# however# she does leave the house and
encounters >rons)y# whom she addresses calmly# pleased at her a(ility to master her former romantic feelings
for him.
evin is uncomforta(ly aware of the e3penses of city life# noting that the cost of his city servants uniforms
could pay for two summer wor)ers on his farm. /e meets the scholars 7atavasov and Metrov and discusses his
(oo) on ?ussian agriculture with them. Metrov is agreea(le (ut understands agricultural issues solely in terms
of 69P2T9 and wages# ignoring the cultural factors that are central to evins thin)ing. evin concludes that
intellectual advancement can come only from each scholar following his own ideas to the end. /e leaves to visit
vov# the diplomat hus(and of 7ittys sister Natalie. vov complains a(out the studying re:uired to )eep up
with his childrens education# which he supervises.
evin then goes to a concert and hears an orchestral piece (ased on Sha)espeares 7ing ear. evin disli)es the
pieces random connection of disparate moods# and the audiences enthusiastic applause perple3es him. ater# at
a reception# evin discusses a recently concluded trial and finds himself repeating words that he heard someone
else say the day (efore. Then evin goes to the clu(# where he en0oys lewd and drun)en conversation with
Stiva# >rons)y# and others# laughing so loudly that others turn to loo). evin decides he li)es >rons)y. Stiva
as)s evin whether he li)es the gentlemens clu(their temple of idleness"and notes how la!y some of the
mem(ers are. evin gam(les and loses forty ru(les. Stiva suddenly proposes a surprise visit to 9nna# whom
evin has never met. evin agrees. Stiva e3plains 9nnas loneliness in Moscow# saying that she passes her time
writing a childrens (oo) and assisting in the education of the daughter of an impoverished =nglish family.
Stiva and evin reach 9nnas home# where evin immediately notices Mi)hailovs portrait of her. 9nna delights
evin with her sincerity# (eauty# and intelligence. The two discuss a variety of topics in an easy and familiar
way# and evin is ama!ed (y 9nnas grace and facility in conversation. evin as)s why 9nna supports the
=nglish girl (ut not ?ussian schoolchildren. 9nna replies that she only loves this particular girl# and love is
paramount. 5n parting# 9nna tells evin that she does not wish 7itty to forgive her# for forgiveness would (e
possi(le only if 7itty were to live through the same nightmare 9nna has e3perienced. evin (lushes and agrees
to tell 7itty.
evin returns home# aware of his fascination with and attraction to 9nna. /e tells 7itty he has met 9nna# and
7itty 0ealously provo)es a :uarrel. Meanwhile# 9nna# alone# wonders why >rons)y is colder to her than evin.
,,
8hen >rons)y returns# she chastises him for preferring his male friends to her. >rons)y notes the clear hostility
in her tone. 9nna spea)s vaguely and ominously a(out a disaster she is nearing and a(out her fear of herself.
Surprising even himself# evin grows accustomed to his e3pensive and superficial city life. 5ne night# 7itty
awa)ens him with news that her la(or has (egun. evin is da!ed# aware only of her suffering and the need to
alleviate it. /e pic)s up the doctor# frustrated (y delays. During the long la(or# evin (ecomes convinced that
7itty will die during child(irth. 8hen the doctor announces that the (irth has ta)en place# evin can hardly
(elieve he has a son. 7itty is fine# (ut the sight of the red# shrie)ing infant ma)es evin feel a (i!arre mi3 of
pity and revulsion.
Analysis
The meeting (etween 9nna and evin is a )ey structural point in the novel# as the parallel story lines converge
and the two most emotionally intense characters in the wor) finally come face to face. ost in the immensity of
Tolstoys novel# we may not even initially reali!e that this is the first time the two protagonists meet. Postponed
for so long# the encounter ac:uires sym(olic importance. The result is harmonious# as evin and 9nna li)e each
other and connect easily. 2ndeed# it is hard to avoid speculating on what a marriage (etween 9nna and evin
might have (een li)e. ;eyond a physical attraction# they seem to share a social and spiritual connection. The
fre:uently aw)ward evin has no difficulty conversing with 9nna# and he never finds her artificial# as he finds
many others. evins awareness that in 9nna there is truth#" as he calls it# highlights the dogged search for
sincerity that (oth these protagonists have led throughout the novel. evin )nows he is (esotted with 9nna# as
his reflections on the way home ma)e clear. Moreover# 7ittys 0ealousy of 9nna hints that she feels evins
infatuation too. 5f course# nothing comes of this interaction (etween 9nna and evin. The meeting simply
invites us to compare their characters directly and to note the affinities (etween their respective searches for
truth.
These chapters also give us a glimpse into 9nnas increasingly strange and unsta(le mindset as she (egins to
slip into suicidal feelings. She is clearly tormented# yet it is stri)ing how little o(0ective cause for torment there
is. To (e sure# 9nnas social life is no (ed of roses# (ut earlier we see her radiantly happy in her outsider status
when Dolly meets her on horse(ac). 9nna (lames >rons)y for coldness toward her# yet >rons)ys readiness to
adapt to her plans and his promptness in answering her telegrams hardly appear coldhearted. She reproaches
>rons)y for spending time with his male friends# (ut his sociali!ing does not appear e3cessive. 2t would surely
(e unreasona(le for her to e3pect >rons)y to spend every wa)ing moment with her. 2ndeed# 9nna admits in her
apologetic note that her accusations are unfair. Get we should not 0udge 9nna too harshlyA for it seems cruel to
accuse her of ma)ing it all up# hysterically inventing reasons to (e anguished. /er need for love at this time in
her lifehaving a(andoned son# hus(and# friends# and societyis overwhelming. 9s she repeatedly tells
>rons)y# love is all she has left. 8e may feel that nothing is o(0ectively wrong in 9nnas life# (ut for her#
su(0ective feelings of love are more important than o(0ective physical well4(eing.
7ing ear on the /eath# the fictional musical fantasia that evin hears performed# is (ased on Sha)espeares
great tragedy a(out isolation and mistrusted love# in which the hero# ear# spends an anguished night on the
moors confronting his own madness. ear ends up alienated from othersan alienation that we see mirrored in
(oth evins and 9nnas e3periences. ;oth evin and 9nna see) peace of mind in the country# yet (oth are
disappointed when they withdraw into solitude only to discover their private demonsevins dissatisfaction
with his unproductive life and 9nnas furiously 0ealous fits. Moreover# ears re0ection of the love of his
affectionate daughter 6ordelia reminds us of 9nnas forthcoming re0ection of >rons)ys love. 2n (oth 9nnas
and ears stories# a powerful emotion is the turning point of the plot. The reference to 7ing ear reminds us of
the intensely su(0ective focus of 9nna 7arenina. The status of Tolstoys novel as a realist wor) full of historical
references sometimes threatens to o(scure the fact that it is centrally a(out the human heart. 8hile social
themes are clearly present# 9nna 7arenina is anchored in the psychological states of its main protagonists# and
the way they perceive reality colors the entire sweep of the novel.
Part J cap +J4C+
The 5(lons)ys finances worsen# and Dolly demands control over her portion of their fortune. The family does
not have enough M5N=G to pay the (ills. Stiva resolves to get a cushy appointment on a railroad commission.
/e goes to St. Peters(urg to spea)s to 7arenin a(out the 0o(# as well as a(out his sister# 9nna. 7arenin claims
,-
that 9nnas life no longer interests him (ut promises to give Stiva a definitive answer a(out the divorce the ne3t
day. 5n his way out# Stiva meets Seryo!ha# who is now an older school(oy who claims not to remem(er his
mother. Stiva then visits ;etsy Tvers)aya and tal)s to the freethin)ing Princess Miag)y. The latter calls 7arenin
stupid# saying he has (ecome a follower of a famous <rench psychic named andau.
Stiva visits ydia 2vanovna and meets 7arenin and andau. Stiva tries to tal) a(out 9nna# (ut ydia will tal)
only of religion. They discuss theology at length. ydia (elieves that man is saved (y faith alonenot# as Stiva
(elieves# through good deeds. 8hen ydia reads aloud from a religious tract# Stiva and andau fall into a
slum(er. Stiva awa)ens to hear andauwho is allegedly tal)ing in his sleeptell an unidentified woman to
leave the room. The ne3t day# 7arenin informs Stiva that he has decided# (ased on andaus dream speech# to
refuse 9nnas re:uest for a divorce.
9nna and >rons)y continue to reside in Moscow# though their relationship is tense and unhappy. 9nna is deeply
0ealous and paranoid# feeling that >rons)y no longer loves her and ma)ing unfounded assertions that he must (e
involved with another woman. 9nna )nows she is (eing unfair (ut cannot control her emotions. She and
>rons)y argue a(out womens rights and womens education# which he dismisses. >rons)y tries to hide Stivas
telegram informing him that 7arenin will not grant a divorce# (ut 9nna demands to )now 7arenins decision
and says she accepts it.
9nna decides that she and >rons)y must go to the country immediately. >rons)y agrees to go (ut says he must
finish some (usiness with his mother first. 9nna demands that he go now or not at all# and she even slights
>rons)ys mother. >rons)y as)s 9nna to respect his mother# (ut 9nna critici!es the whole idea of respect#
calling it a replacement for love. 9nna (ecomes more misera(le# and >rons)ys attempts to appease her fail. <or
the first time ever# they :uarrel for an entire day. 9nna is convinced their relationship is over# and she falls into
despair. >rons)y departs to visit his mother.
9fter >rons)y leaves for the train station# 9nna regrets her unfair treatment of him and sends an apologetic note
as)ing to spea) to him. She reflects that she wants only to live and that she )nows they love each other deeply.
ater# 9nna sends >rons)y a telegram re:uesting he return immediately.
?estless# and not having received a response# 9nna drives to Dollys to say farewell. 7itty hesitates to greet
9nna (ut finally emerges and feels sympathy for her. 9nna drives home# reflecting on the fact that all humans
hate one another. She receives a curt telegram from >rons)y saying he cannot return (efore ten ocloc). 9nna
grows furious# interpreting the reply as a cold dismissal. She resolves to go meet >rons)y at the station.
No# youre going in vain. . . . Gou wont get away from yourselves."
%See 2mportant Vuotations =3plained'
5n the way# 9nna reflects on the Moscow cityscape and on the fact that >rons)ys love has faded. She thin)s he
feels only dutynot lovetoward her. 9t the station# 9nna feels disoriented# focusing on the fa)eness of the
people in the crowd and hardly )nowing why she is there or what destination to re:uest. She (oards the train
and despises the artificiality of her fellow passengers.
Stepping off the train as it stops at 5(iralov)a# 9nna wal)s along the platform in a despairing da!e# finally
resolving to throw herself under an approaching train in order to punish >rons)y and (e rid of every(ody and
of herself." 9 train approaches# and 9nna impulsively throws herself under the wheels# (egging $od for
forgiveness and feeling a pang of confusion and regret when it is too late. The candle of her life is e3tinguished.
Analysis
The surprising revelation that 7areninseemingly the most rational of peopleis under the sway of a <rench
psychic forces us to reassess his character. /is slide from a responsi(le and powerful government minister to a
lonely and confused man with a stalled career proceeds with startling rapidity. 8e see the e3tent of 7arenins
fall in the ridiculous scene in which he goes to sleep under andaus influence. The very man who epitomi!es
rationalism and normalcy early in the novel is now guided (y the flighty comments of a man who is li)ely a
complete scam. Tolstoy highlights the <rench nationality of the psychic and has him deliver his odd prophecies
in <rench %even within the original ?ussian te3t'gestures that po)e fun at the <rench cultural tradition# which
prides itself on (eing rational. Tolstoy suggests that an e3cessive cult of reason in any culture may (e 0ust as
misguided as the most outrageous occultism. ;oth e3tremes are opposed to the grounded e3perience of life
from which evin learns. evin devotes himself simply to his wish to live life# rather than to visionary or
,J
mathematical theories of e3istence. 6onse:uently# Tolstoy implies# evin succeeds where others P?5D*6=
empty phrases andli)e 7arenin in the endlead empty lives.
