Concorde Battery Corporation

2009 San Bernardino Road

West Covina, CA 91790
Phone 626-813-1234 Fax 626-813-1235
www.concordebattery.com
ISO 9001:2000 Certified






BATTERY SIZING TIPS
for
STAND ALONE PV SYSTEMS
The following are Concordes recommendations for sizing a battery system that should
provide a reliable storage system for Stand Alone Alternate Energy Systems. Primary
consideration is for Photovoltaic Systems but other alternate energy source systems would
have similar requirements.


LOAD CALCULATIONS:

DC LOADS

To calculate the Total Number of DC Amp Hours per Day Required to power the system:

DC Load Amps =kW DC System Voltage

Total Daily Load [Amp Hours] =(No. of Amps X No. of Hrs.) / Day of Operation

Example:

0.12 kW 48 VDC =2.5 A.

Total Daily Load =(2.5 A. X 24 Hrs.) / Day of Operation =60 AH/Day of Operation

For non-continuous DC Loads establish the duty cycle in time of operation per Day

(70% of day at xx Amps) +(30% of day at yy Amps) =Total AH Consumed/Day

Example:

(70% X 5 A. X 24 Hrs.)/Day +(30% X 10 A. X 24 Hrs.)/Day =156 AH/Day

Total Daily Load =84 AH +72 AH =156 AH/Day







AC LOADS

When an inverter is used to power 120 or 240 VAC appliances, such as pumps, refrigerators,
lighting, etc. the AC voltage must be converted to the Batterys DC voltage and the efficiency
of the inverter must be considered.

If the inverter AC voltage is 120 VAC and the battery DC voltage is 24 VDC then the
conversion factor is 5.0. For every AC amp drawn there will be 5 times as many DC amps.
Also, the inverters conversion efficiency from DC to AC is not 100%. There is an internal loss
in the inverter which is normally about 10 to 15% [See inverter/charger manufacturers
efficiency specifications].

Example:

AC Load =6 kWh/Day 120 VAC =50 AH/Day @ 120 VAC

Convert to DC Battery Load. Inverters Charger is 48 VDC. Therefore, the conversion factor is
2.5 to 1 and the efficiency is 90%.

DC Load =
50 AH/Day X 2.5 [conversion factor] =125 AH/Day 0.9 [efficiency] =139 AH/Day battery
load

Note: When sizing the battery for non-continuous loads, or for larger loads for short periods of
time per day, it may not be possible to use the 20, 24 or 120 hr. rate of discharge for the
batterys capacity. When discharged at different rates, a batterys capacity will vary. The
higher the rate of discharge the lower the capacity of the battery.


DAYS of AUTONOMY:

The sun does not shine with equal intensity every day, at night and during inclement weather.
Cloud cover, rain, snow, etc, diminish the daily Insolation (Insolation measured is the amount
of solar energy delivered to the earths surface. Insolation is measured in kWatts/meter
2
). A
storage factor must be employed to allow the photovoltaic battery system to operate reliably
throughout these periods.


In addition, it is desired to obtain the best service life of the battery by limiting its average daily
depth of discharge. This storage factor is commonly referred to as Number of Days of Battery
Autonomy. The number of days is established by evaluating the Peak Hours of Sun per Day
[(kW/m
2
)/day] for the lowest Insolation month of the year; with the solar array oriented for
maximum output during that month.

The minimum number of days that should be considered is 5 days of storage for even the


sunniest locations on earth. In these high sun locations there will be days when the sun is
obscured and the desired batterys average daily depth of discharge is limited to 20%.
Therefore, the recommended days of autonomy storage are listed on the following chart:

Recommended Days of Autonomy Storage
kW/m
2
/day Days of Storage
4.5+ 5
3.5 to 4.5 6
2.7 to 3.5 7
2.0 to 2.7 8
<2.0 Up to 14*
*Special Considerations Required


OPERATING TEMPERATURES:

The temperature of the battery can be a major factor in sizing the system. Lead acid battery
capacity is reduced in cold temperatures. Lead acid battery life is shortened in high
temperatures.

