Sharing Battery Knowledge

People want easy-to-read battery information. To share knowledge, I condensed the

material from Batteries in a Portable World, a book I wrote, into essays and
created www.BatteryUniversity.com. The website went on the air in 2003 and
quickly became a popular resource of battery information worldwide. New material
is being added as it becomes available.
Much of my writing comes from my personal experience working with batteries. I
also draw on test results from our own laboratories at Cadex. While laboratory
analyses have their rightful place, I respect the opinions of battery users,
especially the feedback from BatteryUniversity.com. This interface with the user
gives me an advantage in learning how the battery behaves in the field. Such
information is, in my opinion, more important than regurgitating reams of
laboratory tests. The critical mass speaks louder than fancy brochures and
printed specifications.
There is no black and white in the battery field, only many shades of gray. The
battery behaves much like us folks its a black box with a mind and mood of its
own; its mystical and unexplainable. For some users, the battery causes no
problems at all; for others its nothing but a problem.
When looking at a battery we must keep in mind that it is electrochemical. Its a
vessel that is slow to fill, holds relatively little storage capacity and has a
defined life span. Although critical improvements have been made over the years,
the progress is marginal compared with the vast advancements in microelectronics.
As long as the battery relies on an electrochemical process, limitations will
prevail.
As there is no perfect spouses or ideal employees, so also have batteries
strengths and limitations. The manufacturer has the choices of building a battery
for long runtimes and low cost, but this pack will have a limited service life.
Another variety is high load capabilities but this pack will be bulky. A third
group offers extended life but the battery is heavy and expensive.
Manufacturers of electronic devices base the performance on a perfect battery, a
condition that only exists when the battery is new. Runtime, low cost and safety
have been the number one criteria, and in consumer products longevity is often
neglected. With the electric vehicle, this emphasis is changing, a move that will
benefit the battery industry immensely. Meanwhile, there are ways to prolong
batteries and BatteryUniversity.com will assist.
BatteryUniversity.com is written for the professional user who needs a basic
understanding of battery behavior. It also served the ordinary user who wants to
get the more life out of a pack. The website stresses the strengths and
limitations of the battery, explains different battery types and provides useful
hints in choosing a battery. The website is easy and entertaining to read and
makes minimal use of technical jargon. BatteryUniversity.com addresses only
commercially available batteries and only mentions new developments in passing.
Since my background is electrical, I tackle batteries from the electrical side
and less on chemical reaction.
When was the Battery Invented?
One of the most remarkable and novel discoveries in the last 400 years was
electricity. We might ask, Has electricity been around that long? The answer is
yes, and perhaps much longer, but its practical use has only been at our disposal
since the mid to late 1800s, and in a limited way at first. One of the earliest
public works gaining attention was enlightening the 1893 Chicagos World Columbia
Exposition with 250,000 light bulbs, and illuminating a bridge over the river
Seine during the 1900 World Fair in Paris.
The use of electricity may go back further. While constructing a railway in 1936
near Baghdad, workers uncovered what appeared to be a prehistoric battery, also
known as the Parthian Battery. The object dates back to the Parthian period and
is believed to be 2,000 years old. The battery consisted of a clay jar that was
filled with a vinegar solution into which an iron rod surrounded by a copper
cylinder was inserted. This device produced 1.1 to 2.0 volts of electricity.
Figure 1 illustrates the Parthian Battery.

.
Figure 1: Parthian Battery. A clay jar of a prehistoric battery holds an iron rod
surrounded by a copper cylinder. When filled with vinegar or electrolytic
solution, the jar produces 1.1 to 2 volts.
Not all scientists accept the Parthian Battery as a source of energy. It is
possible that the device was used for electroplating, such as adding a layer of
gold or other precious metals to a surface. The Egyptians are said to have
electroplated antimony onto copper over 4,300 years ago. Archeological evidence
suggests the Babylonians were the first to discover and employ a galvanic
technique in the manufacturing of jewelry by using an electrolyte based on grape
juice to gold plate stoneware. The Parthians, who ruled Baghdad (ca. 250 BC), may
have used batteries to electroplate silver.
One of the earliest methods to generate electricity in modern times was through
creating a static charge. In 1660, Otto von Guericke constructed an electrical
machine using a large sulfur globe which, when rubbed and turned, attracted
feathers and small pieces of paper. Guericke was able to prove that the sparks
generated were electrical in nature.
The first practical use of static electricity was the electric pistol, which
Alessandro Volta (17451827) invented. He thought of providing long-distance
communications, albeit only one Boolean bit. An iron wire supported by wooden
poles was to be strung from Como to Milan, Italy. At the receiving end, the wire
would terminate in a jar filled with methane gas. To signal a coded event, an
electrical spark would be sent by wire for the purpose of detonating the electric
pistol. This communications link was never built. Figure 1-2 shows a pencil
rendering of Alessandro Volta.

Figure 2: Alessandro Volta, inventor
of the electric battery
Voltas discovery of the
decomposition of water by an
electrical current laid the
foundation of electrochemistry.
Courtesy of Cadex


In 1791, while working at Bologna University, Luigi Galvani discovered that the
muscle of a frog would contract when touched by a metallic object. This
phenomenon became known as animal electricity. Prompted by these experiments,
Volta initiated a series of experiments using zinc, lead, tin and iron as
positive plates (cathode); and copper, silver, gold and graphite as negative
plates (anode). The interest in galvanic electricity soon became widespread.
Early Batteries
Volta discovered in 1800 that certain fluids would generate a continuous flow of
electrical power when used as a conductor. This discovery led to the invention of
the first voltaic cell, more commonly known as the battery. Volta discovered
further that the voltage would increase when voltaic cells were stacked on top of
each other. Figure 3 illustrates such a serial connection.

Figure 1-3: Four variations
of Voltas electric battery
Metals in a battery have
different electrical effects.
Volta noticed that the voltage
potential with dissimilar
substances got stronger the
farther apart they were from
one another.
The first number in the metals
listed below is the affinity to
attract electrons; the second
is the standard potential from
the first oxidation state.
Zinc = 1.6 / -0.76 V
Lead = 1.9 / -0.13 V
Tin = 1.8 / -1.07 V
Iron = 1.8 / -0.04 V
Copper = 1.9 / 0.159 V
Silver = 1.9 / 1.98 V
Gold = 2.4 / 1.83 V
Carbon = 2.5 / 0.13 V
The metals determine the
battery voltage; they were
separated with moist paper
soaked in salt water.
Courtesy of Cadex
In the same year, Volta released his discovery of a continuous source of
electricity to the Royal Society of London. No longer were experiments limited to
a brief display of sparks that lasted a fraction of a second. An endless stream
of electric current now seemed possible.
France was one of the first nations to officially recognize Voltas discoveries.
This was during a time when France was approaching the height of scientific
advancements and new ideas were welcomed with open arms, helping to support of
the countrys political agenda. By invitation, Volta addressed the Institute of
France in a series of lectures at which Napoleon Bonaparte was present as a
member of the institute (see Figure 4).

Figure 4: Voltas
experimentations at the
Institute of France
Voltas discoveries so
impressed the world that
in November 1800 the
French National Institute
invited him to lectures
at events in which
Napoleon Bonaparte
participated. Napoleon
helped with the
experiments, drawing
sparks from the battery,
melting a steel wire,
discharging an electric
pistol and decomposing
water into its elements.
Courtesy of Cadex
In 1800, Sir Humphry
Davy, inventor of the miners safety lamp, began testing the chemical effects of
electricity and found out that decomposition occurred when passing electrical
current through substances. This process was later called electrolysis. He made
new discoveries by installing the worlds largest and most powerful electric
battery in the vaults of the Royal Institution of London. Connecting the battery
to charcoal electrodes produced the first electric light. Witnesses reported that
his voltaic arc lamp produced the most brilliant ascending arch of light ever
seen.
In 1802, William Cruickshank designed the first electric battery for mass
production. Cruickshank arranged square sheets of copper with equal-sized sheets
sizes of zinc. These sheets were placed into a long rectangular wooden box and
soldered together. Grooves in the box held the metal plates in position, and the
sealed box was then filled with an electrolyte of brine, or a watered-down acid.
This resembled the flooded battery that is still with us today. Figure 5
illustrates the battery workshop of Cruickshank.
Figure 5: Cruickshank and the
first flooded battery. William
Cruickshank, an English chemist,
built a battery of electric cells
by joining zinc and copper plates
in a wooden box filled with an
electrolyte solution. This flooded
design had the advantage of not
drying out with use and provided
more energy than Voltas disc
arrangement.
Courtesy of Cadex
Invention of the Rechargeable
Battery
In 1836, John F. Daniell, an
English chemist, developed an
improved battery that produced a
steadier current than earlier
devices. Until this time, all
batteries were primary, meaning
they could not be recharged. In
1859, the French physicist Gaston
Plant invented the first
rechargeable battery. It was based
on lead acid, a system that is
still used today.
In 1899, Waldmar Jungner from Sweden invented the nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd),
which used nickel for the positive electrode (cathode) and cadmium for the
negative (anode). High material costs compared to lead acid limited its use and
two years later, Thomas Edison produced an alternative design by replacing
cadmium with iron. Low specific energy, poor performance at low temperature and
high self-discharge limited the success of the nickel-iron battery. It was not
until 1932 that Shlecht and Ackermann achieved higher load currents and improved
the longevity of NiCd by inventing the sintered pole plate. In 1947, Georg
Neumann succeeded in sealing the cell.
For many years, NiCd was the only rechargeable battery for portable applications.
In the 1990s, environmentalists in Europe became concerned about environmental
contamination if NiCd were carelessly disposed; they began to restrict this
chemistry and asked the consumer industry to switch to Nickel-metal-hydride
(NiMH), an environmentally friendlier battery. NiMH is similar to NiCd, and many
predict that NiMH will be the stepping-stone to the more enduring lithium-ion
(Li-ion).Most research activities today revolve around improving lithium-based
systems. Besides powering cellular phones, laptops, digital cameras, power tools
and medical devices, Li-ion is also used for electric vehicles. The battery has a
number of benefits, most notably its high specific energy, simple charging, low
maintenance and being environmentally benign.
Electricity Through Magnetism
The discovery of how to generate electricity through magnetism came relatively
late. In 1820, Andr-Marie Ampre (17751836) noticed that wires carrying an
electric current were at times attracted to and at other times repelled from one
another. In 1831, Michael Faraday (17911867) demonstrated how a copper disc
provided a constant flow of electricity while revolving in a strong magnetic
field. Faraday, assisting Davy and his research team, succeeded in generating an
endless electrical force as long as the movement between a coil and magnet
continued. This led to the invention of the electric generator, and reversing the
process enabled the electric motor. Shortly thereafter, transformers were
developed that converted alternating current (AC) to any desired voltage. In
1833, Faraday established the foundation of electrochemistry on which Faradays
law is based. Faradays law of induction relates to electromagnetism linked to
transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors and generators.
Once the relationship with magnetism was understood, large generators began
producing a steady flow of electricity. Motors followed that enabled mechanical
movement, and the Edison light bulb appeared to conquer darkness. After George
Westinghouse lit up Chicago's World Columbian Exposition in 1893, Westinghouse
built three large generators to transform energy from the Niagara Falls to
electricity. The three-phase AC technology developed by Nikola Tesla enabled
transmission lines to carry electric power over great distances. Electricity was
thus made widely available to humanity to improve the quality of life.