Tolstoys (rilliance as a literary psychologist is evident in the last and (iggest of the :uarrels that plague 9nna
and >rons)ys relationship. 2n literal terms# 9nnas anger ma)es no sense. >rons)y has shown himself to (e
agreea(ly fle3i(le in assenting to 9nnas travel plans# only re:uesting that they leave a (it later so he can finish
some transactions for his mother. 9nna e3plodes in response to this seemingly reasona(le re:uest. /er out(urst
is not logical (ut suggests something deeper happening in her psyche. 9nnas fury at >rons)ys mother and her
resentment at his re:uest that she respect" 6ountess >rons)y stem from 9nnas criticism of the very notion of
respect. She ma)es this criticism e3plicit when she says that respect is a poor su(stitute for love. 2t is li)ely that
9nna (riefly identifies with the 6ountess as a recipient of >rons)ys dutiful respect rather than his passionate
love. 8hat 9nna fears more than anything is what she a(horred in 7areninthat >rons)y feels duty toward her
(ut nothing more.
9nnas death scene is 0ustifia(ly considered one of the greatest of Tolstoys achievements in the novel# and in
?ussian literature as a whole. /er suicide is not merely the end of her life (ut also its summation1 she acts
independently and alone# and she see)s to escape the falsity of the people around her# 0ust as she did in life. Get
9nna is not a diva in death# any more than she was in life. She does not pity herself or appeal to the sympathy of
the crowdA she does not care a(out what other people thin) of her. 9nna does not fancy herself superior to
anyone (ut rather includes herself in the group of people that she wishes to get rid ofshe escapes not 0ust the
world (ut 9nna 7arenina as well. Tolstoys portrayal of 9nnas final minutes is filled not with the wrath and
vengeance that the novels epigraph foretells (ut rather with great tenderness. /is description of 9nnas life as a
candle (eing illuminated and then snuffed out forever e:uates her life with light and truth. Tolstoy pays a :uiet
tri(ute to this character of whom he disapproves (ut whom he loves nonetheless.
Part K
Two months pass after 9nnas death. Sergei 7o!nyshevs (oo) on statehood in ?ussia and =urope# on which he
spent si3 years of wor)# is pu(lished to virtually no pu(lic recognition. Sergei tries to forget his failure (y
focusing his attention on the movement to li(erate the Ser(s# Montenegrins# and other Slavic groups from the
Muslim rule of Tur)eya cause that seemingly occupies the whole ?ussian nation.
Sergei and 7atavasov accompany a large num(er of ?ussian volunteers who are traveling to occupied Ser(ia to
offer military support to the Slavs. 9 (ystander affirms that >rons)y is among the volunteers# and that he has
even outfitted a s:uadron at his own e3pense. Stiva appears from the crowd and greets Sergei. $od Save the
Tsar" resounds from the patriotic crowd. Sergei meets >rons)ys mother# who is accompanying her son. The
6ountess >rons)y insults the dead 9nna as mean and low" and says that 7arenin has ta)en custody of 9nnas
young daughter. <inally# Sergei spea)s to >rons)y# who is ready and willing to die for the Slavic cause# as
nothing in life has value for him now.
Sergei and 7atavasov visit evins estate. 7itty greets them and feeds her infant son# Mitya# while waiting for
evin to come home. She is glad evin has visitors# for she has (een worrying a(out his gloomy mood# which
she attri(utes to his lac) of religious faith. evin has (een more focused on philosophical :uestions ever since
marriage and fatherhood# searching for the meaning of life. /e has read the classics of philosophical idealism#
see)ing a non4materialist answer to his :uestion. *na(le to find any# he has flirted with suicide. 8hen evin
stops thin)ing and simply lives# he finds himself happy.
The day Sergei arrives# evin is tormented (y seeing his peasant wor)ers and imagining them dead and
forgotten in a few years. evin spea)s to a peasant# <yodor# a(out a local inn)eeper who rents some near(y
farmland. <yodor e3plains that the inn)eeper lives only for his (elly# unli)e many who live for $od and
goodness.
<yodors words galvani!e evin. /e recogni!es that living for $od and goodness is the answer to his :uestions
a(out the meaning of life. /e feels freed from lifes deceptions. iving for oneself and aiming only to satisfy
ones own desires is childish# as evin notes when he catches his children (ehaving mischievously. ife is good#
whereas thin)ing is (ad. The s)y is not infinite (ut a vault overhead# however irrational that may (e.
ying on his (ac) in a field# ga!ing up at the s)y# evin )nows he has found faith and than)s $od for it. /e
resolves never to allow :uarrels or estrangement to divide him from other people. Iust a few minutes later#
,K
however# evin argues with his driver on the way (ac) home after meeting Sergei and 7atavasov. evin feels
self4critical (ut )nows that his faith will survive despite his little moral failures. 9t home# he meets Dolly and
her children# tells her the news a(out >rons)ys departure with the volunteers# and ta)es everyone on a picnic.
Discussing the Slavic cause with Sergei# evin states his opposition to the war and e3presses s)epticism a(out
the ?ussian people (eing unanimously (ehind it. /e tries to argue (ut reali!es he is helpless against the wits of
the more intellectual Sergei and 7atavasov.
9 sudden# violent thunderstorm overta)es the picnic)ers# who run for the house. evin learns that 7itty and
Mitya are not inside# as he (elieved# (ut are still out in the woods. Seeing a giant oa) toppling over near where
7itty and the child were sitting# he fears they have (een )illed (ut runs to them and finds them safe. evin
reali!es the e3tent of his love for his son# and 7itty is grateful that he finally feels paternal emotions. <eeling
another surge of faith# evin contemplates telling 7itty of his newfound spirituality (ut decides not to#
concluding that faith is private and ine3pressi(le. /e feels once again that the meaning of life lies in the
goodness that one puts into it.
Analysis
Tolstoys decision to end the novel with evins religious regeneration# rather than with 9nnas demise#
perple3es many readers who e3pect the novel to (e first and foremost a(out 9nna and her tragedy. The ending
shows us yet again that 9nna 7arenina is a novel of ideas# rather than merely a tragic love story. The final
chapters recounting evins thoughts and feelings as he discovers the meaning of life are more a(stract than any
other part of the novel# and some paragraphs read li)e a philosophy treatise. The result is stri)ing1 9nna is
hardly mentioned in the last part of the novel that (ears her name. 9s Tolstoy clearly intends this omission# we
must conclude that he means us to forget or (ypass 9nnas lifeat least in partin the conte3t of the novels
search for higher meaning. 8hen evin comes to re0ect a life lived simply to satisfy ones own desires# he does
not mention 9nna# (ut we inevita(ly thin) of her. Tolstoy invites us to thin) that 9nna# li)e Stiva and Dollys
naughty children who destroy things in pursuit of pleasure# has pursued her passion selfishly and destructively.
9nna is the negative e3ample of what evin positively illustratesthe a(ility to live ones life in commitment
to something higher than oneself.
The :uestion of the meaning of life confronts not only evin# (ut Sergei and >rons)y as well# and the latter two
men come up with :uite different answers to the :uestion than evin does. >rons)ys response is the simpler of
the two1 he concludes that life has no meaning whatsoevera notion that evin fleetingly em(races during his
thoughts of suicide. 2ronically# this pessimistic idea fuels >rons)ys courageous show of valor in traveling to
fight in the Ser(ian war. >rons)y fran)ly informs Sergei that the prospect of losing ones life is easy to accept
when nothing in life has value. Sergeis conclusion is more comple3. /aving tried and failed to ac:uire meaning
through intellectual achievement# Sergei mas)s his private disappointment (y throwing himself into a pu(lic#
patriotic cause. Sergei is not e3actly insincere in supporting the Ser(ians# (ut his fervor appears shallow#
especially when evin cross4e3amines him on whether the newspapers have sensationali!ed the Ser(ian affair
to (oost their circulation. Sergei tries to connect with something larger than himself (ut does so in the wrong
way. The humans for whom he cares are a(stract# not real. i)e >rons)y# Sergei is una(le to find good in actual
relationships with living humans.
Some feminist critics feel that 9nna 7arenina# though it fre:uently presents the issue of womens rights with
sympathy and fairness# (etrays a misogynistic strea) at the end. Tolstoys parallel plot device disappears as the
female story line vanishes9nna is hardly mentionedleaving the male evin the star of the show. /is
reproach to 7itty for ta)ing the (a(y to the woods against his orders suggests that father )nows (est# not
mother. i)ewise# evin e3periences religious enlightenment (ut decides not to share it with his wife on the
grounds that she would not understand it. No woman in the novel has any grand philosophical illuminationA they
simply have children and (usy themselves with domestic concerns. =ven 9nnas rich e3perience seems
dismissed at the end of the novel. 9ll the compassion with which Tolstoy has represented the comple3ity of
9nnas situation goes up in smo)e when 6ountess >rons)y is given the last word# calling 9nna lowly and mean.
8e )now the 6ountess is wrong# aware of 9nnas high4mindedness and no(ility# yet no(ody in the novel
defends 9nna or refutes the 6ountess. 2n the end# it is as if Tolstoy condemns the female right to see) passion
and autonomyeven after leading us to support 9nnas claim to that right.
,M
<* T2T= P 9nna 7arenina
9*T/5? P ev %eo' Ni)olaevich Tolstoy
TGP= 5< 85?7 P Novel
$=N?= P Novel of ideasA psychological novelA tragedy
9N$*9$= P ?ussian
T2M= 9ND P96= 8?2TT=N P +KJCT+KJJA the estate of Gasnaya Polyana# near Moscow
D9T= 5< <2?ST P*;269T25N P +KJCT+KJJ %serial pu(lication'
P*;2S/=? P M. N. 7at)ov
N9??9T5? P Tolstoy uses an unnamed# omniscient# detached# third4person narrator
P52NT 5< >2=8 P The nameless narrator of the novel presents (oth facts and inner thoughts of characters that
no single character in the plot could )now. 6hiefly with regard to 9nna and evin# (ut occasionally to others as
well# the narrator descri(es characters states of mind# feelings# and attitudes. <or a lengthy section at the end of
Part Seven# the narrator enters directly into 9nnas mind.
T5N= P 9s in many realist novels of the same time period# the narrator maintains an impersonal (ut
sympathetic tone# focusing on (oth facts and feelings (ut without authorial commentaries on the fates of
characters. *nli)e 8ar and Peaceand some of Tolstoys other earlier novels# 9nna 7arenina does not include
e3plicit philosophical generali!ations# e3cept in the opening sentence of the novel.
T=NS= P Past
S=TT2N$ %T2M=' P The +KJNs
S=TT2N$ %P96=' P >arious locations throughout ?ussia# including Moscow# St. Peters(urg# and the ?ussian
provinces# with (rief interludes in $ermany and 2taly
P?5T9$5N2STS P 9nna 7areninaA 7onstantin evin
M9I5? 65N<26T P 9nna struggles (etween her passion for >rons)y and her desire for independence on the
one hand# and her marital duty# social convention# and maternal love on the otherA evin struggles to define his
own identity and reach an understanding of faith in an alienating and confusing world
?2S2N$ 96T25N P 9nna meets >rons)y in the train station# initiating an ac:uaintance that grows into
adulterous passion and family upheavalA their consummation of the affair leads to 9nnas a(andonment of her
hus(and and son. Meanwhile# 7itty re(uffs evins marriage proposal# prompting him to withdraw to his estate
in the country and reflect on the meaning of life.
62M9& P 9nna ma)es a pu(lic appearance at the opera# forcing a confrontation (etween her desire to live life
on her own terms and the hostile opinions of St. Peters(urg society# which scorns and re0ects herA this episode
seals her fate as a social outcast and fallen woman. Meanwhile# evins search for meaning is rewarded (y
marriage to 7itty# sta(le family life# and an understanding of faith.
<92N$ 96T25N P 9nna commits suicide# una(le to (ear her lac) of social freedom and the 0ealousy and
suspicion arising from her unsta(le relationship with >rons)y. Meanwhile# evin continues his new life as
enlightened hus(and# father# and landowner.
T/=M=S P Social change in nineteenth4century ?ussiaA the (lessings of family lifeA the philosophical value of
farming
M5T2<S P The interior monologueA adulteryA forgiveness
SGM;5S P TrainsA >rons)ys racehorseA evin and 7ittys marriage
<5?=S/9D582N$ P 9 man dies at the train station when 9nna first arrives# foreshadowing her own death at
a train station years laterA >rons)ys actions cause the fall and death of his horse <rou4<rou# foreshadowing the
later death of his (eloved 9nna.