It should be noted that the temperature of the battery itself and ambient temperature can be
vastly different. While ambient temperatures can change very quickly, battery temperature
change is much slower. This is due the mass of the battery. It takes time for the battery to
absorb temperature and it takes time for the battery to relinquish temperature.

The batterys temperature is normally the average temperature for the past 24 hours plus or
minus a few degrees. In many cases it can be difficult or impossible to heat or cool the battery
and we must take temperature into consideration. A battery that is required to operate
continuously at 0 F. (-18 C.) will provide about 60% of its capacity. This same battery
operated continuously in a 95 F. (35 C.) environment can lose half its expected life.

The earth is a great heat sink which provides great insulation in high or low temperatures. By
burying the battery in the ground we can increase its capacity in cold temperatures and
increase the life of the battery in high temperatures. The battery with only 60% of its capacity
at 0 F. [-18 C.] can be brought up to 85% to 90% capacity by burying it. With life cut in half
at 95 F. [35 C.], burying the battery can bring it back to near normal life expectancy.

ENGINEERING DESIGN FACTOR:

Many battery manufacturers will advise sizing the battery for cyclic applications to a maximum
depth of discharge of 50%. That would mean doubling the size of the battery. Some batteries
have trouble recovering from deep discharges. That would mean for the 60 AH/Day load with
5 days of autonomy or 300 AH that they would advise using a 600 AH battery.

The Concorde Sun~Xtender

does not have this limitation. We consider that the battery is

replaceable when it does not provide 80% of its original capacity. Therefore, we recommend
that the same 300 AH requirement be divided by 0.80 to provide a reliable battery system. We
would recommend using a 375 AH battery. That represents a significant savings.

SUMMARY:

A properly designed PV system with adequate array, battery capacity and quality regulator
can provide a power source many years of highly reliable energy.

The batteries we are referencing in this report are the Concorde Sun~Xtender

Series
Sealed, Valve Regulated, Thick Plate, Absorbent Glass Mat [AGM] technology products
designed specifically for Photovoltaic/Wind [Alternate Energy] applications.

Other batteries, AGM, Gel or Flooded designed for general purpose cycle or stand-by usage
cannot be expected to perform to the same high level as our Sun~Xtender

Batteries.

ECEN 4517
1
Lecture: Lead-acid batteries
ECEN 4517/5517
How batteries work
Conduction mechanisms
Development of voltage at plates
Charging, discharging, and state of charge
Key equations and models
The Nernst equation: voltage vs. ion concentration
Battery model
Battery capacity and Peukerts law
Energy efciency, battery life, and charge proles
Coulomb efciency, voltage drops, and round-trip efciency
Battery life vs. depth of discharge
Charging strategies and battery charge controllers
ECEN 4517
2
Lead-acid battery: construction
Pb PbO
2
H
2
O
H
2
SO
4
Positive
electrode:
Lead-dioxide
Negative
electrode:
Porous
lead
Electrolyte: Sulfuric acid, 6 molar
How it works
Characteristics and
models
Charge controllers
ECEN 4517
3
Electrical conduction mechanisms
Pb
PbO
2
H
2
O
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
Lead and lead-dioxide are good
electrical conductors. The conduction
mechanism is via electrons jumping
between atoms.
The electrolyte contains aqueous ions
(H
+
and SO
4
-2
). The conduction
mechanism within the electrolyte is via
migration of ions via diffusion or drift.
Q: What are the physical mechanisms of conduction in the complete path from
one terminal, through an electrode, into the electrolyte, onto the other electrode,
and out the other terminal?
ECEN 4517
4
Conduction mechanism
at the surface of the electrode
Oxidation-reduction (Redox) reaction transfers charge from ions in solution
to conducting electrons in the electrode
At the surface of the lead (negative) electrode:
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
2
O
Lead
electrode
Sulfuric acid electrolyte
Charged sulfate ion approaches
uncharged lead atom on surface of
electrode
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
+2
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
2
O
Lead
electrode
Sulfuric acid electrolyte

