Wind Tunnel Testing

PEMP
ACD2506
Session 10
Wind Tunnel Testing
Session delivered by: Session delivered by:
Prof M D Deshpande Prof M D Deshpande Prof. M. D. Deshpande Prof. M. D. Deshpande
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M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru
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ACD2506
Session Objectives
-- At the end of this session the delegate would have g
understood
How to non-dimensionalise the flow equations q
Significance of the non-dimensional numbers
Geometrical and dynamical similarity
Wind tunnels, details and principles of testing
Energy losses in a wind tunnel
Si ifi f b l l l i i d l
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10
Significance of turbulence level in a wind tunnel
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ACD2506
Session Topics
Non-dimensional Equations of Fluid Flow
Non-dimensionalising the equations and Origin of
non-dimensional parameters
Reynolds, Stokes and Womersley numbers
Geometrical and Dynamical Similarity
Wind Tunnels
Energy Losses in Wind Tunnels
Turbulence in Wind Tunnels Turbulence in Wind Tunnels
Turbulence Sphere
Wi d T l B l
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10
Wind Tunnel Balances
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Non Dimensional Equations of Non-Dimensional Equations of
Fluid Flow
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EXMP F ll d l d fl i h l (1) EXMP: Fully developed flow in a channel (1)
If the channel is of uniform cross-section and is sufficiently long,
flo reaches a state here there is no ariation r t the a ial flow reaches a state where there is no variation w.r.t. the axial
direction z. Pressure remains uniform in a cross-section but
decreases along z. This pressure drop is required to drive the flow
against viscous resistance.
These ideas apply to both the laminar and turbulent flows.
The length required for flow to reach such a state is known as the
entrance length L
e
.
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EXMP: Fully developed flow in a channel (2)
Once the flow is fully Once the flow is fully
developed pressure
gradient is constant and
pressure is linear in Z. pressure is linear in Z.
Then the velocity profile
is parabolic.
In the entrance region
pressure gradient and
wall shear stress are
higher.
Entrance length increases
linearly in Re for steady y y
laminar flow.
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From Lew & Fung
(1970)
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10
L
e
/ a = 0.16 Re. The constant used depends on the definition.
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The non-dimensional entrance length L
e
can be expressed in
terms of Re.
These ideas apply to both the laminar and turbulent flows.
The entrance length L
e
and it is given by the approximate g
e
g y pp
formula for a circular tube (Notice this):
L
e
/ dia = 0.06 Re (Laminar flow)
e
( )
= 4.4 (Re)
(1/6)
(Turbulent flow)
Diff t f l il bl f l R t Different formulae are available for low Re etc.
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Need for Dimensional Analysis
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ACD2506
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ACD2506
Dimensions and Equations Dimensions and Equations
Basic Dimensions: (F, L, T) OR (M, L, T)
F and Mare related by F = M a = M L T
-2
y
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ACD2506
Buckingham Theorem
In a physical problem including n dimensional variables in which
there are m dimensions the variable can be arranged into there are m dimensions, the variable can be arranged into
r = n m
independent nondimensional parameters
r
.
F(A
1
, A
2
, A
3
, ... , A
n
) = 0
f ( ) 0 (NOTE < ) f (
1
,
2
,
3
, . ,
r
) = 0. (NOTE: r < n)
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Buckingham Theorem (Contd)
A
i
s = Dimensional variables required to formulate the
problem (i = 1 n) problem (i 1, n)

j
s = Independent nondimensional parameters consisting of
groupings of A
i
s (j = 1, , r)
F and f represent functional relationships between A
i
s and f p p
i
j
s, respectively.
i th k f th di i l t i d i ll l t m is the rank of the dimensional matrix and is usually equal to
the number of dimensions involved.
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Q: If we know A
i
s, we get n, m &
j
s. But how to get A
i
s?
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Dynamic Similarity. Non-dimensional parameters (1)
If we know the governing equations, we can nondimensionalise
the equations and the
j
s will show up in the process.
j
The advantage we saw with the theorem is quite handy here
since the non-D equations need be solved only for r values
j
s. q y
j
We will see it with an example of the N-S equations. These
equations for a newtonian fluid with u
i
= (u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) are q
i
(
1
,
2
,
3
)
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Dynamic Similarity. Non-dimensional parameters (1)
It is convenient to put them in a non-dimensional form. It helps s co ve e o pu e o d e s o o . e ps
to study their qualitative behaviour. It also minimises the number of
parameters involved (Recall the PI Theorem).
For example: We can talk of flow resistance to the motion of a
sphere (irrespective of size) and irrespective of the fluid. Then the
drag coefficient depends on the Reynolds number irrespective of drag coefficient depends on the Reynolds number, irrespective of
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Only two parameters
instead of (Drag, a, , , u
). Only one graph covers the entire