To the lighthouse
>irginia 8oolf was (orn on Ianuary @,# +KK@# a descendant of one of >ictorian =nglands most prestigious
literary families. /er father# Sir eslie Stephen# was the editor of the Dictionary of National ;iography and was
married to the daughter of the writer 8illiam Thac)eray. 8oolf grew up among the most important and
influential ;ritish intellectuals of her time# and received free rein to e3plore her fathers li(rary. /er personal
connections and a(undant talent soon opened doors for her. 8oolf wrote that she found herself in a position
-N
where it was easier on the whole to (e eminent than o(scure." 9lmost from the (eginning# her life was a
precarious (alance of e3traordinary success and mental insta(ility.

9s a young woman# 8oolf wrote for the prestigious Times iterary Supplement# and as an adult she :uic)ly
found herself at the center of =nglands most important literary community. 7nown as the ;looms(ury $roup"
after the section of ondon in which its mem(ers lived# this group of writers# artists# and philosophers
emphasi!ed nonconformity# aesthetic pleasure# and intellectual freedom# and included such luminaries as the
painter ytton Strachey# the novelist =. M. <orster# the composer ;en0amin ;ritten# and the economist Iohn
Maynard 7eynes. 8or)ing among such an inspirational group of peers and possessing an incredi(le talent in
her own right# 8oolf pu(lished her most famous novels (y the mid4+M@Ns# including The >oyage 5ut# Mrs.
Dalloway# 5rlando# and To the ighthouse. 8ith these wor)s she reached the pinnacle of her profession.
8oolfs life was e:ually dominated (y mental illness. /er parents died when she was youngher mother in
+KM, and her father in +MNFand she was prone to intense# terri(le headaches and emotional (rea)downs. 9fter
her fathers death# she attempted suicide# throwing herself out a window. Though she married eonard 8oolf in
+M+@ and loved him deeply# she was not entirely satisfied romantically or se3ually. <or years she sustained an
intimate relationship with the novelist >ita Sac)ville48est. ate in life# 8oolf (ecame terrified (y the idea that
another nervous (rea)down was close at hand# one from which she would not recover. 5n March @K# +MF+# she
wrote her hus(and a note stating that she did not wish to spoil his life (y going mad. She then drowned herself
in the ?iver 5use.
8oolfs writing (ears the mar) of her literary pedigree as well as her struggle to find meaning in her own
unsteady e3istence. 8ritten in a poised# understated# and elegant style# her wor) e3amines the structures of
human life# from the nature of relationships to the e3perience of time. Get her writing also addresses issues
relevant to her era and literary circle. Throughout her wor) she cele(rates and analy!es the ;looms(ury values
of aestheticism# feminism# and independence. Moreover# her stream4of4consciousness style was influenced (y#
and responded to# the wor) of the <rench thin)er /enri ;ergson and the novelists Marcel Proust and Iames
Ioyce.
This style allows the su(0ective mental processes of 8oolfs characters to determine the o(0ective content of her
narrative. 2n To the ighthouse %+M@J'# one of her most e3perimental wor)s# the passage of time# for e3ample# is
modulated (y the consciousness of the characters rather than (y the cloc). The events of a single afternoon
constitute over half the (oo)# while the events of the following ten years are compressed into a few do!en
pages. Many readers of To the ighthouse# especially those who are not versed in the traditions of modernist
fiction# find the novel strange and difficult. 2ts language is dense and the structure amorphous. 6ompared with
the plot4driven >ictorian novels that came (efore it# To the ighthouse seems to have little in the way of action.
2ndeed# almost all of the events ta)e place in the characters minds.
9lthough To the ighthouse is a radical departure from the nineteenth4century novel# it is# li)e its more
traditional counterparts# intimately interested in developing characters and advancing (oth plot and themes.
8oolfs e3perimentation has much to do with the time in which she lived1 the turn of the century was mar)ed
(y (old scientific developments. 6harles Darwins theory of evolution undermined an un:uestioned faith in
$od that was# until that point# nearly universal# while the rise of psychoanalysis# a movement led (y Sigmund
<reud# introduced the idea of an unconscious mind. Such innovation in ways of scientific thin)ing had great
influence on the styles and concerns of contemporary artists and writers li)e those in the ;looms(ury $roup. To
the ighthouse e3emplifies 8oolfs style and many of her concerns as a novelist. 8ith its characters (ased on
her own parents and si(lings# it is certainly her most auto(iographical fictional statement# and in the characters
of Mr. ?amsay# Mrs. ?amsay# and ily ;riscoe# 8oolf offers some of her most penetrating e3plorations of the
wor)ings of the human consciousness as it perceives and analy!es# feels and interacts.
-+
The 8indow1 6hapters 2T2>
W
Summary1 6hapter 2
Mr. and Mrs. ?amsay are staying at their summerhouse in the /e(rides with their eight children and several
houseguests. Iames# the ?amsays youngest child# sits on the floor carefully cutting out pictures from the 9rmy
and Navy Stores catalogue. Mrs. ?amsay assures Iames he will (e a(le to visit the near(y lighthouse the
following day if weather permits# (ut Mr. ?amsay inter0ects that the weather will not allow it. Si34year4old
Iames feels a murderous rage against his father for ridiculing his mother# whom Iames considers ten thousand
times (etter in every way." Mrs. ?amsay tries to assure Iames that the weather may well (e fine# (ut 6harles
Tansley# a stiff intellectual who greatly respects Mr. ?amsay# disagrees.
Tansleys insensitivity toward Iames irritates Mrs. ?amsay# (ut she tries to act warmly toward her male
houseguests# for(idding her irreverent daughters to moc) Tansley. 9fter lunch# Mrs. ?amsay invites Tansley to
accompany her on an errand into town# and he accepts. 5n their way out# she stops to as) 9ugustus 6armichael#
an elderly poet also staying with the ?amsays# if he needs anything# (ut he responds that he does not. 5n the
way into town# Mrs. ?amsay tells 6armichaels story. /e was once a promising poet and intellectual# (ut he
made an unfortunate marriage. Mrs. ?amsays confidence flatters Tansley# and he ram(les incessantly a(out his
wor).
The two pass a sign advertising a circus# and Mrs. ?amsay suggests that they all go. /esitant# Tansley e3plains
to Mrs. ?amsay that# having grown up in an impoverished family# he was never ta)en to a circus. Mrs. ?amsay
reflects that Tansley har(ors a deep insecurity regarding his hum(le (ac)ground and that this insecurity causes
much of his unpleasantness. She now feels more )indly toward him# though his self4centered tal) continues to
(ore her. Tansley# however# thin)s that Mrs. ?amsay is the most (eautiful woman he has ever seen. i)e most of
her male guests# he is a little in love with her. =ven the chance to carry her (ag thrills him.
Summary1 6hapter 22
ater that evening# Tansley loo)s out the window and announces gently# for Mrs. ?amsays sa)e# that there will
(e no trip to the lighthouse tomorrow. Mrs. ?amsay finds him tedious and annoying.
Summary1 6hapter 222
Mrs. ?amsay comforts Iames# telling him that the sun may well shine in the morning. She listens to the men
tal)ing outside# (ut when their conversation stops# she receives a sudden shoc) from the sound of the waves
rolling against the shore. Normally the waves seem to steady and support her# (ut occasionally they ma)e her
thin) of destruction# death# and the passage of time. The sound of her hus(and reciting to himself 9lfred# ord
Tennysons poem The 6harge of the ight ;rigade" returns to her the sense that all is right with the world. She
notices ily ;riscoe painting on the edge of the lawn and remem(ers that she is supposed to )eep her head still
for ily# who is painting her portrait.
Summary1 6hapter 2>
9s Mr. ?amsay passes ily on the grass# he nearly tips over her easel. ilys old friend 8illiam ;an)es# who
rents a room near hers in the village# 0oins her on the grass. Sensing that they have somehow intruded on their
hosts privacy# ily and ;an)es are (oth slightly unnerved (y the sight of Mr. ?amsay thundering a(out tal)ing
to himself. ily struggles to capture her vision on canvas# a pro0ect# she reflects# that )eeps her from declaring
outright her love for Mrs. ?amsay# the house# and the entire scene.
;an)es# who once en0oyed an intimate relationship with Mr. ?amsay# now feels somewhat removed from him.
/e cannot understand why Mr. ?amsay needs so much attention and praise. ;an)es critici!es this facet of
?amsays personality# (ut ily reminds him of the importance of Mr. ?amsays wor). ily has never :uite
grasped the content of Mr. ?amsays philosophy# although 9ndrew# the ?amsays oldest son# once helpfully
li)ened his fathers wor) on the nature of reality" to thin)ing a(out a )itchen ta(le when one is not there. ily
finds Mr. ?amsay at once otherworldly and ridiculous. 8hen Mr. ?amsay reali!es that ily and ;an)es have
(een watching him# he is em(arrassed to have (een caught acting out the poem so theatrically# (ut he stifles his
em(arrassment and pretends to (e unruffled.
-@
9nalysisThe 8indow1 6hapters 2T2>
>irginia 8oolf read the wor) of Sigmund <reud# whose revolutionary model of human psychology e3plored the
unconscious mind and raised :uestions regarding internal versus e3ternal realities. 8oolf opens To the
ighthouse (y dramati!ing one of <reuds more popular theories# the 5edipal conflict. <reud turned to the
ancient $ree) story of 5edipus# who inadvertently )ills his father and marries his mother# to structure his
thoughts on (oth family dynamics and male se3ual development. 9ccording to <reud# young (oys tend to
demand and monopoli!e their mothers love at the ris) of incurring the 0ealousy and wrath of their fathers.
;etween young Iames ?amsay and his parents# we see a similar triangle formed1 Iames adores his mother as
completely as he resents his father. 8oolfs gesture to <reud testifies to the radical nature of her pro0ect. 9s
much a visionary as <reud# 8oolf set out to write a novel that mapped the psychological unconscious. 2nstead of
chronicling the many things characters say and do to one another# she concentrated on the innumera(le things
that e3ist (eneath the surface of speech and action.
9chieving this goal re:uired the development of an innovative method of writing that came to (e )nown as
stream of consciousness# which charts the interior thoughts# perceptions# and feelings of one or more characters.
9lthough interior monologue is another term often used to refer to this techni:ue# an important difference e3ists
(etween the two. 8hile (oth stream of consciousness and interior monologue descri(e a characters interior life#
the latter does so (y using the characters grammar and synta3. 2n other words# the characters thoughts are
transcri(ed directly# without an authorial voice acting as mediator. 8oolf does not ma)e use of interior
monologueA throughout To the ighthouse# she maintains a voice distinct and distant from those of her
characters. The pattern of young Iamess mind# for instance# is descri(ed in the same lush language as that of his
mother and father. 2t is more apt to say# then# that the novel is a(out the stream of human consciousnessthe
comple3 connection (etween feelings and memoriesrather than a literary representation of it.
Through these forays into each characters mind# 8oolf e3plores the different ways in which individuals search
for and create meaning in their own e3perience. She strives to e3press how individuals order their perceptions
into a coherent understanding of life. This endeavor (ecomes particularly important in a world in which life no
longer has any inherent meaning. Darwins theory of evolution# pu(lished in +K,M in The 5rigin of
Species# challenged the then universal (elief that human life was divinely inspired and# as such# intrinsically
significant. =ach of the three main characters has a different approach to esta(lishing the worth of his or her life.
Mr. 4?amsay represents an intellectual approachA as a metaphysical phil4osopher# he relies on his wor) to secure
his reputation. Mrs. 4?amsay# devoted to family# friends# and the sanctity of social order# relies on her emotions
rather than her mind to lend lasting meaning to her e3periences. ily# hoping to capture and preserve the truth of
a single instant on canvas# uses her art.
Summary1 6hapter >
9t the house# Mrs. ?amsay inspects the stoc)ing she has (een )nitting for the lighthouse )eepers son# 0ust in
case the weather allows them to go to the lighthouse the ne3t day. Mrs. ?amsay thin)s a(out her children and
her tas)s as a mother. She also recollects her fathers death. Mr. ;an)es reflects upon Mrs. ?amsays (eauty#
which he cannot completely understand. She is# he thin)s# much li)e the walls of the unfinished /5T= he
watches (eing (uilt in (ac) of his home. Mr. ;an)es sees more than aesthetic (eauty in her# the :uivering
thing# the living thing." Mrs. ?amsay goes on )nitting the stoc)ing for the little (oy# and lovingly urges Iames
to cut another picture from the 9rmy and Navy Stores catalogue.