Lead atom becomes ionized and forms

ionic bond with sulfate ion. Two electrons
are released into lead electrode
ECEN 4517
5
The chemical reaction (half reaction)
at the lead electrode
Pb + SO
4
2
PbSO
4
+ 2e

solid aqueous solid in conductor

Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
+2
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
2
O
Lead
electrode
Sulfuric acid electrolyte

This reaction releases net energy

E
0
= 0.356 eV
the Gibbs free energy, under standard
conditions (T = 298K, concentration = 1
molar)
Units: Energy = (charge)(voltage)
Energy in eV = (charge of electron)(1 V)
So the charge of the aqueous sulfate ion is transferred to two conducting
electrons within the lead electrode, and energy is released.
ECEN 4517
6
Conduction mechanism
at the surface of the positive electrode
Charged sulfate and hydrogen ions
approach lead-dioxide molecule (net
uncharged) on surface of electrode
Lead atom changes ionization and forms
ionic bond with sulfate ion. Two water
molecules are released into solution
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
2
O
Lead-
dioxide
electrode
Sulfuric acid electrolyte
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2

SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
2
O
Lead-
dioxide
electrode
Sulfuric acid electrolyte
Pb
+2
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2
H
2
O
H
2
O
Lead changes oxidation state from +4 to +2
Two electrons are removed from conduction band in electrode
ECEN 4517
7
The chemical reaction (half reaction)
at the lead-dioxide electrode
PbO
2
+ SO
4
2
+ 4H
+
+ 2e

solid aqueous aqueous in conductor

PbSO
4
+ 2H
2
O
solid liquid
This reaction releases net energy
E
0
= 1.685 eV
Net charge of two electrons is transferred
from the electrode into the electrolyte
Both half reactions cause the electrodes
to become coated with lead sulfate (a poor
conductor) and reduce the concentration
of the acid electrolyte
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
2
O
Lead-
dioxide
electrode
Sulfuric acid electrolyte
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2

ECEN 4517
8
How the battery develops voltage
Consider the following experiment:
New electrodes are placed inside electrolyte, with no external electrical
circuit connected
Pb
PbO
2
SO
4
-2
H
2
O
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
+2
Pb
0
Pb
0
Pb
0
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
2
O
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
2
O
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2
Pb
+4
O
2
O
2

The reactions start to occur

They use up aqueous ions near
electrodes
Diffusion within electrolyte
replenishes ions near electrodes
Excess electrons are created in
lead electrode, and electron
decit is created in lead-dioxide
electrode
Electric eld is generated at
electrode surfaces. This electric
eld opposes the ow of ions.
ECEN 4517
9
Battery voltage at zero current
Energy barriers at electrode surface
The chemical reactions at the
electrode surfaces introduce
electrons into the Pb electrode,
and create a deficit of electrons
in the PbO
2
electrode
These charges change the
voltages of the electrodes
The system reaches equilibrium
when the energy required to
deposit or remove an electron
equals the energy generated by
the reaction
Total voltage (at T = 298K and 1
molar acid electrolyte) is V
batt
=
0.356 + 1.685 = 2.041 V
Pb
PbO
2
H
2
O
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
v
V
batt

+
I
batt
E
o
/q
e
= 0.356 V
E
o
/q
e
= 1.685 V
Diffusion
Drift
Diffusion
Drift
ECEN 4517
10
Discharging
Connection of an electrical load allows
electrons to flow from negative to
positive terminals
This reduces the charge and the
voltages at the electrodes
The chemical reactions are able to
proceed, generating new electrons
and generating the power that is
converted to electrical form to drive
the external electrical load
As the battery is discharged, the
electrodes become coated with lead
sulfate and the acid electrolyte
becomes weaker
H
2
O
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
v
V
batt
< 2.041 V