flow regime. Model study is possible due to similarity.
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Non-dimensional form of the equations (1)
To non-dimensionalize the continuity and the N-S equations, To non dimensionalize the continuity and the N S equations,
take L, V & as the characteristic length, velocity & frequency
scales. Define the non-D variables with a prime:
Substitute these variables in the equations and define the non-D
parameters parameters
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Non-dimensional form of the equations (2)
The non-D continuity and x-momentum equations are
See that N
s
(or N
w
) appeared through which we may think of as
i h h f i b d di i f h appearing through a forcing boundary condition. If such a
frequency is not present in the system, a time scale ( L / V ) makes
N / N = 1 This simplifies the N-S equation to N
S
/ N
R
1. This simplifies the N-S equation to
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with Reynolds number as the only one non-D parameter.
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Geometrical and Dynamical Similarity
For two flows to be similar (i.e. we can scale and superpose one
h h ) h h b G i l i il i d l over the other) there has to be Geometrical similarity and also
the two non-D parameters N
S
& N
R
should be the same
(Dynamical similarity). Note that B.C.s should also satisfy the ( y c s y). No e .C.s s ou d so s s y e
similarity condition. New non-D parameters can be formed
through the B.C.s, which should also be matched.
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Non-dimensional parameters as force ratios
The two non-D parameters N
S
& N
R
can be interpreted as
force ratios: force ratios:
Since these parameters appeared in a momentum equation
they happen to be force ratios. Other non-D parameters may be
ratios of some other quantity, like length, time, velocity.
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Limiting cases
As one of the two non-D parameters N
S
& N
R
becomes very
large or very small, limiting results can be obtained
As the Reynolds number N
R
becomes very large the viscous term
becomes relatively less important, but only in the bulk of the flow. It
may remain important in a thin layer near a wall called the boundary may remain important in a thin layer near a wall called the boundary
layer. This happens because the no-slip boundary condition has to be
satisfied. If the viscous term becomes negligible and neglected, we
h i h d f h d are changing the order of the p.d.e.
As N
R
becomes very small, viscous forces predominate over
inertial forces. This is the Stokes flow. If the inertial term is
neglected the p.d.e. becomes linear but still remains second order.
Such flows occur in the capillaries and also in highly viscous fluids.
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p g y
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ACD2506
Wall shear in the Hagen-Poiseuille flow
Wall shear stress in this flow can be calculated from the formula
w
= (u / r) at r = a,
w
w
See carefully the dependence of on each one of ( , a, u , flow See carefully the dependence of
w
on each one of ( , a, u
m
, flow
rate and pressure gradient) keeping others fixed.
Define skin friction coefficient C
f
=
w
/ ( u
m
2
/ 2).
f w
(
m
)
Then C
f
= 16 / Re , where Re depends on mean velocity u
m
& 2a.
Note that C does not depend on wall material property
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Note that C
f
does not depend on wall material property.
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Wall resistance coefficient for fully developed flow y p
For turbulent flow C
f
depends on wall roughness (sand grain size).
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For laminar flow C
f
does not depend on wall roughness!
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Drag coefficient of a
smooth or rough flat
plate in Laminar / plate in Laminar /
Turbulent flow. This
plot is a flat-plate
l f M d analogue of Moody
diagram for a pipe.
From: F M White From: F.M. White
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Wind Tunnels
Wind tunnels are devices that provide air streams flowing under
controlled conditions so that models of interest can be tested using co o ed co d o s so ode s o e es c be es ed us g
them.
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Schematic of a low speed open-circuit wind tunnel
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Wind Tunnels
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Schematic of a low speed closed-circuit wind tunnel
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Power Losses in a Wind Tunnel
Power is required to maintain the flow in a wind tunnel and
the losses may be split into different parts: the losses may be split into different parts:
1. In cylindrical parts
2 I id l 2. In guide vales
3. In diffuser
4. In contraction cone
5. In honeycomb, screens
6. In test-section (jet losses in case of an open jet tunnel)
7 In exit in case of open circuit tunnel 7. In exit in case of open circuit tunnel
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Energy Loss in Different Parts of a Wind Tunnels (1)
The loss of energy is expressed in terms of static pressure drop
p, in the dimensionless form, called the pressure drop coefficient
K
But it is convenient to refer all losses to (a common) the test
section dynamic pressure q
o
. Hence
B i i l l i d l i i i l But q is proportional to velocity square and velocity is inversely
proportional to D
2
. Hence
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Energy Loss in Different Parts of a Wind Tunnels (2) gy ( )
Using the relations above the section loss
Here A
o
is the test-section area and A is the local area.
D i i i d b Density is approximated to be a constant.
Then Energy ratio is defined by
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Honeycombs y
The loss coefficients for different geometries are shown.
Q: Argue why these numbers look qualitatively correct Q: Argue why these numbers look qualitatively correct.
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Corner Vane Geometryy
Because of space limitations it becomes inevitable for sharp
turns in a wind tunnel Then we use guide vanes to turn the flow turns in a wind tunnel. Then we use guide vanes to turn the flow.
Typically the skin friction loss is 1/3 of the total corner loss.
Flow turning causes the other part of the corner loss.
C h i (G / h) 6 Common corner vanes have aspect ratio = vane gap (G / h) 6.
Here is loss experienced at Re = 40,000.