Summary1 6hapter >2

Mr. ?amsay approaches his wife. /e is petulant and needs reassurance after his em(arrassment in front of ily
and ;an)es. 8hen Mrs. ?amsay tells him that she is preparing a stoc)ing for the lighthouse )eepers (oy# Mr.
?amsay (ecomes infuriated (y what he sees as her e3traordinary irrationality. /is sense of safety restored# Mr.
?amsay resumes his strolling on the lawn# giving himself over to the energies of his splendid mind." /e thin)s
to himself that the progress of human thought is analogous to the alpha(eteach successive concept represents
-C
a letter# and every individual struggles in his life to ma)e it through as many letters as he can. Mr. ?amsay
thin)s that he has plodded from 9 to V with great effort (ut feels that ? now eludes him. /e reflects that not
many men can reach even V# and that only one man in the course of a generation can reach H. There are two
types of great thin)ers# he notes1 those who wor) their way from 9 to H diligently# and those few geniuses who
simply arrive at H in a single instant. Mr. ?amsay )nows he does not (elong to the latter type# and resolves %or
hopes' to fight his way to H. Still# he fears that his reputation will fade after his death. /e reminds himself that
all fame is fleeting and that a single stone will outlast Sha)espeare. ;ut he hates to thin) that he has made little
real# lasting difference in the world.
Summary1 6hapter >22
Iames# reading with his mother# senses his fathers presence and hates him. Discerning his fathers need for
sympathy# he wishes his father would leave him alone with his mother. Mr. ?amsay declares himself a failure#
and Mrs. ?amsay# recogni!ing his need to (e assured of his genius# tells him that Tansley considers him the
greatest living philosopher. =ventually# she restores his confidence# and he goes off to watch the children play
cric)et. Mrs. ?amsay returns to the story that she is reading to Iames. 2nwardly# she reflects an3iously that
people o(serving her interactions with Mr. ?amsay might infer that her hus(and depends on her e3cessively and
thin) mista)enly that her contri(utions to the world surpass his. 49ugustus 6armichael shuffles past.
Summary1 6hapter >222
6armichael# an opium addict# ignores Mrs. ?amsay# hurting her feelings and her pride. She reali!es# however#
that her )indness is petty (ecause she e3pects to receive gratitude and admiration from those she treats with
sympathy and generosity. Still trou(led# Mr. ?amsay wanders across the lawn# mulling over the progress and
fate of civili!ation and great men# wondering if the world would (e different if Sha)espeare had never e3isted.
/e (elieves that a slave class" of unadorned# unac)nowledged wor)ers must e3ist for the good of society. The
thought displeases him# and he resolves to argue that the world e3ists for such human (eings# for the men who
operate the ondon su(way rather than for immortal writers.
/e reaches the edge of the lawn and loo)s out at the (ay. 9s the waves wash against the shore# Mr. ?amsay
finds the encroaching waters to (e an apt metaphor for human ignorance# which always seems to eat away what
little is )nown with certainty. /e turns from this depressing thought to stare at the image of his wife and child#
which ma)es him reali!e that he is primarily happy# even though he had not done that thing he might have
done."
9nalysisThe 8indow1 6hapters >T>222
The line of poetry that Mr. ?amsay recites as he (lusters across the lawn is ta)en from Tennysons 6harge of
the ight ;rigade." The poem# which tells of -NN soldiers marching (ravely to their death# ends with the lines
8hen can their glory fadeB
5 the wild charge they madeR
9ll the world wonderd.
/onour the charge they madeR
9 meditation on immortality# the poem captures the tumultuous state of Mr. ?amsays mind and his an3iety
a(out whether he and his wor) will (e remem(ered (y future generations. /ere# Mr. ?amsay emerges as an
uncompromising (ut terri(ly insecure intellectual. /e )nows the world almost e3clusively through words# so he
tries to e3press and mediate his sadness with the lines (y Tennyson. /e yearns for the glory" and the wild
charge" of which the poem spea)s in the form of (rilliant contri(utions to philosophy. 9lthough he
ac)nowledges a more profound truththat in the end no immortality e3ists# and even a stone will outlast a
-F
figure as influential as 48illiam Sha)espeareMr. ?amsay cannot help (ut indulge his need to (e comforted# to
have others assure him of his place in the world and its importance. The posture he assumes as he approaches
his wife in 6hapter >22 is one that he returns to often. 9gain and again# he displays a relentless desire for
sympathy and understanding from her.
Mr. ?amsay is not alone in his need for his wifes affections. Through Mrs. ?amsay# 8oolf suggests that Mr.
?amsays traits (elong to all men. 6harles Tansley e3hi(its similar (ehavior in the opening chapters. /e
navigates the world according to what he has studied and read# and lashes out with the fatal sterility of the
male" for fear that his contri(utions will (e deemed lac)ing. Mrs. ?amsay (elieves such daunted and insecure
(ehavior to (e inevita(le# given the importance of mens concerns and wor). She sees men as well as women
forced into roles that prescri(e their (ehavior. 2n her e3tended sympathy for her hus(and and in her attempts at
matchma)ing# Mrs. ?amsay recogni!es and o(serves these roles while trying to ma)e it less painful for the
people in her life to have to play them. This :uestion of gender roles# which occupies much space in the coming
chapters# is played out most fully in the relationship (etween Mrs. ?amsay and ily ;riscoe. Mrs. ?amsays
maternal and wifely devotion represents the )ind of traditional lifestyle to which ily ;riscoe refuses to
conform.
Mr. ?amsay# who is o(sessed with understanding and advancing the process of human thought# reveals the
novels concern with )nowledge. To the ighthouse as)s how humanity ac:uires )nowledge and :uestions the
scope and validity of that )nowledge. The fact that Mr. ?amsay# who is decidedly one of the eminent
philosophers of his day# dou(ts the solidity of his own thoughts suggests that a purely rational# universally
agreed4upon worldview is an impossi(ility. 2ndeed# one of the effects of 8oolfs narrative method is to suggest
that o(0ective reality does not e3ist. The ever4shifting viewpoints that she employs construct a world in which
reality is merely a collection of su(0ectively determined truths.
Summary1 6hapter 2&
8illiam ;an)es considers Mr. ?amsays (ehavior and concludes that it is a pity that his old friend cannot act
more conventionally. /e suggests to ily# who stands (eside him putting away her paint and (rushes# that their
host is something of a hypocrite. ily 4disagrees with him. Though she finds Mr. ?amsay narrow and self4
a(sor(ed# she also o(serves the sincerity with which he see)s admiration. ily is a(out to spea) and critici!e
Mrs. ?amsay# (ut ;an)ess rapture" of watching Mrs. ?amsay silences her. 9s he stares at Mrs. ?amsay# it is
o(vious to ily that he is in love. The rapture of his ga!e touches her# so much so that she lets ;an)es loo) at
her painting# which she considers to (e dreadfully (ad. She thin)s of 6harles Tansleys claim that women
cannot paint or write.

ily remem(ers the criticism she was a(out to ma)e of Mrs. ?amsay# whom she resents for insinuating that she#
ily# as an unmarried woman# cannot )now the (est of life. ily reflects on the essence of Mrs. ?amsay# which
she is trying to paint# and insists that she herself was not made for marriage. She muses# with some distress# that
no one can ever )now anything a(out anyone# (ecause people are separate and cut off from one another. She
hopes to counter this phenomenon and achieve unity with# and )nowledge of# others through her art. ;y
painting# she hopes to attain a )ind of intimacy that will (ring her closer to the world outside her consciousness.
ily (races herself as ;an)es loo)s over her portrait of Mrs. ?amsay and Iames. She discusses the painting with
him. 9s they tal) a(out the shadows# light# and the purple triangle meant to represent Mrs. ?amsay# ily
wonders how to connect them and ma)e them whole. She also feels that ;an)es has ta)en her painting from her
(y loo)ing at it and that they have shared something intimate.
Summary1 6hapter &
-,
6am ?amsay# Mrs. and Mr. ?amsays devilish daughter# rushes past and nearly )noc)s the easel over. Mrs.
?amsay calls to 6am# as)ing after Paul ?ayley# Minta Doyle# and 9ndrew# who have not returned from their
wal) on the (each. Mrs. ?amsay assumes that this delay means that Paul has proposed to Minta# which is what
she intended when she orchestrated the wal). 9 clever matchma)er# Mrs. ?amsay has (een accused of (eing
domineering# (ut she feels 0ustified in her efforts (ecause she truly li)es Minta. She feels that Minta must accept
the time that she and Paul have spent alone together recently.
Mrs. ?amsay (elieves that she would (e domineering in pursuit of social causes. She feels passionately that the
island needs a hospital and a dairy# (ut rationali!es that she can further these goals once her children grow older.
Still# she resists the passage of time# wishing that her children would stay young forever and her family as
happy as it now is. Mrs. ?amsay further meditates a(out life# reali!ing a )ind of transactional relationship
(etween it and herself. She lists social pro(lems and intersperses them with personal an3ieties# noting# for
instance# that the (ill for the greenhouse would (e fifty pounds." This an3iety e3tends to her thoughts of Paul
and Minta# thin)ing that perhaps marriage and family are an escape that not everyone needs. She finishes
reading Iames his story# and the nursemaid ta)es him to (ed. Mrs. ?amsay is certain that he is thin)ing of their
thwarted trip to the lighthouse and that he will remem(er not (eing a(le to go for the rest of his life.
Summary1 6hapter &2
9lone# Mrs. ?amsay )nits and ga!es out at the lighthouse# thin)ing that children never forget harsh words or
disappointments. She en0oys her respite from (eing and doing# since she finds peace only when she is no longer
herself. 8ithout personality# in a wedge4shaped core of dar)ness#" she rids herself of worry. She suddenly
(ecomes sad# and thin)s that no $od could have made a world in which happiness is so fleeting and in which
reason# order# and 0ustice are so overwhelmed (y suffering and death. <rom a distance# Mr. ?amsay sees her and
notices her sadness and (eauty. /e wants to protect her# (ut hesitates# feeling helpless and reflecting that his
temper causes her grief. /e resolves not to interrupt her# (ut soon enough# sensing his desire to protect her# Mrs.
?amsay calls after him# ta)es up her shawl# and meets him on the lawn.
9nalysisThe 8indow1 6hapters 2&T&2
8hile Mrs. ?amsays reliance on intuition contrasts with her hus(ands aloofness and self4interest# she shares
with him a dread of mortality. Mrs. ?amsays mind sei!es the fact that there is no reason# order# 0ustice." 2t is
only in her wedge4shaped core of dar)ness" that she escapes (eing and doing" enough to (e herself. She
reali!es that happiness is# without e3ception# fleeting and ephemeral. ?efrains of children never forget" and
the greenhouse would cost fifty pounds" and other e3pressions of domestic an3iety (rea) into her peace and
solitude and advance the notion that life is transactional. /owever# it is e3actly this awareness of death and
worry that ma)e her moments of wholeness so precious to her. /er sense of the inevita(ility of suffering and
death lead her to search for such moments of (liss.
9ccording to Mr. ?amsays conception of human thought# Mrs. ?amsay may not (e as far along in the alpha(et
as he# (ut she has surpassed her hus(and in one important respect. *nli)e Mr. ?amsay# she is a(le to move
(eyond the treacheries" of the world (y accepting them. Mr. ?amsay# on the other hand# (ecomes so mired in
the thought of his own mortality that he is rendered helpless and dependent upon his wife.
ilys complicated reaction to Mrs. ?amsay in this section advances the novels discussion of gender (y
introducing a character who lives outside accepted gender conventions. 9s a single woman who# much to Mrs.
?amsays chagrin# shows little interest in marrying# ily represents a new and evolving social order and raises
the suspicions of several characters. Mrs. ?amsay suggests that she cannot )now life completely until she has
married# while 6harles Tansley insists that women were not made to (e painters or writers. ilys refusal to (ow
--
to these notions# however# testifies to her commitment to living as an independent woman and an artist. 2ndeed#
(y re0ecting these once universally held (eliefs# ily creates a parallel (etween her life and her art. 5n canvas#
she does not mean to ma)e an assertion of o(0ective truthA instead# she hopes to capture and preserve a moment
that appears real to her. /er determination to live her life according to her own principles demands as great a
struggle and commitment as her painting.