+
I
batt
< 0.356 V
< 1.685 V
Pb
PbO
2
PbSO
4
Diffusion
Drift
Diffusion
Drift
R
ECEN 4517
11
Charging
Connection of an electrical power
source forces electrons to flow
from positive to negative
terminals
This increases the charge and the
voltages at the electrodes
The chemical reactions are driven in
the reverse direction, converting
electrical energy into stored
chemical energy
As the battery is charged, the lead
sulfate coating on the electrodes
is removed, and the acid
electrolyte becomes stronger
H
2
O
SO
4
-2
SO
4
-2
H
+
H
+
H
+
H
+
v
V
batt
> 2.041 V
+
I
batt
> 0.356 V
> 1.685 V
Pb
PbO
2
PbSO
4
External source of electrical power
Diffusion
Drift
Diffusion
Drift
ECEN 4517
12
Battery state of charge (SOC)
Fully Completely
Charged Discharged
State of charge: 100% 0%
Depth of discharge: 0% 100%
Electrolyte concentration: ~6 molar ~2 molar
Electrolyte specic gravity: ~1.3 ~1.1
No-load voltage: 12.7 V 11.7 V
(specic battery types may vary)
ECEN 4517
13
Battery voltage vs. electrolyte concentration
The Nernst equation relates the chemical reaction energy to electrolyte
energy:
E = E
0
+ (kT/q
e
) ln [(electrolyte concentration)/(1 molar)]
(idealized)
with
E = energy at a given concentration
E
0
= energy at standard 1 molar concentration
kT/q
e
= 26 mV at 298 K
Implications:
At fully charged state (6 molar), the cell voltage is a little higher than E
0
/q
e
As the cell is discharged, the voltage decreases
ECEN 4517
14
Voltage vs. electrolyte concentration
R. S. Treptow, The lead-acid battery: its voltage in theory and practice, J. Chem. Educ., vol. 79 no. 3, Mar. 2002
Voltage of lead-acid electrochemical cell
vs. electrolyte concentration, as
predicted by Nernst equation
Fully charged
Time to recycle
U
s
a
b
le

r
a
n
g
e
ECEN 4517
15
Mechanisms that affect terminal voltage
1. Equilibrium voltage changes with electrolyte concentration (as
described above Nernst equation)
2. With current ow, there are resistive drops in electrodes, especially in
surface lead-sulfate
3. With current ow, there is an electrolyte concentration gradient near
the electrodes. Hence lower concentration at electrode surface;
Nernst equation then predicts lower voltage
4. Additional surface chemistry issues: activation energies of surface
chemistry, energy needed for movement of reacting species through
electrodes
5. Physical resistance to movement of ions through electrodes
(2) - (5) can be modeled electrically as resistances
ECEN 4517
16
A basic battery model
+

V(SOC)
Ideal diodes
R
charge
(SOC)
R
discharge
(SOC)
+
V
batt

I
batt
SOC
0% 100%
V(SOC)
Rcharge(SOC)
Rdischarge(SOC)
Basic model Dependence of model parameters
on battery state of charge (SOC)
ECEN 4517
17
Types of lead-acid batteries
1. Car battery
SLI - starter lighting ignition
Designed to provide short burst of high current
Maybe 500 A to crank engine
Cannot handle deep discharge applications
Typical lifetime of 500 cycles at 20% depth of discharge
2. Deep discharge battery
We have these in power lab carts
More rugged construction
Bigger, thicker electrodes
Calcium (and others) alloy: stronger plates while maintaining low leakage current
More space below electrodes for accumulation of debris before plates are shorted
Ours are
Sealed, valve regulated, absorbent glass mat
Rated 56 A-hr at 2.33A (24 hr) discharge rate
ECEN 4517
18
Types of lead-acid batteries
3. Golf cart or forklift batteries
Similar to #2
Bigger, very rugged
Low cost established industry
Antimony alloy
Strong big electrodes
But more leakage current than #2
Can last 10-20 years
Nominal capacity: A-hrs @ 25C to 1.75 V/cell
36 A-hr
1 hr
56 A-hr 49 A-hr 46 A-hr 45 A-hr
24 hr 8 hr 4 hr 2 hr
Manufacturers specifications for our power lab batteries:
ECEN 4517
19
Battery capacity
The quantity C is defined as the current that discharges the battery in 1 hour,
so that the battery capacity can be said to be C Ampere-hours (units confusion)
If we discharge the battery more slowly, say at a current of C/10, then we might
expect that the battery would run longer (10 hours) before becoming
discharged. In practice, the relationship between battery capacity and
discharge current is not linear, and less energy is recovered at faster discharge
rates.
Peukerts Law relates battery capacity to discharge rate:
C
p
= I
k
t
where C
p
is the amp-hour capacity at a 1 A discharge rate
I is the discharge current in Amperes
t is the discharge time, in hours
k is the Peukert coefficient, typically 1.1 to 1.3
ECEN 4517
20
Example
Our lab batteries
k = 1.15
C = 36 A
C
p
= 63 A-hr
Prediction of Peukert
equation is plotted at left
Nominal capacity: A-hrs @ 25C to 1.75 V/cell
36 A-hr
1 hr
56 A-hr 49 A-hr 46 A-hr 45 A-hr
24 hr 8 hr 4 hr 2 hr
What the manufacturers
data sheet specified:
ECEN 4517
21
Energy efciency
Efciency = E
D
/E
C
E
C
= Total energy during charging = v
batt
(-i
batt
) dt V
C
I
C
T
C
E
D
= Total energy during discharging = v
batt
i
batt
dt V
D
I
D
T
D
Energy efficiency =
V
D
V
C
I
D
T
D
I
C
T
C
= voltage efficiency coulomb efficiency
+