Figure 6: 250,000 light bulbs illuminate Chicago's World Columbian Exposition in
1893.
The success of the electric light led to building three large hydro generators at
Niagara Falls.
Courtesy of the Brooklyn Museum Archives. Goodyear Archival Collection
The invention of the electronic vacuum tube in the early 1900s formed the
significant next step towards high technology, enabling frequency oscillators,
signal amplifications and digital switching. This led to radio broadcasting in
the 1920s and the first digital computer, called ENIAC, in 1946. The discovery of
the transistor in 1947 paved the way for the arrival of the integrated circuit 10
years later, and the microprocessor ushered in the Information Age, forever
changing the way we live and work.
Humanity depends on electricity, and with increased mobility people have
gravitated more and more towards portable power first for wheeled applications,
then portability and finally wearable use. As awkward and unreliable as the early
batteries may have been, future generations may look at todays technologies as
nothing more than clumsy experiments.
Battery Developments
Inventions in the 1700s and 1800s are well documented and credit goes to the
dignified inventors. Benjamin Franklin invented the Franklin stove, bifocal
eyeglasses and the lightning rod. He was unequaled in American history as an
inventor until Thomas Edison emerged. Edison was a good businessman who may have
taken credit for inventions others had made. Contrary to popular belief, Edison
did not invent the light bulb; he improved upon a 50-year-old idea by using a
small, carbonized filament lit up in a better vacuum. Although a number of people
had worked on this idea before, Edison gained the financial reward by making the
concept commercially viable to the public. The phonograph is another success
story for which Edison received due credit.
Countries often credit their own citizens for having made important inventions,
whether or not they deserve it. When visiting museums in Europe, the USA and
Japan one sees such bestowment. The work to develop the car, x-ray machines,
telephones, broadcast radio, televisions and computers might have been done in
parallel, not knowing of others advancements at that time, and the rightful
inventor is often not clearly identified. Similar uncertainties exist with the
invention of new battery systems, and we give respect to research teams and
organizations rather than individuals. Table 1 summarizes battery advancements
and lists inventors when available.
Year Inventor Activity
1600 William Gilbert (UK) Establishment of electrochemistry study
1791 Luigi Galvani (Italy) Discovery of animal electricity
1800
1802
1820
Alessandro Volta (Italy)
William Cruickshank (UK)
Andr-Marie Ampre (France)
Invention of the voltaic cell (zinc, copper
disks)
First electric battery capable of mass
1833
1836
1839
1859
1868
1899
Michael Faraday (UK)
John F. Daniell (UK)
William Robert Grove (UK)
Gaston Plant (France)
Georges Leclanch (France)
Waldmar Jungner (Sweden)
production
Electricity through magnetism
Announcement of Faradays law
Invention of the Daniell cell
Invention of the fuel cell (H
2
/O
2
)
Invention of the lead acid battery
Invention of the Leclanch cell (carbon-
zinc)
Invention of the nickel-cadmium battery
1901
1932
1947
1949
1970s
1990
1991
1994
1996
1996
Thomas A. Edison (USA)
Shlecht & Ackermann (D)
Georg Neumann (Germany)
Lew Urry, Eveready Battery
Group effort
Group effort
Sony (Japan)
Bellcore (USA)
Moli Energy (Canada)
University of Texas (USA)
Invention of the nickel-iron battery
Invention of the sintered pole plate
Successfully sealing the nickel-cadmium
battery
Invention of the alkaline-manganese battery
Development of valve-regulated lead acid
battery
Commercialization of nickel-metal-hydride
battery
Commercialization of lithium-ion battery
Commercialization of lithium-ion polymer
Introduction of Li-ion with manganese
cathode
Identification of Li-phosphate (LiFePO
4
)
2002 University of Montreal,
Quebec Hydro, MIT, others
Improvement of Li-phosphate, nanotechnology,
commercialization
Table 1: History of modern battery development. No new major battery system has
entered the commercial market since the invention of Li-phosphate in 1996.
Battery Developments
Inventions in the 1700s and 1800s are well documented and credit goes to the
dignified inventors. Benjamin Franklin invented the Franklin stove, bifocal
eyeglasses and the lightning rod. He was unequaled in American history as an
inventor until Thomas Edison emerged. Edison was a good businessman who may have
taken credit for inventions others had made. Contrary to popular belief, Edison
did not invent the light bulb; he improved upon a 50-year-old idea by using a
small, carbonized filament lit up in a better vacuum. Although a number of people
had worked on this idea before, Edison gained the financial reward by making the
concept commercially viable to the public. The phonograph is another success
story for which Edison received due credit.
Countries often credit their own citizens for having made important inventions,
whether or not they deserve it. When visiting museums in Europe, the USA and
Japan one sees such bestowment. The work to develop the car, x-ray machines,
telephones, broadcast radio, televisions and computers might have been done in
parallel, not knowing of others advancements at that time, and the rightful
inventor is often not clearly identified. Similar uncertainties exist with the
invention of new battery systems, and we give respect to research teams and
organizations rather than individuals. Table 1 summarizes battery advancements
and lists inventors when available.
Year Inventor Activity
1600 William Gilbert (UK) Establishment of electrochemistry study
1791 Luigi Galvani (Italy) Discovery of animal electricity
1800
1802
1820
1833
1836
1839
1859
1868
1899
Alessandro Volta (Italy)
William Cruickshank (UK)
Andr-Marie Ampre
(France)
Michael Faraday (UK)
John F. Daniell (UK)
William Robert Grove (UK)
Gaston Plant (France)
Georges Leclanch (France)
Waldmar Jungner (Sweden)
Invention of the voltaic cell (zinc, copper
disks)
First electric battery capable of mass
production
Electricity through magnetism
Announcement of Faradays law
Invention of the Daniell cell
Invention of the fuel cell (H
2
/O
2
)
Invention of the lead acid battery
Invention of the Leclanch cell (carbon-
zinc)
Invention of the nickel-cadmium battery
1901
1932
1947
1949
Thomas A. Edison (USA)
Shlecht & Ackermann (D)
Georg Neumann (Germany)
Lew Urry, Eveready Battery
Invention of the nickel-iron battery
Invention of the sintered pole plate
Successfully sealing the nickel-cadmium
battery
Invention of the alkaline-manganese battery
1970s
1990
1991
1994
1996
1996
Group effort
Group effort
Sony (Japan)
Bellcore (USA)
Moli Energy (Canada)
University of Texas (USA)
Development of valve-regulated lead acid
battery
Commercialization of nickel-metal-hydride
battery
Commercialization of lithium-ion battery
Commercialization of lithium-ion polymer
Introduction of Li-ion with manganese
cathode
Identification of Li-phosphate (LiFePO
4
)
2002
University of Montreal,
Quebec Hydro, MIT, others
Improvement of Li-phosphate,
nanotechnology, commercialization

Table 1: History of modern battery development. No new major battery system has
entered the commercial market since the invention of Li-phosphate in 1996.
Global Battery Markets
The battery market is expanding, and the global revenue in 2009 was a whopping
$47.5 billion.* With the growing demand for portable electronics and the desire
to connect and work outside the confines of four walls, experts predict that this
figure will reach $74 billion in 2015. These numbers are speculative and include
batteries for the electric powertrain of cars.
An Overview of Battery Types
Batteries are divided into two categories: primary and secondary. In 2009,
primary batteries made up 23.6 percent of the global market. Frost & Sullivan
(2009) predict a 7.4 percent decline of the primary battery in revenue
distribution by 2015. Primary batteries are used in watches, electronic keys,
remote controls, childrens toys, light beacons and military devices.
The real growth lies in secondary batteries. Frost & Sullivansay that
rechargeable batteriesaccount for 76.4 percent of the global market, a number
that is expected to increase to 82.6 percent in 2015. Batteries are also
classified by chemistry and the most common are lithium-, lead-, and nickel-based
systems. Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of these chemistries.

Figure 1: Revenue contributions by different battery chemistries
Courtesy of Frost & Sullivan (2009)
Lithium-ion is the battery of choice for consumer products, and no other systems
threaten to interfere with its dominance at this time. The lead acid market is
similar in size to Li-ion. Here the applications are divided into SLI (starter
battery) for automotive, stationary for power backup, and deep-cycle for wheeled
mobility such as golf cars, wheelchairs and scissor lifts. Lead acid holds a
solid position, as it has done for the last hundred years. There are no other
systems that threaten to unseat this forgiving and low-cost chemistry any time
soon.
High specific energy and long storage has made alkaline more popular than carbon-
zinc, which Georges Leclanch invented in 1868. The environmentally benign
nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) continues to hold an important role, as it replaces
many applications previously served by nickel-cadmium (NiCd). However, at only
three percent market share, NiMH is a minor player in the battery world and will
likely relinquish more of its market to Li-ion by 2015.
Developing nations will contribute to future battery sales, and new markets are
the electric bicycle in Asia and storage batteries to supply electric power to
remote communities in Africa and other parts of the world. Wind turbines, solar
power and other renewable sources also use storage batteries for load leveling.
The large grid storage batteries used for load leveling collect surplus energy
from renewable resources during high activity and supply extra power on heavy
user demand. Read more about Batteries for Stationary, Grid Storage.
A major new battery user might be the electric powertrain for personal cars.
However, battery cost and longevity will dictate how quickly the automotive
sector will adopt this new propulsion system. Energy from oil is cheap,
convenient and readily available; any alternative faces difficult challenges.
Government incentives may be provided, but such intervention distorts the true
cost of energy, shields the underlying problem with fossil fuel and only
satisfies certain lobby groups through short-term solutions.
During the last five years or so, no new battery system has emerged that can
claim to offer disruptive technology. Although much research is being done, no
new concept is ready to enter the market at the time of writing, nor are new
developments close to breakthrough point. There are many reasons for this
apparent lack of progress: few products have requirements that are as stringent
as the battery. For example, battery users want low price, long life, high
specific energy, safe operation and minimal maintenance. In addition, the battery
must work at hot and cold temperatures, deliver high power on demand and charge
quickly. Only some of these attributes are achievable with various battery
technologies.
Most consumers are satisfied with the battery performance on portable devices.
Todays battery technology also serves power backup and wheeled mobility
reasonably well. Using our current battery technology for electric powertrains on
cars, however, might prove difficult because the long-term effects in that
environment are not fully understood. The switch to a power source offering a
fraction of the kinetic energy compared to fossil fuels will be an eye-opener for
motorists who continually demand larger vehicles with more. Read more about the
Cost of Power.
Advancements in Batteries
Batteries advance on two fronts, and these developments reflect themselves in
increased specific energy for longer runtimes and improved specific power for
good power delivery on demand. Figure 2 illustrates the energy and power
densities of lead acid, nickel-cadmium (NiCd), nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) and
the Li-ion family (Li-ion).