8oolfs pairing of ily with Mrs. ?amsay highlights her interest in the relationships among women outside the
realm of prescri(ed gender roles. Mrs. ?amsay ta)es on the conventional roles of wife and mother and accepts
the suffering and an3iety they (ring. 9t the same time# she remains aware of her power1 8as she not forgetting
how strongly she influenced peopleB" ily re0ects gender conventions# (ut she remains plagued (y artistic self4
dou(t and feels that others notice of her wor) somehow ta)es the wor) away from her. 8oolf uses the
relationship (etween these women to show the detrimental effect of male society on female artistic vision# and
to illustrate the potential intimacy and comple3ity of such relationships.
Summary1 6hapter &22
9s they wal) together# Mrs. ?amsay (rings up to Mr. ?amsay her worries a(out their son Iaspers proclivity for
shooting (irds and her disagreement with Mr. ?amsays high opinion of 6harles Tansley. She complains a(out
Tansleys (ullying and e3cessive discussion of his dissertationA Mr. ?amsay counters that his dissertation is all
that Tansley has in his life. /e adds that he would disinherit their daughter Prue if she married Tansley#
however. They continue wal)ing# and the conversation turns to their children. They discuss Prues (eauty and
9ndrews promise as a student. Still wal)ing# they reach a conversational impasse reflecting a deeper emotional
distance. Mr. ?amsay mourns that the (est and most productive period of his career is over# (ut he chastises
himself for his sadness# thin)ing that his wife and eight children are# in their own way# a fine contri(ution to
the poor little universe." /er hus(and and his moods ama!e Mrs. ?amsay# who reali!es that he (elieves that
his (oo)s would have (een (etter had he not had children. 2mpressive as his thoughts are# she wonders if he
notices the ordinary things in life such as the view or the flowers. She notices a star on the hori!on and wants to
point it out to her hus(and# (ut stops. The sight# she )nows# will somehow only sadden him. ily comes into
view with 8illiam ;an)es# and Mrs. ?amsay decides that the couple must marry.
Summary1 6hapter &222
ily listens to 8illiam ;an)es descri(e the art he has seen while visiting =urope. She reflects on the num(er of
great paintings she has never seen (ut decides that not having seen them is pro(a(ly (est since other artists
wor) tends to ma)e one disappointed with ones own. The couple turns to see Mr. and Mrs. ?amsay watching
Prue and Iasper playing (all. The ?amsays (ecome# for ily# a sym(ol of married life. 9s the couples meet on
the lawn# ily can tell that Mrs. ?amsay intends for her to marry ;an)es. ily suddenly feels a sense of space
and of things having (een (lown apart. Mrs. ?amsay worries since Paul ?ayley and Minta Doyle have not yet
returned from their wal) and as)s if the ?amsays daughter Nancy accompanied them.
Summary1 6hapter &2>
Nancy# at Mintas re:uest and out of a sense of o(ligation# has accompanied Minta and Paul on their wal).
Nancy wonders what Minta wants as she )eeps ta)ing then dropping Nancys hand. 9ndrew appreciates the way
Minta wal)s# wearing more sensi(le clothes than most women and ta)ing ris)s that most women will not. Still#
this outing disappoints 9ndrew. 2n the end# he does not li)e ta)ing women on wal)s or the chummy way that
Paul claps him on the (ac). The group reaches the (each and Nancy e3plores the tiny pools left (y the e(( tide.
9ndrew and Nancy come upon Paul and Minta )issing# which irritates them. *pon leaving the (each# Minta
discovers that she has lost her grandmothers (rooch. =veryone searches for it as the tide rolls in. 8anting to
prove his worth# Paul resolves to leave the house early tomorrow morning in order to scour the (each for the
(rooch. /e thin)s with disappointment on the moment he as)ed Minta to marry him. /e considers admitting
this disappointment to Mrs. ?amsay# who# he (elieves# forced him into proposing# (ut# as the well4lit house
comes into view# he decides not to ma)e a fool of himself.
Summary1 6hapter &>
Prue# in answer to her mothers :uestion# replies that she thin)s that Nancy did accompany Paul and Minta.
Summary1 6hapter &>2
-J
9s Mrs. ?amsay dresses for dinner# she wonders if Nancys presence will distract Paul from proposing to
Minta. Mrs. ?amsay lets her daughter ?ose choose her 0ewelry for the evening# a ceremony that somehow
saddens her. She (ecomes increasingly distressed (y Paul and Mintas tardiness# worrying for their safety and
fearing that dinner will (e ruined. =ventually she hears the group return from its wal) and feels annoyed.
=veryone assem(les in the dinning room for dinner.
9nalysisThe 8indow1 6hapters &22T&>2
8oolfs dis0ointed story line would have (een especially shoc)ing to readers raised on >ictorian novels# who
were used to linear narratives# ela(orate plots# and the mediating voice of an author. 8oolf eliminates these
traditional narrative elements and presents her characters competing visions of reality. 9s Mr. and Mrs. ?amsay
stroll on the lawn# for instance# 8oolf forces us to weigh and 0udge their various perceptions. Mr. and Mrs.
?amsays viewpoints conflict over whether it is more important to pu(lish a remar)a(le dissertation or to have
the a(ility to notice his own daughters (eauty# or whether there was pudding on his plate of roast (eef." She
portrays Mr. ?amsays cold# domineering neuroses as completely as Mrs. ?amsays generosity and love.
8oolfs goal is not to present one characters e3perience as the truth (ut rather to (ring opposing worldviews
and visions of reality# such as those held (y the ?amsays# into a unified story.
8oolf does not descri(e Mr. ?amsays philosophical wor) or the wor) he admires. =arlier# ily recalls
9ndrews li)ening of his fathers wor) to musings over a )itchen ta(le# and here Mrs. ?amsay summari!es the
philosophy of 6harles Tansley as dealing with the influence of some(ody upon something." 8hile the (revity
of these descriptions seems dismissive# 8oolf ta)es her characters wor) and an3ieties seriously. 8oolf re0ects
not Mr. ?amsay (ut rather preconceived notions a(out what a novel should (e. 8oolf# along with Iames Ioyce
and Marcel Proust# was a modernist. 5ne goal of the modernists was to force readers to reassess their views of
the novel. Philosophy and politics# as discussed (y traditional 4intellectuals such as Mr. ?amsay# no longer had
to (e the dominant su(0ectA war# epic sea voyages# and the li)e no longer had to (e the4 dominant settings. 9s
8oolf ma)es clear# lifes intellectual# psychological# and emotional sta)es can (e as high in the dining room or
on the lawn of ones home as they are in any (oardroom or (attlefield. That she later limits the discussion of
8orld 8ar 2 confirms this point.
ily ;riscoe emerges as an artist of uncompromising vision. 9s she stands on the lawn# trying to decide how to
unite the components of the scene on her canvas# she gives the impression of (eing something of a (ridge
(etween Mr. and Mrs. ?amsay and the worlds they represent. ily shares Mr. ?amsays professional an3iety
and fears that her wor) too will sin) into o(livionperhaps it was (etter not to see pictures1 they only made
one hopelessly discontented with ones own wor)." She also possesses Mrs. ?amsays talent for separating a
moment from the passage of time and preserving it. 9s she watches the ?amsays move across the lawn#
she 2N>=STS them with a :uality and meaning that ma)e them sym(olic. ater# in the last section of the
novel# as ily returns to this spot of the lawn to resume and finally complete her painting# she again serves as a
vital lin) (etween Mr. and Mrs. ?amsay.
The 8indow1 6hapter &>22 W
DTEhere is a coherence in things# a sta(ilityA something# she meant# is immune from change# and shines out. . . .
%See 2mportant Vuotations =3plained'
Summary
Mrs. ?amsay ta)es her place at the dinner ta(le and wonders what she has done with her life. 9s she ladles soup
for her guests# she sees the true sha((iness of the room# the isolation among her guests# and the lac) of (eauty
anywhere# and she (elieves herself to (e responsi(le for fi3ing these pro(lems. She again feels pity for 8illiam
;an)es. ily watches her hostess# thin)ing that Mrs. ?amsay loo)s old# worn# and remote. She senses Mrs.
?amsays pity for ;an)es and dismisses it# noting that ;an)es has his wor). ily also (ecomes aware that she
has her own wor). Mrs. ?amsay as)s 6harles Tansley if he writes many letters# and ily reali!es that her
hostess often pities men (ut never women. Tansley is angry at having (een called away from his wor) and
(lames women for the foolishness of such gatherings. /e insists again that no one will (e going to the
lighthouse tomorrow# and ily reflects (itterly on Tansleys chauvinism and lac) of charm. Tansley privately
-K
condemns Mrs. ?amsay for the nonsense she tal)s# and ily notices his discomfort. ily recogni!es her
o(ligation# as a woman# to comfort him# 0ust as it would (e his duty to save her from a fire in the su(way. She
wonders what the world would come to if men and women refused to fulfill these responsi(ilities. She spea)s to
Tansley# sarcastically as)ing him to ta)e her to the lighthouse.

8hile Mrs. ?amsay ram(les on to Tansley# 8illiam ;an)es reflects on how people can grow apart# to the point
that a person can (e devoted to someone for whom he or she cares little. =ventually# the conversation turns to
politics. Mrs. ?amsay loo)s to her hus(and# eager to hear him spea)# (ut is disappointed to find him scowling at
9ugustus 6armichael# who has as)ed for another plate of soup. 6andles are set out on the ta(le# and they (ring
a change over the room# esta(lishing a sense of order. 5utside# (eyond the dar)ened windows# the world wavers
and changes. This chaos (rings the guests together.
<inally having dressed for dinner# Minta Doyle and Paul ?ayley ta)e their places at the ta(le. Minta announces
that she has lost her grandmothers (rooch# and Mrs. ?amsay intuits that the couple is engaged. Minta is afraid
of sitting ne3t to Mr. ?amsay# remem(ering his words to her a(out Middlemarch# a (oo) she never finished
reading. Meanwhile# Paul recounts the events of their wal) to the (each. Dinner is served. ily worries that she#
li)e Paul and Minta# will need to marry# (ut the thought leaves her as she decides how to complete her painting.
Sitting at the ta(le# ily notices the position of the saltsha)er against the patterned ta(lecloth# which suggests to
her something vital a(out the composition of her paintingthe tree must (e moved to the middle. Mrs. ?amsay
considers that ;an)es may feel some affection for her (ut decides that he must marry ily# and she resolves to
seat them closer at the ne3t days dinner. =verything suddenly seems possi(le to Mrs. ?amsay# who (elieves
that# even in a world made of temporal things# there are :ualities that endure# (ringing sta(ility and peace.
2n another turn of the conversation# ;an)es praises Sir 8alter Scotts 8averley novels. Tansley :uic)ly
denounces this )ind of reading# and Mrs. ?amsay thin)s that he will (e this disagreea(le until he secures a
professorship and a wife. She considers her children# studying Prue in particular# whom she silently promises
great happiness. The guests finish dinner. Mr. ?amsay# now in great spirits# recites a poem# which 6armichael
finishes as a sort of tri(ute to his hostess# (owing. Mrs. ?amsay leaves the room with a (ow in return. 5n the
threshold of the door# she turns (ac) to view the scene one last time# (ut reflects that this special# defining
moment has already (ecome a part of the past.
9nalysis
The stunning scene of Mrs. ?amsays dinner party is the heart of the novel. /ere# the dominating rhythm
emerges as the story moves from chaos to (lissful# though momentary# order. To Mrs. ?amsays mind# the party
(egins as a disaster. Minta# Paul# 9ndrew# and Nancy are late returning from the (eachA Mr. ?amsay acts rudely
toward his guestsA 6harles Tansley continues to (ully ilyA and# although she recogni!es it as her social
responsi(ility# ily feels ill4e:uipped to soothe the mans damaged ego. The opening of the chapter shifts
rapidly from one partygoers perceptions to the ne3t# giving the impression that each person is terri(ly
remote"li)e Tansley# they all feel rough and isolated and lonely." ;ut a change comes over the group as the
candles are lit. 5utside# the dar) (etrays a world in which things wavered and vanished." The guests come
together against this overwhelming uncertainty and# for the remainder of the dinner# fashion collective meaning
and order out of individual e3istences that possess neither inherently.