V(SOC)
Ideal diodes
R
charge
(SOC)
R
discharge
(SOC)
+
V
batt

I
batt
Coulomb efciency = (discharge A-hrs)/(charge A-hrs)
Voltage efciency = (discharge voltage)/(charge voltage)
ECEN 4517
22
Energy efciency
Energy is lost during charging when reactions other than reversal of
sulfation occur
At beginning of charge cycle, coulomb efciency is
near 100%
Near end of charge cycle, electrolysis of water
reduces coulomb efciency. Can improve this
efciency by reducing charge rate (taper charging)
Typical net coulomb efciency: 90%
Approximate voltage efciency: (2V)/(2.3V) = 87%
Energy efciency = (87%)(90%) = 78%
Commonly quoted estimate: 75%
ECEN 4517
23
Battery life
ECEN 4517
24
Charge management
Over-discharge leads to sulfation and the battery is ruined. The reaction becomes
irreversible when the size of the lead-sulfate formations become too large
Overcharging causes other undesirable reactions to occur
Electrolysis of water and generation of hydrogen gas
Electrolysis of other compounds in electrodes and electrolyte, which can generate
poisonous gasses
Bulging and deformation of cases of sealed batteries
Battery charge management to extend life of battery:
Limit depth of discharge
When charged but not used, employ oat mode to prevent leakage currents from
discharging battery
Pulsing to break up chunks of lead sulfate
Trickle charging to equalize charges of series-connected cells
ECEN 4517
25
Charge prole
A typical good charge prole:
Bulk charging at maximum power
Terminate when battery is 80% charged
(when a voltage set point is reached)
Charging at constant voltage
The current will decrease
This reduces gassing and improves
charge efciency
Absorption or taper charging
Trickle charging / oat mode
Equalizes the charge on series-connected
cells without signicant gassing
Prevents discharging of battery by
leakage currents
Occasional pulsing helps reverse sulfation
of electrodes
The three-step charge profile used
by the chargers in our power lab
ECEN 4517
26
Charge and oat voltages
Good chargers can:
Program charge/oat
voltages to needs of
specic battery type
Temperature-compensate
the voltage set points
Maintain battery in fully
charged state (oat mode)
when in storage
Avoid overcharging
battery (charge voltage set
point)
Taper back charging
current to improve charge
efciency and reduce
outgassing
ECEN 4517
27
Battery charge controller
PV
array
Charge
controller
Inverter
AC
loads
Prevent sulfation of battery
Low SOC disconnect
Float or trickle charge mode
Control charge profile
Multi-mode charging, set points
Nightime disconnect of PV panel
Direct energy transfer
Charge battery by direct connection
to PV array
MPPT
Connect dc-dc converter between
PV array and battery; control this
converter with a maximum power
point tracker