Figure 1-8: Specific energy and specific power of rechargeable batteries.
Specific energy is the capacity a battery can hold in watt-hours per kilogram
(Wh/kg); specific power is the batterys ability to deliver power in watts per
kilogram (W/kg).
Rechargeable lithium-metal batteries (Li-metal) were introduced in the 1980s, but
instability with metallic lithium on the anode prompted a recall in 1991. Its
high specific energy and good power density are challenging manufacturers revisit
into this powerful chemistry again. Enhanced safety may be possible by mixing
metallic lithium with tin and silicon. Experimental Li-metal batteries achieve
300Wh/kg, a specific energy that is of special interest to the electric vehicle.
Read more about Experimental Rechargeable Batteries.
* All references to dollar ($) pricing are in US dollars at the time of writing.
Getting to Know the Battery
The battery dictates the speed with which mobility advances. So important is this
portable energy source that any incremental improvement opens new doors for many
products. The better the battery, the greater our liberty will become.
Besides packing more energy into the battery, engineers have also made strides in
reducing power consumption of portable equipment. These advancements go hand-in-
hand with longer runtimes but are often counteracted by the demand for additional
features and more power. The end result is similar runtimes but enhanced
performance.
The battery has not advanced at the same speed as microelectronics, and the
industry has only gained 8 to 10 percent in capacity per year during the last two
decades. This is a far cry from Moores Law* that specifies a doubling of the
number of transistors in an integrated circuit every two years. Instead of two
years, the capacity of lithium-ion took 10 years to double.
In parallel with achieving capacity gain, battery makers must also focus on
improving manufacturing methods to ensure better safety. The recent recall of
millions of lithium-cobalt packs caused by thermal runaway is a reminder of the
inherent risk in condensing too much energy into a small package. Better
manufacturing practices should make such recalls a thing of the past. A
generation of Li-ion batteries is emerging that are built for longevity. These
batteries have a lower specific energy (capacity) than those for portable
electronics and are increasingly being considered for the electric powertrain of
vehicles.
People want an inexhaustible pool of energy in a package that is small, cheap,
safe and clean, and the battery industry can only fulfill this desire partially.
As long as the battery is an electrochemical process, there will be limitations
on capacity and life span. Only a revolutionary new storage system could satisfy
the unquenchable thirst for mobile power, and its anyones guess whether this
will be lithium-air, the fuel cell, or some other ground-breaking new power
generator, such as atomic fusion. For most of us, the big break might not come in
our lifetime.
Meeting Expectations
Many battery novices argue, wrongly, that all advanced battery systems offer high
energy densities, deliver thousands of charge/discharge cycles and come in a
small size. While some of these attributes are possible, this is not attainable
in one and the same battery in a given chemistry.
A battery may be designed for high specific energy and small size, but the cycle
life is short. Another battery may be built for high load capabilities and
durability, and the cells are bulky and heavy. A third pack may have high
capacity and long service life, but the manufacturing cost is out of reach for
the average consumer. Battery manufacturers are well aware of customer needs and
respond by offering products that best suit the application intended. The mobile
phone industry is an example of this clever adaptation. The emphasis is on small
size, high energy density and low price. Longevity is less important here.
The terms nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) do not
automatically mean high specific energy. For example, NiMH for the electric
powertrain in vehicles has a specific energy of only 45Wh/kg, a value that is not
much higher than lead acid. The consumer NiMH, in comparison, has about 90Wh/kg.
The Li-ion battery for hybrid and electric vehicles can have a specific energy as
low as 60Wh/kg, a value that is comparable with nickel-cadmium. Li-ion for cell
phones and laptops, on the other hand, has two to three times this specific
energy.
The Cadex-sponsored website www.BatteryUniversity.com generates many interesting
questions. Those that stand out are, Whats the best battery for a remote-
controlled car, a portable solar station, an electric bicycle or electric car?
There is no universal battery that fits all needs and each application is unique.
Although lithium-ion would in most instances be the preferred choice, high price
and the need for an approved protection circuit exclude this system from use by
many hobbyists and small manufacturers. Removing Li-ion leads back to the nickel-
and lead-based options. Consumer products may have benefited the most from
battery advancements. High volume made Li-ion relatively inexpensive.
Will the battery replace the internal combustion engine of cars? It may come as a
surprise to many that we dont yet have an economical battery that allows long-
distance driving and lasts as long as the car. Batteries work reasonably well for
portable applications such as cell phones, laptops and digital cameras. Low power
enables an economical price; the relative short battery life is acceptable in
consumer products; and we can live with a decreasing runtime. While the fading
capacity can be annoying, it does not endanger safety.
As we examine the characteristics of battery systems and compare alternative
power sources, such as the fuel cell and the internal combustion (IC) engine, we
realize that the battery is best suited for portable and stationary systems. For
motive applications such as trains, ocean going ships and aircraft, the battery
lacks capacity, endurance and reliability. The dividing line, in my opinion, lies
with the electric vehicle.
* In 1965, Gordon Moore said that the number of transistors in an integrated
circuit would double every two years. The prediction became true and is being
carried into the 21st century. Applied to a battery, Moores Law would shrink a
starter battery in a car to the size of a coin.
Comparing the Battery with other Power Sources
This article begins with the positive traits of the battery, and then moves into
the limitations when compared with other power sources.
Energy storage
Batteries store energy well and for a considerable length of time. Primary
batteries (non-rechargeable) hold more energy than secondary (rechargeable), and
the self-discharge is lower. Alkaline cells are good for 10 years with minimal
losses. Lead-, nickel- and lithium-based batteries need periodic recharges to
compensate for lost power.
Specific energy (Capacity)
A battery may hold adequate energy for portable use, but this does not transfer
equally well for large mobile and stationary systems. For example, a 100kg
(220lb) battery produces about 10kWh of energy an IC engine of the same weight
generates 100kW.
Responsiveness
Batteries have a huge advantage over other power sources in being ready to
deliver on short notice think of the quick action of the camera flash! There is
no warm-up, as is the case with the internal combustion (IC) engine; the power
from the battery flows within a fraction of a second. In comparison, a jet engine
takes several seconds to gain power, a fuel cell requires a few minutes, and the
cold steam engine of a locomotive needs hours to build up steam.
Power bandwidth
Rechargeable batteries have a wide power bandwidth, a quality that is shared with
the diesel engine. In comparison, the bandwidth of the fuel cell is narrow and
works best within a specific load. Jet engines also have a limited power
bandwidth. They have poor low-end torque and operate most efficiently at a
defined revolution-per-minute (RPM).
Environment
The battery runs clean and stays reasonably cool. Sealed cells have no exhaust,
are quiet and do not vibrate. This is in sharp contrast with the IC engine and
larger fuel cells that require noisy compressors and cooling fans. The IC engine
also needs air and exhausts toxic gases.
Efficiency
The battery is highly efficient. Below 70 percent charge, the charge efficiency
is close to 100 percent and the discharge losses are only a few percent. In
comparison, the energy efficiency of the fuel cell is 20 to 60 percent, and the
thermal engines is 25 to 30 percent. (At optimal air intake speed and
temperature, the GE90-115 on the Boeing 777 jetliner is 37 percent efficient.)
Installation
The sealed battery operates in any position and offers good shock and vibration
tolerance. This benefit does not transfer to the flooded batteries that must be
installed in the upright position. Most IC engines must also be positioned in the
upright position and mounted on shock- absorbing dampers to reduce vibration.
Thermal engines also need air and an exhaust.
Operating cost
Lithium- and nickel-based batteries are best suited for portable devices; lead
acid batteries are economical for wheeled mobility and stationary applications.
Cost and weight make batteries impractical for electric powertrains in larger
vehicles. The price of a 1,000-watt battery (1kW) is roughly $1,000 and it has a
life span of about 2,500 hours. Adding the replacement cost of $0.40/h and an
average of $0.10/kWh for charging, the cost per kWh comes to about $0.50. The IC
engine costs less to build per watt and lasts for about 4,000 hours. This brings
the cost per 1kWh to about $0.34. Read more about the Battery Against Fossil
Fuel.
Maintenance
With the exception of watering of flooded lead batteries and discharging NiCds to
prevent memory, rechargeable batteries require low maintenance. Service
includes cleaning of corrosion buildup on the outside terminals and applying
periodic performance checks.
Service life
The rechargeable battery has a relatively short service life and ages even if not
in use. In consumer products, the 3- to 5-year lifespan is satisfactory. This is
not acceptable for larger batteries in industry, and makers of the hybrid and
electric vehicles guarantee their batteries for 8 to 10 years. The fuel cell
delivers 2,000 to 5,000 hours of service and, depending on temperature, large
stationary batteries are good for 5 to 20 years.
Temperature extremes
Like molasses, cold temperatures slow the electrochemical reaction and batteries
do not perform well below freezing. The fuel cell shares the same problem, but
the internal combustion engine does well once warmed up. Charging must always be
done above freezing. Operating at a high temperature provides a performance boost
but this causes rapid aging due to added stress. Read about Discharging at High
and Low Temperatures.
Charge time
Here, the battery has an undisputed disadvantage. Lithium- and nickel-based
systems take 1 to 3 hours to charge; lead acid typically takes 14 hours. In
comparison, filling up a vehicle only takes a few minutes. Although some electric
vehicles can be charged to 80 percent in less than one hour on a high-power
outlet, users of electric vehicles will need to make adjustments.
Disposal
Nickel-cadmium and lead acid batteries contain hazardous material and cannot be
disposed of in landfills. Nickel-metal-hydrate and lithium systems are
environmentally friendly and can be disposed of with regular household items in
small quantities. Authorities recommend that all batteries be recycled.
Battery Definitions
Batteries come in all shapes and sizes and there could be as many types as there
are species of dog. Rather than giving batteries unique names as we do with pets,
we distinguish batteries by chemistry, voltage, size, specific energy (capacity),
specific power, (delivery of power) and more. A battery can operate as a single
cell to power a cellular phone, or be connected in series to deliver several
hundred volts to serve a UPS (uninterruptible power supply system) and the
electric powertrain of a vehicle. Some batteries have high capacity but cannot
deliver much power, while a starter battery has a relatively low capacity but can
crank the engine with 300A.
The largest battery systems are used for grid storage to store and delivery
energy derived from renewable power sources such as wind turbines and solar
systems. A 30-megawatt (MW) wind farm uses a storage battery of about 15MW. This
is the equivalent of 20,000 starter batteries and costs about $10 million. One
mega-watt feeds 50 houses or a super Walmart store. Lets now examine each of the
battery characteristics further.
Chemistry
The most common chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium. Each system requires
its own charging algorithm. Unless provisions are made to change the charge
setting, different battery chemistries cannot be interchanged in the same
charger. Also observe the chemistry when shipping and disposing of batteries;
each type has a different regulatory requirement.
Voltage
The imprinted voltage refers to the nominal battery voltage. Always observe the
correct voltage when connecting to a load or a charger. Do not proceed if the
voltage differs. The open circuit voltage (OCV) on a fully charged battery can be
slightly higher than the nominal; the closed circuit voltage (CCV) represents the
battery voltage under load or on charge and the readings will vary accordingly.
Capacity
Capacity represents the specific energy in ampere-hours (Ah). Manufacturers often
overrate a battery by giving a higher Ah rating than it can provide. You can use
a battery with different Ah (but correct voltage), provided the rating is high
enough. Chargers have some tolerance to batteries with different Ah ratings. A
larger battery will take longer to charge than a small one.
Cold cranking amps (CCA)
CCA specifies the ability to draw high load current at 18C (0F) on starter
batteries. Different norms specify dissimilar load durations and end voltages.
See Abbreviations / Conversions.
Specific energy and energy density
Specific energy or gravimetric energy density defines the battery capacity in
weight (Wh/kg); energy density or volumetric energy density is given in size
(Wh/l). A battery can have a high specific energy but poor specific power (load
capability), as is the case in an alkaline battery. Alternatively, a battery may
have a low specific energy but can deliver high specific power, as is possible
with the supercapacitor. Specific energy is synonymous with battery capacity and
runtime.
Specific power
Specific power or gravimetric power density indicates the loading capability, or
the amount of current the battery can provide. Batteries for power tools exhibit
high specific power but have reduced specific energy (capacity). Specific power
is synonymous with low internal resistance and the delivery of power.
C-rates
C-rates specify charge and discharge currents. At 1C, the battery charges and
discharges at a current that is par with the marked Ah rating; at 0.5C the
current is half, and at 0.1C it is one tenth. On charge, 1C charges a good
battery in about one hour; 0.5C takes 2 hours and 0.1C 10 to 14 hours. Read more
about What is the C-rate?
Load
A load draws energy from the battery. Internal battery resistance and depleting
state-of-charge cause the voltage to drop. Physical work over time is energy
measured in Watt-hours (Wh).
Watts and Volt-amps (VA)
Power drawn from a battery is expressed in watts (W) or volt-amps (VA). Watt is
the real power that is being metered; VA is the apparent power that determines
the wiring sizing and the circuit breakers. On a purely resistive load, watt and
VA readings are alike; a reactive load such as an inductive motor or florescent
light causes a drop in the power factor (pf) from the ideal one (1) to 0.7 or
lower. For example, a pf of 0.7 has a power efficiency of 70.
Primary Batteries
The growth has been in secondary batteries (rechargeable) but non-rechargeable or
primary batteries are equally important. They continue to fill an important niche
market in applications such as wristwatches, remote controls, electric keys and
childrens toys. Primary batteries also assist when charging is impractical or
impossible, such as military combat, rescue missions and forest-fire services.
Other applications of primary batteries are tire pressure gauges in cars and
trucks, transmitters for bird tracking, pacemakers for heart patients,
intelligent drill bits for mining,as well as light beacons and remote repeater
stations. High specific energy, long storage times and operational readiness make
this battery well suited for such applications. The battery can be carried to
remote locations and used instantly, even after long storage. Most primary
batteries are inexpensive, readily available and environmentally friendly.
Carbon-zinc, also known as the Leclanch battery, is the least expensive battery
and comes with consumer devices when batteries are included. These general
purpose batteries are used for applications with low power drain, such as remote
controls, flashlights, childrens toys and wall clocks. One of the most common
primary batteries for consumers is the alkaline-manganese, or alkaline for short.
Lewis Urry invented it in 1949 while working with the Eveready Battery Company
Laboratory in Parma, Ohio. Alkaline delivers more energy at higher load currents
than carbon-zinc. Best of all, alkaline does not leak when depleted, as carbon-
zinc does. On the negative side, alkaline is more expensive than carbon-zinc.
Primary batteries have one of the highest energy densities. Although secondary
batteries have improved, a regular household alkaline provides 50 percent more
energy than lithium-ion. The most energy-dense primary is the lithium battery
made for film cameras and military combat. It holds more than three times the
energy of lithium-ion and comes in various blends, such as lithium-metal, lithium
manganese dioxide, lithium-sulfur dioxide, lithium-thionyl chloride, lithium
oxygen and others. Figure 1 compares the typical gravimetric energy densities of
lead acid, NiMH, Li-ion, alkaline and lithium primary batteries.

Figure 1: Specific energy comparison of secondary and primary batteries
Secondary batteries are typically rated at 1C; alkaline uses much lower discharge
currents.
Courtesy of Cadex
Specific energy indicates the energy a battery can hold. This, however, does not
guarantee delivery. Primary batteries tend to have high internal resistance,
which limits the discharge to light loads such as remote controls, flashlights
and portable entertainment devices. Digital cameras are borderline a power
drill on alkaline would be unthinkable.
Manufacturers of primary batteries only specify specific energy; the specific
power (ability to deliver power) is not published. While most secondary batteries
are rated at a discharge current of 1C, the capacity of primary batteries is
measured by discharging them at a very low current of 25mA, or a fraction of a C.
In addition, the batteries are allowed to go down to a very low voltage of 0.8
volts per cell. This evaluation method provides impressive readings on paper, but
the results are poor under a more demanding load.
Figure 2 compares performance of primary and secondary batteries on a discharge
of 1C. The results are indicated in Actual and Rated. Actual is the Wh/kg derived
at a 1C discharge, Rated is the Wh/kg the manufacturer specifies when discharged
at a much low current. While the primary batteries do well on a discharge
representing entertainment device, secondary batteries have lower capacities but
are more resilient at a load of 1C.

Figure 2: Energy comparison under load. Rated refers to a mild discharge;
Actual is a load at 1C. High internal resistance limits alkaline battery to
light loads.
Courtesy of Cadex
The reason for the sharp performance drop on primary batteries is the high
internal resistance, which causes the voltage to drop under load. The already
high resistance increases further as the battery depletes on discharge. When the
battery goes flat on a digital camera, for example, precious capacity is often
left behind. A spent alkaline can often power a kitchen clock for two years.
Figure 2 above shows the largest discrepancy between Rated and Actual on
alkaline. A long-life alkaline (not shown on chart) will deliver better results.
Table 3 illustrates the capacity of standard alkaline batteries with loads that
are typical of personal entertainment devices or small flashlights. Discharging
at fractional C-rates produces high capacities; increasing the discharge rate
would drastically reduce it.

Table 3: Alkaline specifications. The discharge resembles entertainment devices
with low loads.
Courtesy of Panasonic
The use of primary batteries can be expensive, and the inability to recharge
increases the cost of power by about thirty fold over secondary batteries. The
pricing issue becomes even more acute if the packs are being replaced after each
mission, regardless of length of service. Discarding partially used batteries is
common, especially in fleet applications and critical missions. It is more
convenient and safer to simply issue the troops fresh packs with each call rather
than estimating the remaining state-of-charge. A US Army general once said that
half of the batteries discarded still have 50 percent energy left.
Estimating the battery state-of-charge would help, but such instruments are
expensive and inaccurate. The most basic method is measuring the open circuit
voltage and reading the internal resistance by applying a brief load and checking
the voltage drop. A large voltage differential would relate to rising resistance,
a hint to the end of life. A more accurate way is to count the out-flowing
energy, a measurement that is also known as coulomb counting, but this requires
expensive circuitry. See How to Measure State-of-charge. Due to high cost and
inherent inaccuracies, fuel gauges are seldom used on primary batteries.
Choices of Primary Batteries
Early batteries were used mainly for experimental purposes. Voltages fluctuated
under load and made them impractical for most applications. In 1836, John F.
Daniell, an English chemist, developed an improved battery that offered more
stable current delivery and was suitable to supply power to telegraph networks
since electrical distribution networks did not exist at the time. These early
batteries were non-rechargeable (primary) and it was not until 1859 when the
French physician Gaston Plant invented the first rechargeable battery based on
the lead acid chemistry. Read more about When Was the Battery Invented?
Carbon-zinc, also known as the Leclanch battery, was one of the first commercial
batteries. The early Leclanch cell in 1876 was wet, and the dry cell was
developed in 1886. The first consumer carbon-zinc batteries for flashlights
appeared in 1898, a development that formed the Eveready battery company. Carbon-
zinc is the least expensive battery and normally comes with consumer devices when
batteries are included. These general purpose batteries are used for low power
drain applications, such as remote controls, flashlights, childrens toys and
wall clocks.
One of the most common primary batteries for consumers is the alkaline-manganese,
or Alkaline for short. Lewis Urry invented the Alkaline in 1949 while working
with the Eveready Battery Company Laboratory in Parma, Ohio. Alkaline delivers
more energy at higher load currents than carbon-zinc and it does not leak when
depleted, although it is not totally leak-proof. A discharging Alkaline generates
hydroxide gases. Pressure buildup can rupture the seal and cause corrosion in
form of a feathery crystalline structure that can spread to neighboring parts and
cause damage. All primary batteries produce gas on discharge. Portable devices
with these batteries must have provision for venting.
Lithium Iron Disulfide (Li-FeS2) is a newcomer to the primary battery family and
offers improved performance. Lithium batteries normally deliver 3 volts and
higher, but Li-FeS2 produces 1.5 volts to serve as an alternative of alkaline and
carbon-zinc in the AA and AAA formats. It has a higher capacity and a lower
internal resistance than Alkaline. This enables moderate to heavy loads and is
ideal for digital cameras. Further advantages are improved low temperature
performance, superior leakage resistance and low self-discharge, allowing 15
years of storage at ambient temperatures. Low weight and minimal toxicity are
added benefits.
The disadvantages of the Li-FeS2 are a higher price and transportation issues
because of the lithium metal content in the anode. This causes restriction in air
shipment. In 2004, the US DOT and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
banned bulk shipments of primary lithium batteries on passenger flights, but
airline passengers can still carry them on board or in checked bags. Each AA-
sized Li-FeS2 contains 0.98 grams of lithium; the air limitation of primary
lithium batteries is 2 grams (8 grams for rechargeable Li-ion). This restricts
each passenger to two cells; however, exceptions are made and 12 batteries can be
carried as samples. Read more about How to Transport Batteries.
The Li-FeS2 includes safety devices in the form of a resettable PTC thermal
switch that limits the current at high temperature. The Li-FeS2 cell cannot be
recharged as is possible with NiMH in the AA and AAA formats. Recharging, putting
in a cell backwards or mixing with used batteries or other battery types could
cause a leak or explosion. Read more about Health Concerns with Batteries.
Figures 1 and 2 compare the discharge voltage and internal resistance of
Alkaline and Li-FeS2 at a 50mA pulsed load. Of interest is the flat voltage curve
and the low internal resistance of Lithium; Alkaline shows a gradual voltage drop
and a permanent increase in resistance with use. This shortens the runtime,
especially at an elevated load.