9t the start of the party# Mrs. ?amsays thoughts sharply contrast with the literary allusions and learned tal) of
her male guests. ;y the end# however# she prevails in her gift# which ily considers to (e almost an artistic
talent# for creating social harmony. 2f Mrs. ?amsay is an artist# the dinner party is her mediumA indeed# if the
purpose of art for her# as it is for ily# is to (rea) down the (arriers (etween people# to unite and allow them to
e3perience life together in (rief# perfect understanding# then the party is nothing less than her masterpiece. The
-M
connection ily feels (etween herself and Mrs. ?amsay deepens in 6hapter &>22. 8hen ily finds herself
acting out Mrs. ?amsays (ehaviors toward men in her (anter with Tansley# she reali!es the frustrations that all
women# even those in traditional roles# feel at the limitations of convention.
Despite all the tensions and imperfections evident in the ?amsay household# such as Mr. ?amsays sometimes
ridiculous vanity and Mrs. ?amsays determination to counter the flaws in her own marriage (y arranging
marriages for her friends# the tone of The 8indow" remains primarily (right and optimistic. The pleasant
(each# the lively children# and the ?amsays generally loving marriage suffuse the novels world with a feeling
of possi(ility and potential# and many of the characters have happy prospects. Paul and Minta anticipate their
marriage# and Mrs. ?amsay comforts herself with her daughter Prues future marriage as well as her son
9ndrews accomplished career as a mathematician. Perhaps most important# ily has a (rea)through that she
thin)s will allow her to finish her painting. 8ith this insight comes the determination to live her life as a single
woman# regardless of what Mrs. ?amsay thin)s. The hope of the novel lies in ilys resolve# for it reiterates the
common (ond that allows Mrs. ?amsay to have one opinion and ily another. 9s the chapter closes# however#
Mrs. ?amsays reali!ation that such harmony is always ephemeral tempers this hope. 9s Mrs. ?amsay leaves
the room and reflects# with a glance over her shoulder# that the e3perience of the evening has already (ecome
part of the past# the tone of the (oo) dar)ens.
Summary1 6hapter &>222
ily contemplates the evenings disintegration once Mrs. ?amsay leaves. Some guests e3cuse themselves and
scatter# while others remain at the ta(le# watching Mrs. ?amsay go. The night# though over# will live on in each
guests mind# and Mrs. ?amsay is flattered to thin) that she too will (e remem(ered (ecause she was a part of
the party. She goes to the nursery and discovers# to her annoyance# that the children are still awa)e. Iames and
6am sit staring at a (oars s)ull nailed to the wall. 6am is una(le to sleep while it is there# and Iames refuses to
allow it to (e moved. Mrs. ?amsay covers it with her shawl# thus soothing (oth children. 9s 6am drifts off to
sleep# Iames as)s her if they will go to the lighthouse the ne3t day. Mrs. ?amsay is forced to tell him no# and
again# sure that he will never forget this disappointment# she feels a flash of anger toward 6harles Tansley and
Mr. ?amsay.
Downstairs# Prue# Minta# and Paul go to the (each to watch the waves coming in. Mrs. ?amsay wants to go with
them# (ut she also feels an urge to stay# so she remains inside and 0oins her hus(and in the parlor.
Summary1 6hapter &2&
Mr. ?amsay sits reading a (oo) (y Sir 8alter Scott. Mrs. ?amsay can tell (y the controlled smile on his face
that he does not wish to (e distur(ed# so she pic)s up her )nitting and continues wor) on the stoc)ings. She
considers how insecure her hus(and is a(out his fame and worth. She is sure that he will always wonder what
people thin) of him and his wor). The poem that Mr. ?amsay and 9ugustus 6armichael recited during dinner
returns to her. She reaches for a (oo) of poetry. ;riefly# her eyes meet her hus(ands. The two do not spea)#
though some understanding passes (etween them. Mr. ?amsay muses on his idea that the course of human
thought is a progression from 9 to H and that he is una(le to move (eyond V. /e thin)s (itterly that it does not
matter whether he ever reaches HA someone will succeed if he fails.
9fter reading one of Sha)espeares sonnets# Mrs. ?amsay puts down her (oo) and confides in her hus(and that
Paul and Minta are engaged. Mr. ?amsay admits that he is not surprised (y the news. /is response leaves Mrs.
?amsay wanting more. Mr. ?amsay says that Mrs. ?amsay will not finish her stoc)ing tonight# and she agrees.
She is aware# (y a sudden change of the loo) on his face# that he wants her to tell him that she loves him. She
rarely says these words to him# and she now feels his desire to hear them. She wal)s to the window and loo)s
out on the sea. She feels very (eautiful and thin)s that nothing on earth could match the happiness of this
moment. She smiles and# though she does not say the words her hus(and wants to hear# she is sure that he
)nows. She tells him that he is rightthat there will (e no trip to the lighthouse the ne3t day. /e understands
that these words mean that she loves him.
9nalysisThe 8indow1 6hapters &>222T&2&
JN
The harmony of the dinner party dissipates as Mr. and Mrs. ?amsay retire to the parlor to read# and the unity
they feel earlier that evening disappears as they sit alone# two remote individuals reesta(lishing distance
(etween them. Much of To the ighthouse depends upon a rhythm that mimics the descriptions of the sea. i)e
a wave that rolls out and then (ac) in again# the feeling of harmony comes and goes for the ?amsays. Their
interaction in 6hapter &2& is one of the most moving in the novel. 2n her 0ournal# 8oolf wrote that she
meant To the ighthouseto (e such a profoundly new )ind of novel that a new name would need to (e found to
descri(e the form. She suggested the word elegy#" meaning a sorrowful poem or song. There is a mournful
:uality to the wor) that gathers particular strength at the end of The 8indow." 9lthough the ?amsays share an
unparalleled moment of happiness# we are )eenly aware of something e:ually profound that will forever go
unspo)en (etween them. $iven the ultimate tra0ectory of the novel# elegy seems a fitting description. 2n the
second part of the novel# the ravages of time# which Mrs. ?amsay has done her (est to )eep at (ay# descend
upon the story. 2n this section# the sym(ol of the (oars s)ull hanging on the wall of the childrens nursery
prefigures this inevita(le movement toward death. The 0u3taposition of youth and death is a particularly potent
reminder that all things# given enough time# come to the same end.
8oolf further anticipates this inevita(le life cycle and# more particularly# the death of Mrs. ?amsay through her
use of literary allusions. Throughout the novel# 8oolf refers to other wor)s of literature to great effect. <or
instance# in the opening pages Mr. ?amsay (lunders through a recitation of The 6harge of the ight ;rigade#"
which captures his an3ieties a(out immortality# while at the dinner party the recently engaged Minta recalls Mr.
?amsays comments a(outMiddlemarch# $eorge =liots novel a(out an unhappy marriage# whose story (ears
some resem(lance to the 4trou(le she later encounters with Paul. 2n this section# Mrs. ?amsay latches onto
snatches of poetry that resonate with the larger concerns and structure of the novel. The lines from the
Sha)espeare sonnet that she reads# which descri(e the lingering presence of an a(sent loved one# foreshadow
Mrs. ?amsays death and continuing influence over the living. The other poem# written (y 6harles =lton# is
titled uriana urilee." The lines that Mrs. ?amsay recites from this poem are dou(ly significant1
9nd all the lives we ever lived
9nd all the lives to (e#
9re full of trees and changing leaves.
<irst# the changing leaves" confirm the larger cyclical pattern of life and death. Second# the image of the tree
lin)s Mrs. ?amsay to ily# who (elieves that the success of her painting rests in moving the tree to the middle
of the canvas. This connection (ecomes particularly important# as the hope of achieving harmony in their world
comes to rest on ilys shoulders.
Time Passes1 6hapters 2T&
W
Summary1 6hapter 2
Paul# Minta# 9ndrew# Prue# and ily return from the (each. 5ne (y one# they retire to their rooms and shut off
their lamps. The house sin)s into dar)ness# e3cept for the room of 9ugustus 6armichael# who stays up reading
>irgil.
Summary1 6hapter 22
Dar)ness floods the house. <urniture and people seem to disappear completely. The wind creeps indoors and is
the only movement. The air plays across o(0ects of the housewallpaper# (oo)s# and flowers. 2t creeps up the
stairs and continues on its way. 9t midnight# 6armichael (lows out his candle and goes to (ed.
Summary1 6hapter 222
Nights pass and autumn arrives. The nights (ring destructive winds# (ending trees and stripping them of their
leaves. 6onfusion reigns. 9nyone who wa)es to as) the night :uestions as to what# and why# and wherefore"
receives no answer. Mrs. ?amsay dies suddenly. The following morning# Mr. ?amsay wanders through the
hallway# reaching out his arms for her.
Summary1 6hapter 2>
The contents of the house are pac)ed and stored. The winds enter and# without the resistance of lives (eing
lived# (egin to ni((le" at the possessions. 9s it moves across these things# the wind as)s# 8ill you fadeB 8ill
J+
you perishB" The o(0ects answer# 8e remain#" and the house is peaceful. 5nly Mrs. McNa(# the house)eeper#
distur(s the peace# as she arrives to dust the (edrooms.
Summary1 6hapter >
Mrs. McNa( ma)es her way through the house. She is old and weary and hums a tune that (ears little
resem(lance to the 0oyous song of twenty years earlier. 9s she cleans the house# she wonders how long it all will
endure. Some pleasant memory occurs to the old woman# which ma)es her 0o( a (it easier.
Summary1 6hapter >2
2t is spring again. Prue ?amsay marries# and people comment on her great (eauty. Summer approaches# and
Prue dies from an illness connected with child(irth. <lies and weeds ma)e a home in the ?amsays
summerhouse. 9ndrew ?amsay is )illed in <rance during 8orld 8ar 2. 9ugustus 6armichael pu(lishes a
volume of poetry during the war that greatly enhances his reputation.
Summary1 6hapter >22
8hile the days (ring stillness and (rightness# the nights (atter the house with chaos and confusion.
Summary1 6hapter >222
Mrs. McNa(# hearing a rumor that the family will never return# pic)s a (unch of flowers from the garden to ta)e
home with her. The house is sin)ing :uic)ly into disrepair. The (oo)s are moldy and the garden is overgrown.
8hile cleaning# the old woman comes across the gray cloa) that Mrs. ?amsay used to wear while gardening#
and she can imagine Mrs. ?amsay (ent over her flowers with one of her children (y her side. Mrs. McNa( has
little hope that the family will return or that the house will survive# and she thin)s that )eeping it up is too much
wor) for an old woman.
Summary1 6hapter 2&
During the night# only the (eam of the lighthouse pierces the dar)ness of the house. 9t last# once the war is
over# Mrs. McNa( leads an effort to clean up the house# rescuing its o(0ects from o(livion. She and a woman
named Mrs. ;ast (attle the effects of time and# eventually# after much la(or# get the house (ac) in order. Ten
years have passed. ily ;riscoe arrives at the house on an evening in Septem(er.
Summary1 6hapter &
ily listens to the sea while lying in (ed# and an overwhelming sense of peace emerges. 6armichael arrives at
the house and reads a (oo) (y candlelight. ily hears the waves even in her sleep# and 6armichael shuts his
(oo)# noting that everything loo)s much as it loo)ed ten years earlier. The guests sleep. 2n the morning# ily
awa)es instantly# sitting (olt upright in (ed.
9nalysisTime Passes1 6hapters 2T&
The Time Passes" section of To the ighthouse radically alters the novels development. Many of the
characters from the first section disappear. 8hat we learn of them in this (rief following section is presented as
an aside# set apart (y (rac)ets. To the ighthouse fre:uently comments on the notion and passage of time. 2n
The 8indow#" 8oolf conceives of time as a matter of psychology rather than chronology. She creates what the
<rench philosopher /enri ;ergson termeddurSe# a conception of the world as primarily intuitive and internal
rather than e3ternal or material. 8oolf returns to this narrative strategy in the final section of the novel# The
ighthouse." ;ut here# in the intervening chapters# she switches gears completely and charts the relentless#
cruel# and more conventional passage of time. The (rac)ets around the deaths of Prue and 9ndrew associate
them with Mrs. ?amsays intermittent refrains in The 8indow" and accentuate the traumatic suddenness and
ultimate lac) of impact these events possess. These (rac)eted sentences ta)e on the tone of news (ulletins or
marching orders.