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Wire Gauge Screens g
Larger resistance by wire mesh if velocity is higher.
V
1
V
1,
Hence it tends to equalise
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Hence it tends to equalise
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Blowdown-Type Wind Tunnels yp
Schematic of the intermittent blowdown tunnel
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Continuous Supersonic Wind Tunnels p
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Schematic of the closed-circuit supersonic wind tunnel
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Blowdown Wind Tunnel Layout y
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Blowdown Wind Tunnel Operation (1) p ( )
is ratio of settling
chamber initial pressure to
the Reservoir initial the Reservoir initial
pressure.
In constant- p operation
as T goes up so does and
hence Re comes down.
We need constant Re
R ld b i ti ith t l i ti
We eed co sta t e
operation.
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Reynolds number variation with tunnel running time
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Blowdown Wind Tunnel Operation (2) p ( )
is ratio of settling chamber initial pressure to the Reservoir
initial pressure.
In constant throttle operation p(reservoir) goes down and hence In constant throttle operation p(reservoir) goes down and hence
does p(settling chamber) and consequently density, flow rate and
Re.
In constant- p operation p(settling chamber) is constant. This
can be done only by opening the throttle more. Hence T goes
down and so does and hence Re goes up.
We need constant Re operation.
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We need constant Re operation.
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ACD2506
Instrumentation and Calibration of Wind Tunnels
Flow Direction: We can use a Yaw sphere or a Claw yaw
meter meter.
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Turbulence in Wind Tunnels (1) ( )
It is necessary but not possible to make measurements at the
same turbulence level as that in the real flow same turbulence level as that in the real flow.
It is quite common that different wind tunnels have different
levels of turbulence and for this the results may depend on the
l d tunnel used.
From experience it is known that a test done in a tunnel at a
Reynolds number corresponds to a higher Re in free air. y p g
Hence we try to jack up the Reynolds number by Turbulence
factor TF, defined as
Here suffix e is for effective (free air) and c for critical in tunnel
This simple method has been used effectively. We estimate TF
hi h i f t b l l l i th t l
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which is a gross measure of turbulence level in the tunnel.
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ACD2506
Turbulence in Wind Tunnels (2) ( )
Turbulence in the TS of the tunnel is to be measured to
estimate Re from the measured value of Re estimate Re
e
from the measured value of Re
c
.
Test-section turbulence level is measured with
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ACD2506
Turbulence Sphere (1) p ( )
The drag coefficient of a sphere is very sensitive to the
Reynolds number in a certain range such that not just C but Reynolds number in a certain range such that not just C
D
, but
even drag D decreases with velocity.
In this method we measure D in the tunnel and calculate C
D
bby
Since it is known that the value of C
D
should be 0.30 in free
flight at Re
e
= 385,000, it is possible to calculate TF from the
measured Re from the graph shown in next figure and the measured Re
c
from the graph shown in next figure and the
formula
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The Drag Sphere
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The Pressure Sphere
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In the Pressure Sphere method force measurement is
eliminated eliminated.
The sphere has a hole at the front stagnation point and four
equally spaced interconnected orifices at 22.5 degrees from the
i i rear stagnation point.
The two leads measure the C
p
value at the front stagnation
point w.r.t. the four connected points. p p
This value of C
p
should be 1.22 at Re = 1,85,000, which
should also correspond to CD = 0.30. Hence the value of Re at
C = 1 22 gives the critical Reynolds number for the tunnel Rec C
p
1.22 gives the critical Reynolds number for the tunnel Rec.
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Turbulence Sphere (5) Turbulence Sphere (5)
Estimation of Turbulence
L l f th T b l Level from the Turbulence
Factor
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Turbulence Measurements using Hot-Wire (1) g ( )
Accurate measurements of turbulence levels are possible. We
define define
We know from hot-wire anemometry
It allows us to measure velocity It allows us to measure velocity.
T and T
a
are wire and room (ambient) temperatures, respectively.
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Total Pressure Rake
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Wind Tunnel balance
A balance allows to measure forces and moments.
The wind tunnel balances are broadly classified into The wind tunnel balances are broadly classified into
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The Wire Balance
Note: Tare Weight = Extra weight put to make adjustments.
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g g p j
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Strut-type Balance yp
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Platform-type Balance yp
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Strain-Gauge g
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Strain-Gauge Installation on a Balance Member g
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Summary
The following topics were dealt in this session
Non-dimensional Equations of Fluid Flow q
Non-dimensionalising the equations and Origin of non-
dimensional parameters
Reynolds, Stokes and Womersley numbers
Geometrical and Dynamical Similarity Geometrical and Dynamical Similarity
Wind Tunnels and Energy Losses in Wind Tunnels
T b l i Wi d T l Turbulence in Wind Tunnels
Turbulence Sphere
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Wind Tunnel Balances
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ACD2506
Thank you Thank you
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Wind Tunnel Testing

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). Only one graph covers the entire

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