Figure 1: Voltage and internal
resistance of Alkaline on
discharge.
The voltage drops rapidly and
causes the internal resistance
to rise



Figure 2: Voltage and internal
resistance of Lithium on
discharge.
The voltage curve is flat and
the internal resistance stays
low
Both images are courtesy of
Energizer
The AA and AAA are the most common cell formats. Known as penlight batteries for
pocket lights, the AA became available to the public in 1915 and was used as a
spy tool during World War I; the American National Standard Institute
standardized the format in 1947. The AAA was developed in 1954 to reduce the size
of the Kodak and Polaroid cameras and shrink other portable devices. In the
1990s, an offshoot of the 9V battery produced the AAAA for laser pointers, LED
penlights, computer styli, and headphone amplifiers. Read more about A look at
Old and New Battery Packaging. Table 3 compares carbon-zinc, alkaline, lithium,
NiCd, NiMH and nickel-zinc and the AA and AAA cell sizes.
Carbon-zinc Alkaline
Lithium
(Li-FeS2)
NiCd NiMH
Capacity* AA
AAA
400-1,700
~300
1,800-2,800
800-1,200
2,500-3,400
1,200
600-1,000
300-500
800-2,700
600-1,250
Nominal V 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.20 1.20
Discharge
Rate
Very low Low Medium Very high Very high
Rechargeable No No No Yes Yes
Shelf life 1-2 years 7 years 10-15 years 3-5 years 3-5 years
Leak
resistance
Poor Good Superior Good Good
Retail ** AA
AAA
Not
available
in most
$0.40-2.80
$1.50-2.80
$3.00-5.00
$4.00-5.00
Not
available
in most
$4.00-5.00
$4.00-5.00
stores stores
Table 3: Summary of batteries available in AA and AAA format. The capacity on the
AA is double that of the AAA at similar price, making the energy storage cost of
the AAA twice than that of the AA.
* In mAh; discharge current is less than 500mA
** Estimated prices in $US (2012)
The AAA cell contains roughly half the capacity of the larger AA at a similar
price. In essence, the energy cost of the AAA is twice that of the AA. In an
effort to downsize, energy cost often takes second stage and device manufacturers
prefer using the smaller AAA over the larger AA. This is the case with many
bicycle lights where the AA format would only increase the device slightly but
deliver twice the energy for the same battery cost. Proper design considerations
help protect the environment by generating less waste.
Retail prices of the Alkaline AA vary, so does performance. Exponent, a US
engineering firm, checked the capacity of eight brand-name alkaline batteries in
AA packages and discovered a discrepancy between the best and lowest performers
of 800 percent. A practical gauge to test batteries is counting the shots a
digital camera can take with a set of cells. The relatively high current pulses
of a digital camera stress the battery more than a remote control or a kitchen
clock would. When a regular Alkaline stops functioning in a digital camera, the
remaining energy can still power a remote control and run a kitchen clock for up
to two years.
Figure 4 illustrates the number of shots a digital camera can take with discharge
pulses of 1.3 watts on Alkaline, NiMH and Lithium Li-FeS2 in an AA package. (Two
cells put in series to get 3V, 1.3W draws 433mA.) Although the three battery
chemistries tested have similar capacities, the results in form of pulse counts
vary largely. The clear winner is Li-FeS2 with 690 pulses; the second is NiMH
with 520 pulses and the distant third is standard Alkaline producing only 85
pulses. Internal resistance rather than capacity governs the shot count here.
Read more about How to Rate Battery Runtime.

Figure 4: Number of shots a
digital camera can take
with Alkaline NiMH and
Lithium
Li-FeS2, NiMH and Alkaline
have similar capacities;
the internal resistance
governs the shot count on a
digital camera. Li-FeS2,
3Ah, 690 pulses
NiMH, 2.5Ah, 520 pulses
Alkaline, 3Ah, 85 pulses
Test: ANSI C18.1
Courtesy of Exponent
The rated capacity as a performance indicator is most useful at low discharge
currents; at higher loads the power factor begins to play an important role. The
relationship between capacity and the ability to deliver current can best be
illustrated with a Ragone Chart. Read more about Calculating Battery Runtime.
Named after David V. Ragone, the Ragone chart evaluates an energy storage device
on energy and power.
References
Presentation by Dan Durbin, Energizer Applications support, Medical Device &
Manufacturing (MD&M) West, Anaheim, CA, 15 February 2012
Presentation by Quinn Horn, Ph.D., P.E. Exponent, Inc. Medical Device &
Manufacturing (MD&M) West, Anaheim, CA, 15 February 2012
Comparison Table of Secondary Batteries
Rechargeable batteries play an important role in our life and many daily chores
would be unthinkable without the ability to recharge an empty battery. Points of
interest are specific energy, years of service life, load characteristics,
safety, price, self-discharge, environmental issues, maintenance requirements,
and disposal.
Lead Acid One of the oldest rechargeable battery systems; is rugged, forgiving
if abused and economical in price; has a low specific energy and limited cycle
life. Lead acid is used for wheelchairs, golf cars, personnel carriers, emergency
lighting and uninterruptible power supply (UPS).
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) Mature and well understood; is used where long service
life, high discharge current, extreme temperatures and economical price are of
importance. Due to environmental concerns, NiCd is being replaced with other
chemistries. Main applications are power tools, two-way radios, aircraft and UPS.
Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) A practical replacement for NiCd; has higher
specific energy with fewer toxic metals. NiMH is used for medical instruments,
hybrid cars and industrial applications. NiMH is available in AA and AAA cells
for consumer use.
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) Most promising battery systems; is used for portable
consumer products as well as electric powertrains for vehicles; is more expensive
than nickel- and lead acid systems and needs protection circuit for safety. The
lithium-ion family is divided into three major battery types, so named by their
cathode oxides, which are cobalt, manganese and phosphate. The characteristics of
these Li-ion systems are as follows.
Lithium-ion-cobalt or lithium-cobalt (LiCoO2): Has high specific energy with
moderate load capabilities and modest service life. Applications include cell
phones, laptops, digital cameras and wearable products.
Lithium-ion-manganese or lithium-manganese (LiMn2O4): Is capable of high charge
and discharge currents but has low specific energy and modest service life; used
for power tools, medical instruments and electric powertrains.
Lithium-ion-phosphate or lithium-phosphate (LiFePO4): Is similar to lithium-
manganese; nominal voltage is 3.3V/cell; offers long cycle life, has a good safe
record but exhibits higher self-discharge than other Li-ion systems.
There are many other lithium-ion based batteries, some of which are described
further on this website. Missing in the list is also the popular lithium-ion-
polymer, or Li-polymer. While Li-ion systems get their name from their unique
cathode materials, Li-polymer differs by having a distinct architecture. Nor is
the rechargeable lithium-metal mentioned. This battery requires further
development to control dendrite growth, which can compromise safety. Once solved,
Li-metal will become an alternative battery choice with extraordinary high
specific energy and good specific power.
Table 1 compares the characteristics of four commonly used rechargeable battery
systems showing average performance ratings at time of publication.

Table 1: Characteristics of commonly used rechargeable batteries
The figures are based on average ratings of commercial batteries at time of
publication; experimental batteries with above-average ratings are excluded.

1
Internal resistance of a battery pack varies with milliampere-hour (mAh) rating,
wiring and number of cells. Protection circuit of lithium-ion adds about 100m.
2
Based on 18650 cell size. Cell size and design determines internal resistance.
3
Cycle life is based on battery receiving regular maintenance.
4
Cycle life is based on the depth of discharge (DoD). Shallow DoD improves cycle
life.
5
Self-discharge is highest immediately after charge. NiCd loses 10% in the first
24 hours, then declines to 10% every 30 days. High temperature increases self-
discharge.
6
Internal protection circuits typically consume 3% of the stored energy per
month.
7
The traditional voltage is 1.25V; 1.2V is more commonly used.
8
Low internal resistance reduces the voltage drop under load and Li-ion is often
rated higher than 3.6V/cell. Cells marked 3.7V and 3.8V are fully compatible with
3.6V.
9
Capable of high current pulses; needs time to recuperate.
10
Do not charge regular Li-ion below freezing. See Charging at High and Low
Temperatures.
11 Maintenance may be in the form of equalizing or topping charge to prevent
sulfation.
12
Cut-off if less than 2.20V or more than 4.30V for most Li-ion; different
voltage settings apply for lithium-iron-phosphate.
Lead-based Batteries
Invented by the French physician Gaston Plant in 1859, lead acid was the first
rechargeable battery for commercial use. Despite its advanced age, the lead
chemistry continues to be in wide use today, and there are good reasons for its
popularity; lead acid is dependable and inexpensive on cost-per-watt base. There
are few other batteries that deliver bulk power as cheaply as lead acid, and this
makes the battery cost-effective for automobiles, golf cars, forklifts, marine
and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
But lead acid has disadvantages; it is heavy and is less durable than nickel- and
lithium-based systems when deep-cycled. A full discharge causes strain and each
discharge/charge cycle permanently robs the battery of a small amount of
capacity. This loss is small while the battery is in good operating condition,
but the fading increases once the performance drops to half the nominal capacity.
This wear-down characteristic applies to all batteries in various degrees.
Depending on the depth of discharge, lead acid for deep-cycle applications
provides 200 to 300 discharge/charge cycles. The primary reasons for its
relatively short cycle life are grid corrosion on the positive electrode,
depletion of the active material and expansion of the positive plates. These
changes are most prevalent at elevated operating temperatures and high-current
discharges. See How to Prolong Lead Acid Batteries.
Charging a lead acid battery is simple but the correct voltage limits must be
observed, and here there are compromises. Choosing alow voltage limit shelters
the battery but this produces poor performance and causes a buildup of sulfation
on the negative plate. A high voltage limit improves performance but form grid
corrosion on the positive plate. While sulfation can be reversed if serviced in
time, corrosion is permanent. See Charging Lead Acid.
Lead acid does not lend itself to fast charging and with most types, a full
charge takes 14 to16 hours. The battery must always be stored at full state-of-
charge. Low charge causes sulfation, a condition that robs the battery of
performance. Adding carbon on the negative electrode reduces this problem but
this lowers the specific energy. See New Lead Acid Systems.
Lead acid has a moderate life span and is not subject to memory as nickel-based
systems are. Charge retention is best among rechargeable batteries. While NiCd
loses approximately 40 percent of its stored energy in three months, lead acid
self-discharges the same amount in one year. Lead acid work well at cold
temperatures and is superior to lithium-ion when operating in subzero
conditions.
Sealed Lead Acid
The first sealed, or maintenance-free, lead acid emerge in the mid-1970s. The
engineers argued that the term sealed lead acid is a misnomer because no lead
acid battery can be totally sealed. This is true and battery designers added a
valve to control venting of gases during stressful charge and rapid discharge.
Rather than submerging the plates in a liquid, the electrolyte is impregnated
into a moistened separator, a design that resembles nickel- and lithium-bases
system. This enables to operate the battery in any physical orientation without
leakage.
The sealed battery contains less electrolyte than the flooded type, hence the
term acid-starved. Perhaps the most significant advantage of the sealed lead
acid is the ability to combine oxygen and hydrogen to create water and prevent
water loss. The recombination occurs at a moderate pressure of 0.14 bar (2psi).
The valve serves as safety vent if gases buildup during over-overcharge or
stressful discharge. Repeated venting would lead to an eventual dry out.
Driven by these advantages, several types of sealed lead acid have emerged and
the most common are gel, also known as valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA), and
absorbent glass mat (AGM). The gel cell contains a silica type gel that suspends
the electrolyte in a paste. Smaller packs with capacities of up to 30A are called
SLA (sealed lead acid). Packaged in a plastic container, these batteries are used
for small UPS, emergency lighting, ventilators for healthcare and wheelchairs.
Because of economical price, dependable service and low maintenance, the SLA
remains the preferred choice for biomedical and healthcare in hospitals and
retirement homes. The VRLA is the larger gel variant used as power backup for
cellular repeater towers, Internet hubs, banks, hospitals, airports and other
sites.
The AGM is a newer design and suspends the electrolyte in especially designed
glass mat. This offers several advantages to lead acid systems, including faster
charging and instant high load currents on demand. AGM works best as a mid-range
battery with capacities of 30 to 100Ah and is less suited for large systems, such
as UPS. Typical uses are starter batter for motorcycles, start-stop function for
micro-hybrid cars, as well as marine and RV that need some cycling.
With cycling and age, the capacity of AGM fades gradually; gel, on the other
hand, has a dome shaped performance curve and stays in the high performance range
longer but then drops suddenly towards the end of life. AGM is more expensive
than flooded, but is cheaper than gel.(Gel would be too expensive for start/stop
use in cars.) See Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM).
Unlike the flooded, the sealed lead acid battery is designed with a low over-
voltage potential to prohibit the battery from reaching its gas-generating
potential during charge. Excess charging causes gassing, venting and subsequent
water depletion and dry out. Consequently, gel, and in part also AGM, cannot be
charged to their full potential and the charge voltage limit must be set lower
than that of a flooded. The float charge on full charge must also be lowered. In
respect to charging, the gel and AGM are no direct replacements to the flooded
type. If no designated charger is available with lower voltage settings,
disconnect the charger after 24 hours of charge. This prevents gassing due to a
float voltage that is set too high. See Charging Lead Acid.
The optimum operating temperature for a VRLA battery is 25C (77F); every 8C
(15F) rise above this temperature threshold cuts battery life in half. See Heat,
Loading and Battery Life. Lead acid batteries are rated at a 5-hour (0.2C) and
20-hour (0.05C) discharge. The battery performs best when discharged slowly and
the capacity readings are notably higher at a slow discharge rate. Lead acid can,
however, deliver high pulse currents of several C if done for only a few seconds.
This makes the lead acid well suited as a starter battery, also known as starter-
light-ignition (SLI). The high lead content and the sulfuric acid make lead acid
environmentally unfriendly.
The following paragraphs look at the different architectures within the lead acid
family and explain why one battery type does not fit all.
Starter and Deep-cycle Batteries
The starter battery is designed to crank an engine with a momentary high power
burst; the deep-cycle battery, on the other hand, is built to provide continuous
power for a wheelchair or golf car. From the outside, both batteries look alike;
however, there are fundamental differences in design. While the starter battery
is made for high peak power and does not like deep cycling, the deep-cycle
battery has a moderate power output but permits cycling. Lets examine the
architectural difference between these batteries further.
Starter batteries have a CCA rating imprinted in amperes; CCA refers to cold
cranking amps, which represents the amount of current a battery can deliver at
cold temperature. SAE J537 specifies 30 seconds of discharge at 18C (0F) at
the rated CCA ampere without dropping below 7.2 volts. (SAE stands for Society of
Automotive Engineers.)
Starter batteries have a very low internal resistance, and the manufacturer
achieves this by adding extra plates for maximum surface area (Figure 1). The
plates are thin and the lead is applied in a sponge-like form that has the
appearance of fine foam. This method extends the surface area of the plates to
achieve low resistance and maximum power. Plate thickness is less important here
because the discharge is short and the battery is recharged while driving; the
emphasis is on power rather than capacity.