8hile The 8indow" deals with the minute details of a single afternoon and evening# stretching them out into a
considera(le piece of prose# Time Passes" compresses an entire decade into (arely twenty pages. 8oolf
chooses to portray the effects of time on o(0ects li)e the house and its contents rather than on human
development and emotion. Time Passes" validates ilys and the ?amsays fears that time will (ring a(out
their demise# as well as the widespread fear among the characters that time will erase the legacy of their wor).
/ere# everything from the garden to the pri!ed 8averley novels slowly sin)s into o(livion.
;ecause the focus shifts from psychology in The 8indow" to chronology in Time Passes#" human (eings
(ecome secondary concerns in the latter section of the novel. This effect replicates the an3ieties that plague the
characters. Mr. ?amsays fear that there is little hope for human immortality is confirmed as 8oolf presents the
J@
death of the novels heroine in an unadorned aside. This choice is remar)a(le on two levels. <irst# thematically#
it s)illfully asserts that human life is# in the natural scheme of things# incidental. 9s Mr. ?amsay notes in The
8indow#" a stone will outlive even Sha)espeare. Second# the offhand mention of Mrs. ?amsays death
challenges esta(lished literary tradition (y refusing to indulge in conventional sentiment. The emotionally
hyper(olic >ictorian death(ed scene is a(sent for Mrs. ?amsay# and 8oolf uses an e3treme economy of words
to report the deaths of Mrs. ?amsay# Prue# and 9ndrew.
2n this section# the dar)ened tone that (egins to register toward the end of The 8indow" comes to the fore (oth
literally and figuratively. Mrs. ?amsays death constitutes the death of womanhood and the dismantling of
domesticated power in the novel. 8ith the deaths of Prue and 9ndrew# the worlds (est potential and (est hope
seem dashed. Prues death in child(irth stri)es out at (eauty and continuity# while 9ndrews demise (rings out
the impact of war and the stunting of masculine potential so important to the novels historical conte3t. 2n a
way# the novel miniaturi!es a vast historical moment for =urope as a whole. Time Passes" (rings to the
?amsays destruction as vast as that inflicted on =urope (y 8orld 8ar 2. 8hen the ?amsays return to their
summer home sha)en# depleted# and unsure# they represent the postwar state of an entire continent.
The ighthouse1 6hapters 2T222
W
Summary1 6hapter 2
ily sits at (rea)fast# wondering what her feelings mean# returning after ten years now that Mrs. ?amsay is
dead. She decides that she feels nothing that she can e3press. The entire scene seems unreal and dis0ointed to
her. 9s she sits at the ta(le# she struggles to (ring together the parts of her e3perience. She suddenly remem(ers
a painting she had (een wor)ing on years ago# during her last stay at the ?amsays# and the inspiration that the
leaf pattern on the ta(lecloth gave her. She decides that she will finish this painting now# heads outside# and sets
up her easel on the lawn. *pon her arrival the previous night# she was una(le to assuage Mr. ?amsays need for
sympathy# and she fears his interference with her current pro0ect. She sets a clean canvas on the easel# (ut she
cannot see the shapes or colors that surround her (ecause she feels Mr. ?amsay (earing down on her. She thin)s
angrily that all Mr. ?amsay )nows how to do is ta)e# while all Mrs. ?amsay did was give. 9s her host
approaches# ily lets her (rush fall to her side# convinced that it will (e easier to remem(er and imitate the
sympathy that Mrs. ?amsay was a(le to muster for her hus(and than to let him linger on the lawn (eside her.
Summary1 6hapter 22
Mr. ?amsay watches ily# o(serving her to (e shrivelled slightly" (ut not unattractive. /e as)s if she has
everything she needs# and she assures him that she does. ily cannot give him the sympathy he needs# and an
awful silence falls (etween them. Mr. ?amsay sighs# waiting. ily feels that# as a woman# she is a failure for not
(eing a(le to satisfy his need. =ventually# she compliments him on his (oots# and he gladly discusses footwear
with her. /e stoops to demonstrate the proper way to tie a shoe# and she pities him deeply. Iust then# 6am and
Iames appear for the so0ourn to the lighthouse. They are cold and unpleasant to their father# and ily reflects
that# if they so wished# they could sympathi!e with him in a way that she cannot.
Summary1 6hapter 222
ily sighs with relief as Mr. ?amsay and the children head off for the (oat. 8ith Mr. ?amsay standing (y# she
had 0ammed her easel into the ground at the wrong angle and ta)en up the wrong (rush. She rights the canvas#
raises the correct (rush# and wonders where to (egin. She ma)es a stro)e on the canvas# then another. /er
painting ta)es on a rhythm# as she da(s and pauses# da(s and pauses. She considers the fate of her painting#
thin)ing that if it is to (e hung in a servants room or rolled up under a sofa# there is no point in continuing it.
The derogatory words of 6harles Tansleythat women cannot paint# cannot writereturn to her# (ut she
maintains the rhythm of her wor). She remem(ers a day on the (each with Tansley and Mrs. ?amsay# and is
ama!ed (y Mrs. ?amsays a(ility to craft su(stance out of even silliness and spite." She thin)s# perhaps# that
there are no great revelations. There is# to her# only the memory of Mrs. ?amsay ma)ing life itself an art. ily
feels that she owes what revelation she has in this moment to Mrs. ?amsay. 5n the edge of the water# she
notices a (oat with its sail (eing hoisted and# sure that it (elongs to the ?amsays# watches it head out to sea.
9nalysisThe ighthouse1 6hapters 2T222
JC
The structure of To the ighthouse creates a strange feeling of continuity (etween drastically discontinuous
events. The 8indow" ends after dinner# as night fallsA Time Passes" descri(es the demise of the house as one
night passes into the ne3t over the course of ten yearsA The ighthouse" resumes in the morning# at (rea)fast.
8oolf almost suggests the illusion that ily sits at the ta(le the morning after the dinner party# even though the
scene ta)es place a decade later. This structure lends the impression that Mr. ?amsays voyage to the lighthouse
with 6am and Iames occurs the ne3t day as Iames had hoped# though his world is now wholly different.
2n spite of these differences# the ?amsays house in the /e(rides remains recogni!a(le# as do the rhythmic
patterns of the characters consciousnesses. 9s 8oolf resumes her e3ploration of the su(tle undercurrents of
interpersonal relationships# she (egins with characters who are remote" from one another. They occupy# in fact#
the same positions of private suffering as at the (eginning of Mrs. ?amsays magnificent dinner party. Mr.
?amsay# a man in decline# is no longer imposing to ily. ?ather# he is aw)ward and pathetic. /is children are
waging a (arely veiled revolt against his oppressive and self4pitying (ehavior. Still desperate for sympathy (ut
una(le to o(tain it from Mrs. ?amsay# Mr. ?amsay turns to ily and his children to satisfy his need. ily# on the
other hand# still feels una(le to give of herself in this way. /er reluctance to show sympathy to Mr. ?amsay
recalls her reaction to 6harles Tansley at the dinner ta(le. Then# as now# she cannot (ring herself to soothe the
tortured male ego. The world# as a result of these dis0ointed personalities and desires# seems chaotic" and
aimless#" and ily concludes that the house is (rimming with unrelated passions."
The 8indow" esta(lishes a rhythm (etween chaos and order# which allows us to anticipate the direction that
The ighthouse" will ta)e. Mr. ?amsay eventually reaches the lighthouse# 0ust as ily eventually completes
her painting. The poignant scene in which Mr. ?amsay (ends to )not ilys shoe foreshadows the common
feeling" that the two share when ilys consciousness (ecomes tied to her hosts. ;efore this union can happen#
though# the two must (e separated. 2ndeed# ilys thoughts toward Mr. ?amsay (egin to soften only after he
leaves her alone at her easel and sets off for the lighthouse. 5nly then does the sight of 6am# Iames# and Mr.
?amsay reveal itself as a potential image of harmonya little company (ound together and strangely
impressive to her."
Memory is another vital step toward this harmony. Though long dead# Mrs. ?amsay lives in ilys
consciousness in the final section of the novel# for it was Mrs. ?amsay who taught ily a valua(le lesson a(out
the nature of art. 9s her hostess once demonstrated on an outing to the (each# art is the a(ility to ta)e a moment
from life and ma)e it permanent." 8ith this goal in mind# ily (egins to paint.
The ighthouse1 6hapters 2>T>22
W
Summary1 6hapter 2>
9s the (oat sails toward the lighthouse# (oth Iames and 6am feel their fathers mounting an3iety and
impatience. Mr. ?amsay mutters and spea)s sharply to Macalisters (oy# a fishermans son who is rowing the
(oat. ;ound together against what they perceive to (e their fathers tyranny# the children resolve to ma)e the
0ourney in silence. They secretly hope that the wind will never rise and that they will (e forced to turn (ac). ;ut
as they sail farther out# the sails pic) up the wind and the (oat speeds along. Iames steers the (oat and mans the
sail# )nowing that his father will critici!e him if he ma)es the slightest mista)e.
Mr. ?amsay tal)s to Macalister a(out a storm that san) a num(er of ships near the lighthouse on 6hristmas.
6am reali!es that her father li)es to hear stories of men having dangerous adventures and thin)s that he would
have helped the rescue effort had he (een on the island at the time. She is proud of him# (ut also# out of loyalty
to Iames# means to resist his oppressive (ehavior. Mr. ?amsay points out their house# and 6am reflects how
unreal life on shore seems. 5nly the (oat and the sea are real to her now. 6am# though disgusted (y her fathers
melodramatic appeals for sympathy# longs to find a way to show him that she loves him without (etraying
Iames. Iames# for his part# feels that 6am is a(out to a(andon him and give in to their fathers mood.
Meanwhile# Mr. ?amsay muses that 6am seems to have a simple# vague female" mind# which he finds
charming. /e as)s 6am who is loo)ing after their puppy# and she tells him that Iasper is doing it. /e as)s what
she is going to name the puppy# and Iames thin)s that 6am will never withstand their fathers tyranny li)e he
will. /e changes his mind a(out her resolve# however# and 6am thin)s of how everything she hears her father
say means Su(mit to me." She loo)s at the shore# thin)ing no one suffers there.
Summary1 6hapter >
JF
ily stands on the lawn watching the (oat sail off. She thin)s again of Mrs. ?amsay as she considers her
painting. She thin)s of Paul and Minta ?ayley and contents herself (y imagining their lives. Their marriage# she
assumes# turned out (adly. Though she )nows that these sorts of imaginings are not true# she reflects that they
are what allow one to )now people. ily has the urge to share her stories of Paul and Minta with the
matchma)ing Mrs. ?amsay# and reflects on the dead# contending that one can go against their wishes and
improve on their outdated ideas. She finally feels a(le to stand up to Mrs. ?amsay# which# she (elieves# is a
testament to Mrs. ?amsays terrific influence over her. ily has never married# and she is glad of it now. She
still en0oys 8illiam ;an)ess friendship and their discussions a(out art. The memory of Mrs. ?amsay fills her
with grief# and she (egins to cry. She has the urge to approach 9ugustus 6armichael# who lounges near(y on the
lawn# and confess her thoughts to him# (ut she )nows that she could never say what she means.
Summary1 6hapter >2
The fishermans (oy cuts a piece from a fish that he has caught and (aits it on his hoo). /e then throws the
mutilated (ody into the sea.
Summary1 6hapter >22
ily calls out to Mrs. ?amsay as if the woman might return# (ut nothing happens. She hopes that her cries will
heal her pain# (ut is glad that 6armichael does not hear them. =ventually# the anguish su(sides# and ily returns
to her painting# wor)ing on her representation of the hedge. She imagines Mrs. ?amsay# radiant with (eauty and
crowned with flowers# wal)ing across the lawn. The image soothes her. She notices a (oat in the middle of the
(ay and wonders if it is the ?amsays.