Figure 1: Starter battery
The starter battery has many thin plates in
parallel to achieve low resistance with high
surface area. The starter battery does not allow
deep cycling.
Courtesy of Cadex
Deep-cycle lead acid batteries for golf cars, scooters and wheelchairs are built
for maximum capacity and high cycle count. The manufacturer achieves this by
making the lead plates thick (Figure 2). Although the battery is designed for
cycling, full discharges still induce stress, and the cycle count depends on the
depth-of-discharge (DoD). Deep-cycle batteries are marked in Ah or minute of
runtime.

Figure 2: Deep-cycle battery
The deep-cycle battery has thick plates for
improved cycling abilities. The deep-cycle battery
generally allows about 300 cycles.
Courtesy of Cadex
A starter battery cannot be swapped with a deep-cycle battery and vice versa.
While an inventive senior may be tempted to install a starter battery instead of
the more expensive deep-cycle on his wheelchair to save money, the starter
battery wont last because the thin sponge-like plates would quickly dissolve
with repeated deep cycling. There are combination starter/deep-cycle batteries
available for trucks, buses, public safety and military vehicles, but these units
are big and heavy. As a simple guideline, the heavier the battery is, the more
lead it contains, and the longer it will last. Table 3 compares the typical life
of starter and deep-cycle batteries when deep-cycled.
Depth of Discharge Starter Battery Deep-cycle Battery
100%
50%
30%
1215 cycles
100120 cycles
130150 cycles
150200 cycles
400500 cycles
1,000 and more cycles
Table 3: Cycle performance of starter and deep-cycle batteries. A discharge of
100% refers to a full discharge; 50% is half and 30% is a moderate discharge with
70% remaining.
Lead is toxic and environmentalists would like to replace the lead acid battery
with another chemistry. Europe succeeded to keep nickel-cadmium batteries out of
consumer products, and authorities try to do it with the starter battery. The
choices are NiMH and lithium-ion, but at a price tag of $3,000 for Li-ion, this
will not fly. In addition, Li-ion has poor performance at sub-freezing
temperature. Regulators hope that advancements in the electric powertrain will
lower the cost, but such a large price reduction to match the low-cost lead acid
may not be possible. Lead acid will continue to be the battery of choice to crank
the engines.
Table 4 spells out the advantages and limitations of common lead acid batteries
in use today.
Advantages
Inexpensive and simple to manufacture; low cost per watt-hour
Low self-discharge; lowest among rechargeable batteries
High specific power, capable of high discharge currents
Good low and high temperature performance
Limitations
Low specific energy; poor weight-to-energy ratio
Slow charge; fully saturated charge takes 14 hours
Must be stored in charged condition to prevent sulfation
Limited cycle life; repeated deep-cycling reduces battery life
Flooded version requires watering
Transportation restrictions on the flooded type
Not environmentally friendly

Table 4: Advantages and limitations of lead acid batteries. Dry systems have
advantages over flooded but are less rugged.
Absorbent Glass Mat (AGM)
AGM technology became popular in the early 1980s as a sealed lead acid battery
for military aircraft, vehicles and UPS to reduce weight and improve reliability.
The acid is absorbed by a very fine fiberglass mat, making the battery spill-
proof. This enables shipment without hazardous material restrictions. The plates
can be made flat to resemble a standard flooded lead acid pack in a rectangular
case; they can also be wound into a cylindrical cell.
AGM has very low internal resistance, is capable to deliver high currents on
demand and offers a relatively long service life, even when deep-cycled. AGM is
maintenance free, provides good electrical reliability and is lighter than the
flooded lead acid type. It stands up well to low temperatures and has a low self-
discharge. The leading advantages are a charge that is up to five times faster
than the flooded version, and the ability to deep cycle. AGM offers a depth-of-
discharge of 80 percent; the flooded, on the other hand, is specified at 50
percent DoD to attain the same cycle life. The negatives are slightly lower
specific energy and higher manufacturing costs that the flooded. AGM has a sweet
spot in midsize packs from 30 to 100Ah and is less suitable for large UPS system.
AGM batteries are commonly built to size and are found in high-end vehicles to
run power-hungry accessories such as heated seats, steering wheels, mirrors and
windshields. NASCAR and other auto racing leagues choose AGM products because
they are vibration resistant. AGM is the preferred battery for upscale
motorcycles. Being sealed, AGM reduces acid spilling in an accident, lowers the
weight for the same performance and allows installation at odd angles. Because of
good performance at cold temperatures, AGM batteries are also used for marine,
motor home and robotic applications.
Ever since Cadillac introduced the electric starter motor in 1912, lead acid
became the natural choice to crank the engine. The classic flooded type is,
however, not robust enough for the start-stop function and most batteries in a
micro-hybrid car are AGM. Repeated cycling of a regular flooded type causes a
sharp capacity fade after two years of use. See Heat, Loading and Battery Life.
As with all gelled and sealed units, AGM batteries are sensitive to overcharging.
These batteries can be charged to 2.40V/cell (and higher) without problem;
however, the float charge should be reduced to between 2.25 and 2.30V/cell
(summer temperatures may require lower voltages). Automotive charging systems for
flooded lead acid often have a fixed float voltage setting of 14.40V
(2.40V/cell), and a direct replacement with a sealed unit could spell trouble by
exposing the battery to undue overcharge on a long drive. See Charging Lead Acid.
AGM and other sealed batteries do not like heat and should be installed away from
the engine compartment. Manufacturers recommend halting charge if the battery
core reaches 49C (120F). While regular lead acid batteries need a topping
charge every six months to prevent the buildup of sulfation, AGM batteries are
less prone to this and can sit in storage for longer before a charge becomes
necessary. Table 1 spells out the advantages and limitations of AGM.

Advantages
Spill-proof through acid encapsulation in matting technology
High specific power, low internal resistance, responsive to load
Up to 5 times faster charge than with flooded technology
Better cycle life than with flooded systems
Water retention (oxygen and hydrogen combine to produce water)
Vibration resistance due to sandwich construction
Stands up well to cold temperature
Limitations
Higher manufacturing cost than flooded (but cheaper than gel)
Sensitive to overcharging (gel has tighter tolerances than AGM)
Capacity has gradual decline (gel has a performance dome)
Low specific energy
Must be stored in charged condition (less critical than flooded)
Not environmentally friendly (has less electrolyte, lead that
flooded)
Table 4: Advantages and limitations AGM. The gel system shares many of the
characteristics.
New Lead Acid Systems
Lead acid batteries continue to hold a leading position, especially in wheeled
mobility and stationary applications. This strong market appeal entices
manufacturers to explore ways to make the batteries better. Improvements have
been made and some claims are so promising that one questions the
trustworthiness. It is no secret that researchers prefer publishing the positive
attributes while keeping the negatives under wraps. The following information on
lead acid developments was obtained from available printed resources at the time
of writing.
Firefly Energy
The composite plate material of the Firefly Energy battery is based on a lead
acid variant that is lighter, longer living and has higher active material
utilization than current lead acid systems. The battery includes foam electrodes
for the negative plates, which gives it a performance that is comparable to NiMH
but at lower manufacturing costs. Design concerns include microtubule blockage
through crystal growth during low charge conditions. In addition, crystal
expansion causes a reduction of the surface area, which will result in lower
capacity with aging. Pricing is also a concern. It currently costs about $450 to
manufacture a Firefly battery as opposed to $150 for a regular lead acid version.
Firefly Energy is a spin-off of Caterpillar and went into bankruptcy in 2010.
Altraverda Bipolar
Similar to the Firefly Energy battery, the Altraverda battery is based on lead.
It uses a proprietary titanium sub-oxide ceramic structure, called Ebonex

, for
the grid and an AGM separator. The un-pasted plate contains Ebonex

particles in a
polymer matrix that holds a thin lead alloy foil on the external surfaces. With
5060Wh/kg, the specific energy is about one-third larger than regular lead acid
and is comparable with NiCd. Based in the UK, Altraverda works with East Penn in
the USA, and the battery is well suited for higher voltage applications.
Axion Power
The Axion Power e3 Supercell is a hybrid battery/ultracapacitor in which the
positive electrode consists of standard lead dioxide and the negative electrode
is activated carbon, while maintaining an assembly process that is similar to
lead acid. The Axion Power battery offers faster recharge times and longer cycle
life on repeated deep discharges than what is possible with regular lead acid
systems. This opens the door for the start-stop application in micro-hybrid cars.
The lead-carbon combination of the Axion Power battery lowers the lead content on
the negative plate, which results in a weight reduction of 30 percent compared to
a regular lead acid. This, however, also lowers the specific energy to 1525Wh/kg
instead of 3050Wh/kg, which a regular lead acid battery normally provides.
CSIRO Ultrabattery
The CSIRO Ultrabattery combines an asymmetric ultracapacitor and a lead acid
battery in each cell. The capacitor enhances the power and lifetime of the
battery by acting as a buffer during charging and discharging, prolonging the
lifetime by a factor of four over customary lead acid systems and producing 50
percent more power. The manufacturer also claims that the battery is 70 percent
cheaper to produce than current hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) batteries. CSIRO
batteries are undergoing road trials in a Honda Insight HEV and show good
results. Furukawa Battery in Japan licensed the technology. The CSIRO battery is
also being tested for start-stop applications in micro-hybrid cars to replace the
lead acid starter battery. This battery promises extended life when exposed to
frequent start-stop conditions and is able to take a fast charge.
EEStor
This is the mystery battery/ultracapacitor combination that receives much media
attention. The battery is based on a modified barium titanate ceramic powder and
claims a specific energy of up to 280Wh/kg, higher than lithium-ion. The company
is very secretive about their invention and releases only limited information.
Some of their astonishing claims are: One-tenth of the weight of a NiMH battery
in a hybrid application, no deep-cycle wear-down, three- to six-minute charge
time, no hazardous material, similar manufacturing costs to lead acid, and a
self-discharge that is only 0.02 percent per month, a fraction of that of lead
acid and Li-ion.
Nickel-based Batteries
The following section describes nickel-based batteries, and we begin with nickel-
cadmium (NiCd), an older chemistry for which extensive data is available. Much of
these characteristics also apply to nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH), as these two
systems are close cousins. The toxicity of NiCd is limiting this solid and robust
battery to specialty applications.
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
The nickel-cadmium battery, invented by Waldmar Jungner in 1899, offered several
advantages over lead acid, but the materials were expensive and the early use was
restricted. Developments lagged until 1932 when attempts were made to deposit the
active materials inside a porous nickel-plated electrode. Further improvements
occurred in 1947 by trying to absorb the gases generated during charge. This led
to the modern sealed NiCd battery in use today.
For many years, NiCd was the preferred battery choice for two-way radios,
emergency medical equipment, professional video cameras and power tools. In the
late 1980s, the ultra-high-capacity NiCd rocked the world with capacities that
were up to 60 percent higher than the standard NiCd. This was done by packing
more active material into the cell, but the gain was met with the side effects of
higher internal resistance and shorter cycle.
The standard NiCd remains one of the most rugged and forgiving batteries but
needs proper care to attain longevity. It is perhaps for this reason that NiCd is
the favorite battery of many engineers. Table 1 lists the advantages and
limitations of the standard NiCd.
Advantages
Fast and simple charging even after prolonged storage
High number of charge/discharge cycles; provides over
1,000 charge/discharge cycles with proper maintenance
Good load performance; rugged and forgiving if abused
Long shelf life; can be stored in a discharged state
Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory control
Good low-temperature performance
Economically priced; NiCd is the lowest in terms of cost per cycle
Available in a wide range of sizes and performance options
Limitations
Relatively low specific energy compared with newer systems
Memory effect; needs periodic full discharges
Environmentally unfriendly; cadmium is a toxic metal and cannot be
disposed of in landfills
High self-discharge; needs recharging after storage

Table 1: Advantages and limitations of NiCd batteries
Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
Research of nickel-metal-hydride started in 1967; however, instabilities with the
metal-hydride led scientists to develop the nickel-hydrogen battery (NiH)
instead. Today, NiH is mainly used in satellites.
New hydride alloys discovered in the 1980s offered better stability and the
development of NiMH advanced in earnest. Today, NiMH provides 40 percent higher
specific energy than a standard NiCd, but the decisive advantage is the absence
of toxic metals.
The advancements of NiMH are impressive. Since 1991, the specific energy has
doubled and the life span extended. The hype of lithium-ion may have dampened the
enthusiasm for NiMH a bit but not to the point to turn HEV makers away from this
proven technology. Batteries for the electric powertrain in vehicles must meet
some of the most demanding challenges, and NiMH has two major advantages over Li-
ion here. These are price and safety. Makers of hybrid vehicles claim that NiMH
costs one-third of an equivalent Li-ion system, and the relaxation on safety
provisions contribute in part to this price reduction.
Nickel-metal-hydride is not without drawbacks. For one, it has a lower specific
energy than Li-ion, and this is especially true with NiMH for the electric
powertrain. The reader should be reminded that NiMH and Li-ion with high energy
densities are reserved for consumer products; they would not be robust enough for
the hybrid and electric vehicles. NiMH and Li-ion for the electric powertrain
have roughly one-third less capacity than consumer batteries.
NiMH also has high self-discharge and loses about 20 percent of its capacity
within the first 24 hours, and 10 percent per month thereafter. Modifying the
hydride materials lowers the self-discharge and reduces corrosion of the alloy,
but this decreases the specific energy. Batteries for the electric powertrain
make use of this modification to achieve the needed robustness and life span.
There are strong opinions and preferences between battery chemistries, and some
experts say that NiMH will serve as an interim solution to the more promising
lithium systems. There are many hurdles surrounding Li-ion also and these are
cost and safety. Li-ion cells are not offered to the public in AA, AAA and other
popular sizes in part because of safety. Even if they were made available, Li-ion
has a higher voltage compared to nickel-based batteries.
Consumer Application
NiMH has become one of the most readily available and low-cost rechargeable
batteries for portable devices. NiMH is non-toxic and offers a higher specific
energy than NiCd. Battery manufacturers, such as Sanyo, Energizer, Duracell and
GP, have recognized the need for a durable and low-cost rechargeable battery for
consumers and offer NiMH in AA and AAA sizes. The battery manufacturers hope to
persuade buyers to switch to rechargeable batteries and reduce the environmental
impact of throwaway primary cells.
The NiMH battery for the consumer market can be viewed as an alternative to the
failed reusable alkaline that appeared in the 1990s. Limited cycle life and poor
loading characteristics hindered its success.
What is of ongoing concern to the consumer using rechargeable batteries is the
high self-discharge, and NiMH behaves like a leaky basketball or bicycle tire. A
flashlight or portable entertainment device with a NiMH battery gets flat when
put away for only a few weeks. Having to recharge the device before each use does
not sit well. The Eneloop NiMH by Sanyo has reduced the self-discharge by a
factor of six. This means that you can store the charged battery six times longer
than a regular NiMH before a recharge becomes necessary. The drawback is a
slightly lower specific energy compared to a regular NiMH. Other NiMH
manufacturers such as ReCyko by GP claim similar results.
Table 2 summarizes the advantages and limitations of industrial-grade NiMH. The
table does not include the Eneloop and equivalent consumer brands.

Advantages
3040 percent higher capacity than a standard NiCd
Less prone to memory than NiCd
Simple storage and transportation; not subject to regulatory control
Environmentally friendly; contains only mild toxins
Nickel content makes recycling profitable
Limitations
Limited service life; deep discharge reduces service life
Requires complex charge algorithm
Does not absorb overcharge well; trickle charge must be kept low
Generates heat during fast-charge and high-load discharge
High self-discharge; chemical additives reduce self-discharge at the
expense of capacity
Performance degrades if stored at elevated temperatures; should be
stored in a cool place at about 40 percent state-of-charge
Table 2: Advantages and limitations of NiMH batteries
Lithium-based Batteries
Pioneer work with the lithium battery began in 1912 under G.N. Lewis, but it was
not until the early 1970s that the first non-rechargeable lithium batteries
became commercially available. Attempts to develop rechargeable lithium batteries
followed in the 1980s but the endeavor failed because of instabilities in the
metallic lithium used as anode material.
Lithium is the lightest of all metals, has the greatest electrochemical potential
and provides the largest specific energy per weight. Rechargeable batteries with
lithium metal on the anode (negative electrodes)* could provide extraordinarily
high energy densities; however, it was discovered in the mid 1980s that cycling
produced unwanted dendrites on the anode. These growth particles penetrate the
separator and cause an electrical short. When this occurs, the cell temperature
rises quickly and approaches the melting point of lithium, causing thermal
runaway, also known as venting with flame. A large number of rechargeable
metallic lithium batteries sent to Japan were recalled in 1991 after a battery in
a mobile phone released flaming gases and inflicted burns to a mans face.
The inherent instability of lithium metal, especially during charging, shifted
research to a non-metallic solution using lithium ions. Although lower in
specific energy than lithium-metal, Li-ion is safe, provided cell manufacturers
and battery packers follow safety measures in keeping voltage and currents to
secure levels. Read more about Protection Circuits. In 1991, Sony commercialized
the first Li-ion battery, and today this chemistry has become the most promising
and fastest growing on the market. Meanwhile, research continues to develop a
safe metallic lithium battery.
The specific energy of Li-ion is twice that of NiCd, and the high nominal cell
voltage of 3.60V as compared to 1.20V for nickel systems contributes to this
gain. Improvements in the active materials of the electrode have the potential of
further increases in energy density. The load characteristics are good, and the
flat discharge curve offers effective utilization of the stored energy in a
desirable voltage spectrum of 3.70 to 2.80V/cell. Nickel-based batteries also
have a flat discharge curve that ranges from 1.25 to 1.0V/cell.
In 1994, the cost to manufacture Li-ion in the 18650** cylindrical cell with a
capacity of 1,100mAh was more than $10. In 2001, the price dropped to $2 and the
capacity rose to 1,900mAh. Today, high energy-dense 18650 cells deliver over
3,000mAh and the costs have dropped further. Cost reduction, increase in specific
energy and the absence of toxic material paved the road to make Li-ion the
universally accepted battery for portable application, first in the consumer
industry and now increasingly also in heavy industry, including electric
powertrains for vehicles.
In 2009, roughly 38 percent of all batteries by revenue were Li-ion. Li-ion is a
low-maintenance battery, an advantage many other chemistries cannot claim. The
battery has no memory and does not need exercising (deliberate full discharge) to
keep in shape. Self-discharge is less than half that of nickel-based systems.
This makes Li-ion well suited for fuel gauge applications. The nominal cell
voltage of 3.60V can directly power cell phones and digital cameras, offering
simplifications and cost reductions over multi-cell designs. The drawbacks are
the need for protection circuits to prevent abuse, as well as high price.
Types of Lithium-ion Batteries
Similar to the lead- and nickel-based architecture, lithium-ion uses a cathode
(positive electrode), an anode (negative electrode) and electrolyte as conductor.
The cathode is a metal oxide and the anode consists of porous carbon. During
discharge, the ions flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte
and separator; charge reverses the direction and the ions flow from the cathode
to the anode. Figure 1 illustrates the process.

Figure 1: Ion flow
in lithium-ion battery.
When the cell charges and
discharges,
ions shuttle between cathode
(positive electrode) and anode
(negative electrode). On discharge,
the anode undergoes oxidation,
or loss of electrons,
and the cathode sees
a reduction, or a gain
of electrons. Charge reverses the
movement.
Li-ion batteries come in many varieties but all have one thing in common the
catchword lithium-ion. Although strikingly similar at first glance, these
batteries vary in performance, and the choice of cathode materials gives them
their unique personality.
Common cathode materials are Lithium Cobalt Oxide (or Lithium Cobaltate), Lithium
Manganese Oxide (also known as spinel or Lithium Manganate), Lithium Iron
Phosphate, as well as Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt (or NMC)*** and Lithium
Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (or NCA). All these materials possess a theoretical
specific energy with given limits. (Lithium-ion has a theoretically capacity of
about 2,000kWh. This is more than 10 times the specific energy of a commercial
Li-ion battery.)
Sonys original lithium-ion battery used coke as the anode (coal product). Since
1997, most Li-ion manufacturers, including Sony, have shifted to graphite to
attain a flatter discharge curve. Graphite is a form of carbon that is also used
in the lead pencil. It stores lithium-ion well when the battery is charged and
has long-term cycle stability. Among the carbon materials, graphite is the most
commonly used, followed by hard and soft carbons. Other carbons, such as carbon
nanotubes, have not yet found commercial use. Figure 2-8 illustrates the voltage
discharge curve of a modern Li-ion with graphite anode and the early coke
version.

Figure 2: Voltage discharge curve
of lithium-ion
A battery should have a flat
voltage curve in the usable
discharge range. The modern
graphite anode does this better
than the early coke version.
Courtesy of Cadex

Developments also occur on the anode and several additives are being tried,
including silicon-based alloys. Silicon achieves a 20 to 30 percent increase in
specific energy at the cost of lower load currents and reduced cycle life. Nano-
structured lithium-titanate as an anode additive shows promising cycle life, good
load capabilities, excellent low-temperature performance and superior safety, but
the specific energy is low.
Mixing cathode and anode material allows manufacturers to strengthen intrinsic
qualities; however, enhancing one attribute may compromise another. Battery
makers can, for example, optimize the specific energy (capacity) to achieve
extended runtime, increase the specific power for improved current loading,
extend service life for better longevity, and enhance safety to endure
environmental stresses. But there are drawbacks. A higher capacity reduces the
current loading; optimizing current loading lowers the specific energy; and
ruggedizing a cell for long life and improved safety increases battery size and
adds to cost due to a thicker separator. The separator is said to be the most
expensive part of a battery.
Manufacturers can attain a high specific energy and low cost relatively easily by
adding nickel in lieu of cobalt, but this makes the cell less stable. While a
start-up company may focus on high specific energy to gain quick market
acceptance, safety and durability cannot be compromised. Reputable manufacturers
place high integrity on safety and longevity.
Table 3 summarizes the characteristics of Li-ion with different cathode material.
The table limits the chemistries to the four most commonly used lithium-ion
systems and applies the short form to describe them. The batteries are Li-cobalt,
Li-manganese, Li-phosphate and NMC. NMC stands for nickel-manganese-cobalt, a
chemistry that is relatively new and can be tailored for applications needing
either high capacity or high loading capabilities. Lithium-ion-polymer is not
mentioned as this is not a unique chemistry and only differs in construction. Li-
polymer can be made in various chemistries and the most widely used format is Li-
cobalt.

Specifications
Li-cobalt
LiCoO
2
(LCO)
Li-manganese
LiMn
2
O
4
(LMO)
Li-
phosphate
LiFePO
4
(LFP)
NMC
1

LiNiMnCoO
2

Voltage 3.60V 3.80V 3.30V 3.60/3.70V
Charge limit 4.20V 4.20V 3.60V 4.20V
Cycle life
2
5001,000 5001,000 1,0002,000 1,0002,000
Operating
temperature
Average Average Good Good
Specific
energy
150
190Wh/kg
100135Wh/kg 90120Wh/kg 140-180Wh/kg
Loading (C-
Rate)
1C
10C, 40C
pulse
35C
continuous
10C
Safety
Average. Requires
protection circuit and
cell balancing of multi
cell pack. Requirements
for small formats with 1
Very safe,
needs cell
balancing
and V
Safer than Li-cobalt. Needs
cell balancing and
protection.
or 2 cells can be relaxed protection.
Thermal.
runaway
3

150C
(302F)
250C
(482F)
270C
(518F)
210C
(410F)
Cost
Raw
material
high
Moli Energy,
NEC,
Hitachi,
Samsung
High High
In use since 1994 1996 1999 2003
Researchers,
manufacturers
Sony,
Sanyo, GS
Yuasa, LG
Chem
Samsung
Hitachi,
Toshiba
Hitachi,
Samsung,
Sanyo, GS
Yuasa, LG
Chem,
Toshiba
Moli Energy,
NEC
A123,
Valence, GS
Yuasa, BYD,
JCI/Saft,
Lishen
Sony, Sanyo, LG Chem, GS
Yuasa, Hitachi Samsung
Notes
Very high
specific
energy,
limited
power; cell
phones,
laptops
High power,
good to high
specific
energy;
power tools,
medical, EVs
High power,
average
specific
energy,
safest
lithium-
based
battery
Very high specific energy,
high power; tools, medical,
EVs
Table 3: Characteristics of the four most commonly used lithium-ion batteries
Specific energy refers to capacity (energy storage); specific power denotes load
capability.

1
NMC, NCM, CMN, CNM, MNC and MCN are basically the same. The stoichiometry is
usually Li[Ni(1/3)Co(1/3)Mn(1/3)]O2. The order of Ni, Mn and Co does not matter
much.

2
Application and environment govern cycle life; the numbers do not always apply
correctly.

3
A fully charged battery raises the thermal runaway temperature, a partial charge
lowers it.
Never was the competition to find an ideal battery more intense than today.
Manufacturers see new applications for automotive propulsion systems, as well as
stationary and grid storage, also knows as load leveling. At time of writing, the
battery industry speculates that the Li-manganese and/or NMC might be the winners
for the electric powertrain.
Industrys experience has mostly been in portable applications, and the long-term
suitability of batteries for automotive use is still unknown. A clear assessment
of the cycle life, performance and long-term operating cost will only be known
after having gone through a few generations of batteries for vehicles with
electric powertrains, and more is known about the customers behavior and climate
conditions under which the batteries are exposed. Table 4 summarizes the
advantages and limitations of Li-ion.