9nalysisThe ighthouse1 6hapters 2>T>22
9lthough 6hapter >2 is presented in (rac)ets and is only two sentences long# its description of a live mutilated
fish is important to the novel since the fish represents the parado3 of the world as an e3tremely cruel place in
which survival is somehow possi(le. The (rac)ets also hear)en (ac) to the reports of violence and sorrow in
Time Passes#" which recount the deaths of Prue and 9ndrew ?amsay. To the ighthouse is filled with sym(ols
that have no easily assigned meaning. The mutilated fish# the (oars head wrapped in Mrs. ?amsays shawl#
ilys painting# and the lighthouse itself are sym(ols that re:uire us to sift through a multiplicity of meanings
rather than pin down a single interpretation.
Mrs. ?amsay and the pasts of her guests and children haunt the novels final section. 9s ily stands on the lawn
watching the ?amsays (oat move out into the (ay# she is possessed (y thoughts of Mrs. ?amsay# while
Macalister spins out stories of shipwrec)s and drowned sailors# and 6am reflects that there is no suffering on
the distant shore where people are free to come and go li)e ghosts." 9t first# Mrs. ?amsay e3erts her old pull
on ily# who (egins to feel an3ious a(out the choices she has made in life. ;ut as her thoughts turn to Paul and
Minta ?ayley# around whom she has (uilt up a whole structure of imagination#" ily (egins to e3orcise Mrs.
?amsays spirit and (etter understand her old friend. Though she readily admits in regard to her imagining of
the ?ayleys failed marriage that not a word of it DisE true#" she (elieves that her version of their lives
constitutes real )nowledge of the coupleA thus# the novel again insists upon the su(0ective nature of reality.
These thoughts allow ily to approach Mrs. ?amsay# who insisted on Pauls marriage# from a new# more
critical# and ultimately more truthful angle.
ilys longing for Mrs. ?amsay is a result of understanding her as a more complicated# flawed individual. 8hen
she wa)es that morning# ily reflects solemnly that Mrs. ?amsays a(sence at the (rea)fast ta(le evo)es no
particular feelings in herA now# however# ily calls out Mrs. ?amsays name# as if attempting to chant her (ac)
from the grave. ilys anguish and dissonance force us to reassess her art. Mrs. ?amsays (eauty has always
rendered ily speechless# (ut ily now reali!es that D(Eeauty had this penaltyit came too readily# came too
completely. 2t stilled lifefro!e it." She mimics Mrs. ?amsays psychological gesture of smoothing away lifes
comple3ities and flaws under a veneer of (eauty. 6ontinuing to paint# ily feels a deeper need to locate the
?amsays (oat on the water and reach out to Mr. ?amsay# to whom a short while earlier she feels that she has
nothing to give.
Summary1 6hapter >222
They dont feel a thing there#" 6am muses to herself while loo)ing at the shore. /er mind moves in swirls and
waves li)e the sea# until the wind slows and the (oat comes to a stop (etween the lighthouse and the shore. Mr.
J,
?amsay sits in the (oat reading a (oo)# and Iames waits with dread for the moment that his father will turn to
him with some criticism. Iames reali!es that he now hates and wants to )ill not his father (ut the moods that
descend on his father. /e li)ens the dar) sarcasm that ma)es his father intolera(le to a wheel that runs over a
foot and crushes it. 2n other words# Mr. ?amsay is as much a victim of these spells of tyranny as Iames and
6am. /e remem(ers his father telling him years ago that he would not (e a(le to go to the lighthouse. Then# the
lighthouse was silvery and mistyA now# when he is much closer to it# it loo)s star)er. Iames is astonished at how
little his present view of the scene resem(les his former image of it# (ut he reflects that nothing is ever only one
thingA (oth images of the lighthouse are true. /e remem(ers his mother# who left him sitting with the 9rmy and
Navy Stores catalogue after Mr. ?amsay dismissed their initial trip to the lighthouse. Mrs. ?amsay remains a
source of everlasting attraction" to Iames# for he (elieves she spo)e the truth and said e3actly what came into
her head.
Summary1 6hapter 2&

ily watches the sea. She notes the power of distance and how it has swallowed the ?amsays and herself. 9ll is
calm and :uiet. 9 steamship disappears from sight# though its smo)e lingers in the air.
Summary1 6hapter &
6am feels li(erated from her fathers anger and her (rothers e3pectations. She feels over0oyed at having
escaped the (urden of these things# and entertains herself with a story of adventure. She imagines herself
escaping from a sin)ing ship. She wonders what place the distant island has in the grand scheme of things and is
certain that her father and the men with whom he )eeps company %such as 8illiam ;an)es and 9ugustus
6armichael' could tell her. She feels incredi(ly safe in her fathers presence and wishes her (rother would put
aside his grievances with him.
Summary1 6hapter &2
;ac) on shore# ily loses herself in her intense memories of Mrs. ?amsay# noticing 6armichael when he grunts
and pic)s up his (oo) and reflecting on the freedom from conventional chatter the early morning hour provides.
8atching the sail(oat approach the lighthouse# she contemplates distance as crucially important to ones
understanding of other people. 9s Mr. ?amsay recedes into the hori!on# he (egins to seem to her a different
person altogether.
Similarly# ilys understanding of Mrs. ?amsay has changed considera(ly since Mrs. ?amsays death. ily
thin)s a(out the people she once )new at this house# a(out 6armichaels poetry# a(out 6harles Tansleys
marriage# his career in academics# and his educating his little sister. She recalls having heard Tansley denounce
the war and advocate (rotherly love# which did not fit her understanding of him at all. ;ut she thin)s that people
interpret one another in ways that reflect their own needs. To see someone clearly and fully# she concludes# one
would need more than fifty pairs of eyes. ily thin)s a(out the ?amsays marriage# saying that theirs did not
constitute marital (liss. She recounts to herself the domestic forces that occupied and tired Mrs. ?amsay# then
notices what loo)s li)e a figure in the window of the house. The image is fleeting# however# and leaves ily
yearning for Mrs. ?amsay and wishing that Mr. ?amsay would return.
Summary1 6hapter &22
Mr. ?amsay is almost finished with his (oo). The sight of the lighthouse inspires Iames to recogni!e the
profound loneliness that (oth he and his father feel. Iames mutters a snatch of poetry under his (reath# as Mr.
?amsay often does. 6am stares at the sea and (ecomes sleepy. Iames steers the (oat# and Mr. ?amsay opens
J-
their parcel of food and they eat. The fisherman says that three men drowned in the spot the (oat is in. Mr.
?amsay reiterates the line of verse# ;ut 2 (eneath a rougher sea." Iames lands the (oat# and Mr. ?amsay
praises Iamess sailing. 6am thin)s that Iames has gotten what he has always wantedhis fathers praise(ut
Iames# unwilling to share his pleasure# acts sullen and indifferent. 9s Mr. ?amsay stands and loo)s at the
lighthouse# 6am wonders what he sees# what he thin)s. /e tells his children to (ring the parcels that Nancy has
pac)ed for the voyage and (ounds# li)e a young man# onto the roc).
Summary1 6hapter &222
5n the shore# ily declares aloud that her painting is finished# and notes that Mr. ?amsay must have reached the
lighthouse (y now. 6armichael rises up and loo)s at the sea# agreeing that the sail(oat must have reached its
destination. ily draws a final line on her painting and reali!es that it is truly finished# feeling a weary sense of
relief. She reali!es that she does not care whether it will (e hung in attics or destroyed# for she has had her
vision.
9nalysisThe ighthouse1 6hapters >222T&222
Iamess reflection on the lighthouse underlines the contradictory psychological and narrative structures of the
(oo). The lighthouse provides Iames with a chance to consider the su(0ective nature of his consciousness. /e
decides that the tower can (e two competing images at once1 it is# for him# (oth a relic of his childhood fantasy
and the star)# (rutally real and somewhat (anal structure he now sees (efore him. Iust as ily concludes that she
would need more than fifty pairs of eyes in order to gain a complete picture of Mrs. ?amsay# Iames reali!es that
nothing is ever only one thingthe world is far too comple3 for such reduction and simplification. These
metaphors e3plain 8oolfs techni:ue. 5nly (y presenting the narrative as a collection of varied and competing
consciousnesses could she hope to capture a true li)eness of her characters and their worlds.
2n the final pages of the novel# 8oolf reveals the )ey to the reconciliation of competing impressions that allows
Iames to view the lighthouse and ily to see Mrs. ?amsay in the conte3t of (oth the past and present. This )ey
is distance# which ily notes in 6hapter 2& has e3traordinary power." ily has had ten years to process her
thoughts regarding Mrs. ?amsay# ten years to wor) her way (eyond an influence that# in the opening pages of
the novel# overwhelms her with its intensity. 8hen# earlier# ily sits at Mrs. ?amsays feet# she is (linded (y her
love for the woman. /er opinion of Mrs. ?amsay has changed considera(ly (y the end of the novel. She
recogni!es Mrs. ?amsays dated ways and somewhat manipulative nature# and her vision of Mrs. ?amsay is
now more complete. i)ewise# Iames is (etter a(le to see the lighthouse and# more pivotal# his father (ecause of
the distance that separates him from his childhood impressions. Mr. ?amsay# as 6am reali!es# is not the same
man he was ten years ago. 9lthough still domineering# he has (ecome more sensitive# a fact that Iames#
over0oyed with the compliment his father has paid him# might finally (egin to see.
8oolfs phrasing of ilys declaration of DiEt is finished" lends gravity and power to the moment with its
(i(lical echoes of death and impending re(irth. The moment also parallels Iamess a(ility to see the lighthouse
and his father anew (ut holds singular importance for the structure of the novel. Mr. ?amsay# Mrs. ?amsay# and
ily ;riscoe ma)e three distinct attempts to harness the chaos that is life and ma)e it meaningful. 9s a
philosopher# Mr. ?amsay fails to progress to the end of human thought# that elusive letter H that he (elieves
represents the ultimate )nowledge of life# while Mrs. ?amsay dies (efore she sees her children married. Thus#
(oth the intellectual and social attempts to order life fall short. 5nly ilys attempt at artistic order succeeds#
and it does so with grace and power. ily has a vision" that ena(les her to (ring the separate# conflicting
o(0ects of her composition into harmony. This synthesi!ing impulse counters the narrative fragmentation as well
as the competing worldviews among the characters. The painting represents a single instant lifted out of the
flow of time and made permanent.
JJ
<* T2T= P To the ighthouse
9*T/5? P >irginia 8oolf
TGP= 5< 85?7 P Novel
$=N?= P Stream of consciousness
9N$*9$= P =nglish
T2M= 9ND P96= 8?2TT=N P +M@-# ondon
D9T= 5< <2?ST P*;269T25N P +M@J
P*;2S/=? P /ogarth Press
N9??9T5? P The narrator is anonymous.
P52NT 5< >2=8 P The narrator spea)s in the third person and descri(es the characters and actions
su(0ectively# giving us insight into the characters feelings. The narrative switches constantly from the
perceptions of one character to those of the ne3t.
T5N= P =legiac# poetic# rhythmic# imaginative
T=NS= P Past
S=TT2N$ %T2M=' P The years immediately preceding and following 8orld 8ar 2
S=TT2N$ %P96=' P The 2sle of S)ye# in the /e(rides %a group of islands west of Scotland'
P?5T9$5N2ST P 9lthough Mrs. ?amsay is the central focus of the (eginning of To the ighthouse# the novel
traces the development of ily ;riscoe to the end# ma)ing it more accurate to descri(e ily as the protagonist.
M9I5? 65N<26T P The common struggle that each of the characters faces is to (ring meaning and order to
the chaos of life.
?2S2N$ 96T25N P Iamess desire to 0ourney to the lighthouseA Mr. ?amsays need to as) Mrs. ?amsay for
sympathyA 6harles Tansleys insistence that women cannot paint or writeA ily ;riscoes stalled attempt at her
painting
62M9& P Mrs. ?amsays dinner party
<92N$ 96T25N P Mr. ?amsays trip to the lighthouse with 6am and IamesA ily ;riscoes completion of
her painting
T/=M=S P The transience of life and wor)A art as a means of preservationA the su(0ective nature of realityA the
restorative effects of (eauty
M5T2<S P The differing (ehaviors of men and womenA (rac)ets
SGM;5S P The lighthouse# ilys painting# the ?amsays house# the sea# the (oars s)ull# the fruit (as)et
<5?=S/9D582N$ P Iamess initial desire and an3iety surrounding the voyage to the lighthouse foreshadows
the trip he ma)es a decade later.
JK