Advantages
High energy density
Relatively low self-discharge; less than half that of NiCd and NiMH
Low maintenance. No periodic discharge is needed; no memory.
Limitations
Requires protection circuit to limit voltage and current
Subject to aging, even if not in use (aging occurs with all
batteries and modern Li-ion systems have a similar life span to
other chemistries)
Transportation regulations when shipping in larger quantities
Table 4: Advantages and limitations of Li-ion batteries

* When consuming power, as in a diode, vacuum tube or a battery on charge, the
anode is positive; when withdrawing power, as in a battery on discharge, the
anode becomes negative.
** Standard of a cylindrical Li-ion cell developed in the mid 1990s; measures
18mm in diameter and 65mm in length; commonly used for laptops. Read more about
Battery Formats.
*** Some Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide systems go by designation of NCM,
CMN, CNM, MNC and MCN. The systems are basically the same
Types of Lithium-ion
The casual battery user may think there is only one lithium-ion battery. As there
are many species of apple trees, so do also lithium-ion batteries vary and the
difference lies mainly in the cathode materials. Innovative materials are also
appearing in the anode to modify or replace graphite.
Scientists prefer to name batteries by their chemical name and the material used,
and unless you are a chemist, these terms might get confusing. Table 1 offers
clarity by listing these batteries by their full name, chemical definition,
abbreviations and short form. (When appropriate, this essay will use the short
form.) To complete the list of popular Li-ion batteries, the table also includes
NCA and Li-titanate, two lesser-known members of the Li-ion family.

Chemical name Material Abbreviation Short form Notes
Lithium Cobalt
Oxide
1

Also Lithium
Cobalate or
lithium-ion-
cobalt)
LiCoO
2

(60% Co)
LCO
Li-cobalt

High capacity;
for cell phone
laptop, camera
Lithium
Manganese
Oxide
1

Also Lithium
Manganate
or lithium-ion-
manganese
LiMn
2
O
4
LMO
Li-manganese,
or spinel

Most safe;
lower capacity
than Li-cobalt
but high
specific power
and long life.
Power tools,
e-bikes, EV,
medical,
hobbyist.
Lithium
Iron Phosphate
1

LiFePO
4
LFP Li-phosphate
Lithium Nickel
Manganese
Cobalt Oxide
1
,
also lithium-
manganese-
cobalt-oxide
LiNiMnCoO
2

(1020% Co)
NMC
NMC

Lithium Nickel
Cobalt Aluminum
Oxide
1

LiNiCoAlO
2

9% Co)
NCA NCA
Gaining
importance
in electric
powertrain and
grid storage
Lithium
Titanate
2

Li
4
Ti
5
O
12
LTO Li-titanate
Table 1: Reference names for Li-ion batteries.We willuse the short form when
appropriate.

1
Cathode material
2
Anode material
To learn more about the unique characters and limitations of the six most common
lithium-ion batteries, we use spider charts and look at the overall performance.
We begin with Li-cobalt, the most commonly used battery for high-end consumer
products, and then move to Li-manganese and Li- phosphate, batteries deployed in
power tools, and finally address the newer players such as NME, NCA and Li-
titanate.
Lithium Cobalt Oxide(LiCoO
2
)
Its high specific energy make Li-cobalt the popular choice for cell phones,
laptops and digital cameras. The battery consists of a cobalt oxide cathode and a
graphite carbon anode. The cathode has a layered structure and during discharge
lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode. The flow reverses on charge. The
drawback of Li-cobalt is a relatively short life span and limited load
capabilities (specific power). Figure 2 illustrates the structure.


Figure 2: Li-cobalt structure
The cathode has a layered structure.
Duringdischarge the lithium ions move from
the anode to the cathode; on charge the flow
is from anode to cathode.
Courtesy of Cadex
Li-cobalt cannot be charged and discharged at a current higher than its rating.
This means that an 18650 cell with 2,400mAh can only be charged and discharged at
2,400mA. Forcing a fast charge or applying a load higher than 2,400mA causes
overheating and undue stress. For optimal fast charge, the manufacturer
recommends a C-rate of 0.8C or 1920mA. [BU-402, What is C-rate?] The mandatory
battery protection circuit limits the charge and discharge rate to a safe level
of about 1C.
Figure 3 summarizes the performance of Li-cobalt in terms of specific energy,or
capacity; specific power,or the ability to deliver high current; safety;
performanceat hot and cold temperatures; life spanreflecting cycle life and
longevity; and cost.The hexagonal spider web provides a quick and easy
performance analysis of the battery characteristics.

Figure 3: Snapshot of an average Li-cobalt
battery
Li-cobalt excels on high specific energy but
offers only moderate performance specific power,
safety and life span.
Courtesy of Cadex

Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn
2
O
4
)
Lithium insertion in manganese spinels was first published in the Materials
Research Bulletin in 1983. In 1996, Moli Energy commercialized a Li-ion cell with
lithium manganese oxide as a cathode material. The architecture forms a three-
dimensional spinel structure that improves ion flow on the electrode, which
results in lower internal resistance and improves current handling. A further
advantage of spinel is high thermal stability and enhanced safety, but the cycle
and calendar life is limited.
Low internal cell resistance is key to fast charging and high-current
discharging. In an 18650 package, Li-manganese can be discharged at currents of
2030A with moderate heat buildup. It is also possible to apply one-second load
pulses of up to 50A. A continuous high load at this current would cause heat
buildup and the cell temperature cannot exceed 80C (176F). Li-manganese is used
for power tools, medical instruments, as well as hybrid and electric vehicles.
Figure 4 shows the crystalline formation of the cathode in a three-dimensional
framework. This spinel structure, which is usually composed of diamond shapes
connected into a lattice, appears after initial formation.

Figure 4: Li-manganese structure
The cathode crystalline formation of lithium
manganese oxide has a three-dimensional
framework structure that appears after initial
formation. Spinel provides low resistance but
has a more moderate specific energy than
cobalt.
Courtesy of Cadex
Li-manganese has a capacity that is roughly one-third lower compared to Li-cobalt
but
the battery still offers about 50 percent more energy than nickel-based
chemistries. Design flexibility allows engineers to maximize the battery for
either optimal longevity (life span), maximum load current (specific power) or
high capacity (specific energy). For example, the long-life version in the 18650
cell has a moderate capacity of 1,100mAh; the high-capacity version is 1,500mAh
but has a reduced service life. Laptop manufacturers would likely choose the
high-capacity version for maximum runtime; whereas the maker of cars with the
electric powertrain would take the long-life version with high specific power and
sacrifice on runtime.
Figure 5 shows the spider web of a typical Li-manganese battery. In this chart,
all characteristics are marginal; however, newer designs have improved in terms
of specific power, safety and life span.


Figure 5: Snapshot of a typical Li-manganese
battery
Although moderate in overall performance, newer
designs of Li-manganese offer improvements in
specific power, safety and life span.
Courtesy of BCG research
Lithium Iron Phosphate(LiFePO
4
)
In 1996, the University of Texas (and other contributors) discovered phosphate as
cathode material for rechargeable lithium batteries. Li-phosphate offers good
electrochemical performance with low resistance. This is made possible with nano-
scale phosphate cathode material. The key benefits are enhanced safety, good
thermal stability, tolerant to abuse, high current rating and long cycle life.
Storing a fully charged battery has minimal impact on the life span. As trade-
off, the lower voltage of 3.3V/cell reduces the specific energy to slightly less
than Li-manganese. In addition, cold temperature reduces performance, and
elevated storage temperature shortens the service life (better than lead acid,
NiCd or NiMH). Figure 6 summarizes the attributes of Li-phosphate.


Figure 6: Snapshot of a typical Li-phosphate
battery
Li-phosphate has excellent safety and long life
span but moderate specific energy and and a
lower voltage than other lithium-based
batteries.
Courtesy of BCG research
Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO
2
)
Leading battery manufacturers focus on a cathode combination of nickel-manganese-
cobalt (NMC). Similar to Li-manganese, these systems can also be tailored to high
specific energy or high specific power, but not both. For example, NMC in an
18650 cell for consumer use can be tweaked to 2,250mAh, but the specific power is
moderate. NMC in the same cell optimized for high specific power has a capacity
of only 1,500mAh. A silicon-based anode will be able to go to 4,000mAh; however,
the specific power and the cycle life may be compromised.
The secret of NMC lies in combining nickel and manganese. An analogy of this is
table salt, in which the main ingredients of sodium and chloride are toxic on
their own but mixing them serves as seasoning salt and food preserver. Nickel is
known for its high specific energy but low stability; manganese has the benefit
of forming a spinel structure to achieve very low internal resistance but offers
a low specific energy. Combining the metals brings out the best in each.
NMC is the battery of choice for power tools and powertrains for vehicles. The
cathode combination of one-third nickel, one-third manganese and one-third cobalt
offers a unique blend that also lowers raw material cost due to reduced cobalt
content. Striking the right balance is important and manufacturers keep their
recipes a well-guarded secret. Figure 7 demonstrates the characteristics of the
NMC.




Figure 7: Snapshot of NMC
NMC has good overall performance and excels on
specific energy. This battery is the preferred
candidate for the electric vehicle and has the
lowest self-heating rate.
Courtesy of BCG research
Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO
2
)
The Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide battery, or NCA, is less commonly used
in the consumer market; however, high specific energy and power densities, as
well as a long life span, get the attention of the automotive industry. Less
flattering are safety and cost. Figure 8 demonstrates the strong points against
areas for further development.



Figure 8: Snapshot of NCA
High energy and power densities, as well as good
life span, make the NCA
a candidate for EV powertrains. High cost and
marginal safety are negatives.
Courtesy of BCG research
Lithium Titanate (Li
4
Ti
5
O
12
)
Batteries with lithium titanate anodes have been known since the 1980s. Li-
titanate replaces the graphite in the anode of a typical lithium-ion battery and
the material forms into a spinel structure. Li-titanate has a nominal cell
voltage of 2.40V, can be fast-charged and delivers a high discharge current of
10C, or 10 times the rated capacity. The cycle count is said to be higher than
that of a regular Li-ion; the battery is safe, has excellent low-temperature
discharge characteristics and obtains a capacity of 80 percent at 30C (22F).
At 65Wh/kg, the specific energy is low. Li-titanate charges to 2.80V/cell, and
the end of discharge is 1.80V/cell. Figure 9 illustrates the characteristics of
the Li-titanate battery.




Figure 9: Snapshot of Li-titanate
Li-titanate excels in safety, low-temperature
performance and life span. Efforts are being
made to improve the specific energy and lower
cost.
Courtesy of BCG research
Figure 10 compares the specific energy of lead, nickel- and lithium-based
systems. While Li-cobalt is the clear winner by being able to store more capacity
than other systems, this only applies to specific energy. In terms of specific
power (load characteristics) and thermal stability, Li-manganese and Li-phosphate
are superior. As we move towards electric powertrains, safety and cycle life will
become more important than capacity.

Figure 10: Typical energy densities of lead, nickel- and lithium-based batteries
Lithium-cobalt enjoys the highest specific energy; however, manganese and
phosphate are superior in terms of specific power and thermal stability.
Courtesy of Cadex
Li-polymer Battery: Substance or Hype?
The polymer hype of the early 2000s is still going strong, however, most users
cannot distinguish between a regular Li-ion and one with polymer architecture.
Lithium-polymer differs from other battery systems in the type of electrolyte
used. The original polymer design dating back to the 1970s uses a solid (dry)
polymer electrolyte that resembles a plastic-like film. This insulator allows the
exchange of ions (electrically charged atoms) and replaces the traditional porous
separator that is soaked with electrolyte. A solid polymer has a poor
conductivity at room temperature and the battery must be heated to 5060C (122
140F) to enable current flow.The much anticipated true plastic battery
promised in the early 2000s did not materialize; the conductivity could not be
attained at ambient temperature.
To make the modern Li-polymer battery conductive at room temperature, gelled
electrolyte is added. All Li-ion polymer cells today incorporate a micro porous
separator with moisture. The correct term is Lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion
polymer or Li-polymer for short). Li-polymer can be built on many systems, such
as Li-cobalt, NMC, Li-phosphate and Li-manganese. For this reason, Li-polymer is
not considered a unique battery chemistry. Most Li-polymer packs for the consumer
market are based on Li-cobalt.
With gelled electrolyte added, what then is the difference between a normal
Li-ion and Li-ion polymer? As far as the user is concerned, the lithium polymer
is essentially the same as the lithium-ion battery. Both use identical cathode
and anode material and contain a similar amount of electrolyte. Although the
characteristics and performance of the two systems are alike, the Li-polymer is
unique in that a micro porous electrolyte replaces the traditional porous
separator. The gelled electrolyte becomes the catalyst that enhances the
electrical conductivity. Li-polymer offers slightly higher specific energy and
can be made thinner than conventional Li-ion, but the manufacturing cost
increases by 1030 percent. Despite the cost disadvantage, the market share of
Li-polymer is growing.
Li-polymer cells also come in a flexible foil-type case (polymer laminate or
pouch cell) that resembles a food package. While a standard Li-ion needs a rigid
case to press the electrodes together, Li-polymer uses laminated sheets that do
not need compression. A foil-type enclosure reduces the weight by more than 20
percent over the classic hard shell. Furthermore, thin film technology liberates
the format design and the battery can be made into any shape, fitting neatly into
stylish cell phones and laptops to make them smaller, thinner and lighter. Li-
polymer can be made very slim to resemble a credit card. Read about the Pouch
Cell.
Charge and discharge characteristics of Li-polymer are identical to other Li-ion
systems and do not require a special charger. Safety issues are also similar in
that protection circuits are needed. Gas buildup during charge can cause some Li-
polymer in a foil package to swell, and equipment manufacturers must make
allowances for expansion. Li-polymer in a foil package may be less durable than
Li-ion in the cylindrical package. Li-polymer is not limited to a foil package
and can also be made into a cylindrical design.
Cycle Performance
As part of ongoing research to examine performance degradation caused by cycling,
Cadex tested a large volume of portable batteries for wireless communication
devices. The population consists of nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal-hydride and
lithium-ion. The batteries were prepared by applying an initial charge, followed
by a regime of full discharge/charge cycles. The internal resistance was measured
with OhmTest and the self-discharge was obtained from time to time by reading
the capacity loss incurred during a 48-hour rest period. The tests were carried
out on the Cadex 7000 Seriesbattery analyzers.
Nickel-cadmium
In terms of life cycling, nickel-cadmium is the most enduring battery. Figure 1
illustrates the capacity, internal resistance and self-discharge of a 7.2V, 900mA
pack with standard NiCd cells. Due to time constraints, the test was terminated
after 2,300 cycles. The capacity remained steady; the internal resistance stayed
low at 75mWand the self-discharge was stable. This battery receives a grade A
rating for almost perfect performance.

Figure 1: Performance of standard NiCd (7.2V, 900mAh)
This battery receives an A rating for a stable capacity, low internal
resistance and moderate self-discharge over many cycles.
Courtesy of Cadex
The ultra-high-capacity nickel-cadmium offers up to 60 percent higher specific
energy compared to the standard version, however, this comes at the expense of
reduced cycle life. In Figure 2 we observe a steady drop of capacity during 2,000
cycles, a slight increase in internal resistance and a rise in self-discharge
after 1,000 cycles.

Figure 2: Performance of ultra-high-capacity NiCd (6V, 700mAh)
This battery offers higher specific energy than the standard version at the
expense of reducedcycle life.
Courtesy of Cadex
Nickel-metal-hydride
Figure 3 examines NiMH, a battery that offers high specific energy at a
reasonably low cost. We observe good performance at first but past the 300-cycle
mark, the capacity starts to drift downwards rapidly. One can detect a swift
increase in internal resistance and self-discharge after cycle count 700. NiMH
has a higher specific energy than nickel-cadmium and does not contain toxic
metals. The test battery was an older generation; new NiMH performs better.

Figure 3: Performance of NiMH (6V, 950mAh)
This battery offers good performance at first but past 300 cycles, the capacity,
internal resistance and self-discharge start to increase rapidly. Newer NiMH has
better results.
Courtesy of Cadex
Lithium-ion
Figure 4 examines the capacity and internal resistance of lithium-ion. We observe
a gentle and predictable capacity drop over 1,000 cycles while the internal
resistance increases only slightly. Because of low readings, we omit self-
discharge. Lithium-ion offers the highest specific energy among the above-
mentioned chemistries, contains little or no toxic metals, but needs protection
circuits to ensure safe operation. Li-ion is also more expensive to manufacture
than the nickel-based equivalent.
Batteries tested in a laboratory environment tend to give better results than
when used in the field; elements of stress in everyday use do not transfer well
into the laboratory. Aging plays a minimal role in a lab because the batteries
are cycled over a period of a few months rather than the expected service life of
a few years. The temperature is often moderate and the batteries are charged with
proper charge equipment, an advantage that the field cannot always claim.

Figure 4: Performance of lithium-ion (3.6V, 500mA)
Lithium-ion offers good capacity and steady internal resistance over 1,000
cycles. Self-discharge was omitted because of low readings
Courtesy of Cadex
The load signature of the discharge plays an important role when testing
batteries, and our laboratory batteries were discharged with an even DC load.
Cellular phones and other digital devices draw pulsed loads that stress the
battery more than with DC. One could argue, however, that the lab tests apply a
full discharge whereas the field user discharges the battery to about 80 percent.
The degradation of a battery receiving a 100 percent discharge with a DC load may
not be the same as an 80 percent discharge on a pulsed load, and we keep this
possible discrepancy in mind when studying the results.
The tests were done with batteries from an earlier generation. Newer models show
improved results, and this is especially apparent with NiMH. The internal
resistance of the modern NiMH is similar to NiCd, so is the cycle life. The Li-
ion battery tested was Li-cobalt for cellular phones. We excluded lead acid from
the test because this battery is seldom used for portable applications. Lead acid
is heavy and does not cycle well, especially on full discharges.
The outcome of battery tests depends very much on the application for which the
battery is designed, and we distinguish between consumer and industrial use. With
the advent of the electric powertrain, a new category of batteries is emerging.
Built for safety and longevity, these batteries have a specific energy that is
typically only one-half that of consumer batteries.
Supercapacitor
The supercapacitor, also known as ultracapacitor or double-layer capacitor,
differs from a regular capacitor in that it has a very high capacitance. A
capacitor stores energy by means of a static charge as opposed to an
electrochemical reaction. Applying a voltage differential on the positive and
negative plates charges the capacitor. This is similar to the buildup of
electrical charge when walking on a carpet. Touching an object releases the
energy through the finger.
We group capacitors into three family types and the most basic is the
electrostatic capacitor, with a dry separator. This capacitor has a very low
capacitance and is used to filter signals and tune radio frequencies. The size
ranges from a few pico-farad (pf) to low microfarad (uF). The next member is the
electrolytic capacitor, which is used for power filtering, buffering and
coupling. Rated in microfarads (uF), this capacitor has several thousand times
the storage capacity of the electrostatic capacitor and uses a moist separator.
The third type is the supercapacitor, rated in farads, which is again thousands
of times higher than the electrolytic capacitor. The supercapacitor is ideal for
energy storage that undergoes frequent charge and discharge cycles at high
current and short duration.
Faradis a unit of capacitance named after the English physicist Michael Faraday.
One farad stores one coulomb of electrical charge when applying one volt. One
microfaradis one million times smaller than a farad, and one pico-farad is again
one million times smaller than the microfarad.
Engineers at General Electric first experimented with the electric double-layer
capacitor, which led to the development of an early type of supercapacitor in
1957. There were no known commercial applications then. In 1966, Standard Oil
rediscovered the effect of the double-layer capacitor by accident while working
on experimental fuel cell designs. The company did not commercialize the
invention but licensed it to NEC, which in 1978 marketed the technology as
supercapacitor for computer memory backup. It was not until the 1990s that
advances in materials and manufacturing methods led to improved performance and
lower cost.
The modern supercapacitor is not a battery per se but crosses the boundary into
battery technology by using special electrodes and electrolyte. Several types of
electrodes have been tried and we focus on the double-layer capacitor (DLC)
concept. It is carbon-based, has an organic electrolyte that is easy to
manufacture and is the most common system in use today.
All capacitors have voltage limits. While the electrostatic capacitor can be made
to withstand high volts, the supercapacitor is confined to 2.52.7V. Voltages of
2.8V and higher are possible but they would reduce the service life. To achieve
higher voltages, several supercapacitors are connected in series. This has
disadvantages. Serial connection reduces the total capacitance, and strings of
more than three capacitors require voltage balancing to prevent any cell from
going into over-voltage. This is similar to the protection circuit in lithium-ion
batteries.
The specific energy of the supercapacitor is low and ranges from 1 to 30Wh/kg.
Although high compared to a regular capacitor, 30Wh/kg is one-fifth that of a
consumer Li-ion battery. The discharge curve is another disadvantage. Whereas the
electrochemical battery delivers a steady voltage in the usable power band, the
voltage of the supercapacitor decreases on a linear scale from full to zero
voltage. This reduces the usable power spectrum and much of the stored energy is
left behind. Consider the following example.
Take a 6V power source that is allowed to discharge to 4.5V before the equipment
cuts off. With the linear discharge, the supercapacitor reaches this voltage
threshold within the first quarter of the cycle and the remaining three-quarters
of the energy reserve become unusable. A DC-to-DC converter could utilize some of
the residual energy, but this would add to the cost and introduce a 10 to 15
percent energy loss. A battery with a flat discharge curve, on the other hand,
would deliver 90 to 95 percent of its energy reserve before reaching the voltage
threshold. Table 1 compares the supercapacitor with a typical Li-ion.
Function
Supercapacit
or
Lithium-ion (general)
Charge time
Cycle life
Cell voltage
Specific energy (Wh/kg)
Specific power (W/kg)
Cost per Wh
Service life (in vehicle)
110 seconds
1 million or
30,000h
2.3 to 2.75V
5 (typical)
Up to 10,000
$20
(typical)
1060 minutes
500 and higher
3.6 to 3.7V
100200
1,000 to 3,000
$0.50-$1.00 (large system)
5 to 10 years
Charge temperature
Discharge temperature
10 to 15
years
40 to 65C
(40 to
149F)
40 to 65C
(40 to
149F)
0 to 45C (32to 113F)
20 to 60C (4 to 140F)
Table 1: Performance comparison between supercapacitor and Li-ion
Courtesy of Maxwell Technologies, Inc.
Rather than operating as a stand-alone energy storage device, supercapacitors
work well as low-maintenance memory backup to bridge short power interruptions.
Supercapacitors have also made critical inroads into electric powertrains. The
virtue of ultra-rapid charging and delivery of high current on demand makes the
supercapacitor an ideal candidate as a peak-load enhancer for hybrid vehicles, as
well as fuel cell applications.
The charge time of a supercapacitor is about 10 seconds. The charge
characteristic is similar to an electrochemical battery and the charge current
is, to a large extent, limited by the charger. The initial charge can be made
very fast, and the topping charge will take extra time. Provision must be made to
limit the initial current inrush when charging an empty supercapacitor. The
supercapacitor cannot go into overcharge and does not require full-charge
detection; the current simply stops flowing when the capacitor is full.
The supercapacitor can be charged and discharged virtually an unlimited number of
times. Unlike the electrochemical battery, which has a defined cycle life, there
is little wear and tear by cycling a supercapacitor. Nor does age affect the
device, as it would a battery. Under normal conditions, a supercapacitor fades
from the original 100 percent capacity to 80 percent in 10 years. Applying higher
voltages than specified shortens the life. The supercapacitor functions well at
hot and cold temperatures.
The self-discharge of a supercapacitor is substantially higher than that of an
electrostatic capacitor and somewhat higher than the electrochemical battery. The
organic electrolyte contributes to this. The stored energy of a supercapacitor
decreases from 100 to 50 percent in 30 to 40 days. A nickel-based battery self-
discharges 10 to 15 percent per month. Li-ion discharges only five percent per
month.
Supercapacitors are expensive in terms of cost per watt. Some design engineers
argue that the money for the supercapacitor would better be spent on a larger
battery. We need to realize that the supercapacitor and chemical battery are not
in competition; rather they are different products serving unique
applications.Table 2 summarizes the advantages and limitations of the
supercapacitor.

Advantages
Virtually unlimited cycle life; can be cycled millions of time
High specific power; low resistance enables high load currents
Charges in seconds; no end-of-charge termination required
Simple charging; draws only what it needs; not subject to overcharge
Safe; forgiving if abused
Excellent low-temperature charge and discharge performance
Limitations
Low specific energy; holds a fraction of a regular battery
Linear discharge voltage prevents using the full energy spectrum
High self-discharge; higher than most batteries
Low cell voltage; requires serial connections with voltage balancing
High cost per watt
Table 2: Advantages and limitations of supercapacitors
Fuel Cell Technology
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that combines hydrogen fuel with oxygen
to produce electricity, heat and water. The fuel cell is similar to a battery in
that an electrochemical reaction takes place as long as fuel is available. The
hydrogen fuel is stored in a pressurized container and oxygen is taken from the
air. Because of the absence of a burning process, there are no harmful emissions,
and the only by-product is pure water.
Fundamentally, a fuel cell is electrolysis in reverse, using two electrodes
separated by an electrolyte. The anode (negative electrode) receives the hydrogen
and the cathode (positive electrode) collects the oxygen. A catalyst at the anode
separates hydrogen into positively charged hydrogen ions and electrons; the
oxygen is ionized and migrates across the electrolyte to the anodic compartment,
where it combines with hydrogen. A single fuel cell produces 0.60.8V under load.
To obtain higher voltages, several cells are connected in series. Figure 1
illustrates the concept of a fuel cell.

Figure 1:

Concept of a fuel cell
The anode (negative electrode) receives
the hydrogen and the cathode (positive
electrode) collects the oxygen.
Source: US Department of Energy, Office of
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Fuel cell technology is twice as efficient as combustion in turning carbon fuel
to energy. Hydrogen, the simplest chemical element (one proton and one electron),
is plentiful and exceptionally clean as a fuel. Hydrogen makes up 90 percent of
the universe and is the third most abundant element on the earths surface. Such
a wealth of fuel would provide an almost unlimited pool of clean energy at
relatively low cost. But there is a hitch.
Hydrogen is usually bound to other substances and unleashing the gas takes
technology and a substantial amount of energy. In terms of net calorific value
(NCV), hydrogen is more costly to produce than gasoline. Some say that hydrogen
is nearly energy neutral, meaning that it takes as much energy to produce as it
delivers at the end destination. Read more about Batteries Against Fossil Fuel.
Storage of hydrogen poses a further disadvantage. Pressurized hydrogen requires
heavy steel tanks, and the NCV by volume is about 24-times lower than a liquid
petroleum product. In liquid form, which is much denser, hydrogen needs extensive
insulation for cold storage.
Hydrogen can also be produced with a reformer by means of extraction from an
existing fuel, such as methanol, propane, butane or natural gas. Converting these
fossil fuels into pure hydrogen releases some leftover carbon, but this is 90
percent less harmful than what comes from the tailpipe of a car. Carrying a
reformer would add weight to the vehicle and increase its cost. Reformers are
also known to be sluggish.
The net benefit of hydrogen conversion is in question because it does not solve
the energy problem. With the availability of hydrogen through extraction, the
fuel cell core (stack) to convert hydrogen and oxygen to electricity is expensive
and the stack has a limited life span. Burning fossil fuels in a combustion
engine is the simplest and most effective means of harnessing energy, but this
contributes to pollution.
Sir William Grove, a Welsh judge and gentleman scientist, developed the fuel cell
concept in 1839, but the invention never took off. This was in part due to the
rapidly advancing internal combustion engine, which promised better results. It
was not until the 1960s that the fuel cell was put to practical use during the
Gemini space program. NASA preferred this clean power source to nuclear or solar
power. The alkaline fuel cell system generated electricity and produced the
drinking water for the astronauts.
High material costs made the fuel cell prohibitive for commercial use at that
time. This did not hinder Karl Kordesch, the co-inventor of the alkaline battery,
from converting his cars power source to an alkaline fuel cell in the early
1970s. Kordesch drove his car for many years in Ohio, USA. He placed the hydrogen
tank on the roof and utilized the trunk to place the fuel cell as well as backup
batteries. According to Kordesch, there was enough room for four people and a
dog. The 1990s brought renewed interest in the fuel cell; however, this
enthusiasm started to diminish again in the 21st century.
Just as there are different battery chemistries, so also are there several fuel
cell systems to choose from. Lets look at the most common types and examine the
applications.
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell(PEMFC)
The proton exchange membrane, also known as PEM, uses a polymer electrolyte. PEM
is one of the furthest developed and most commonly used fuel cell systems; it
powers cars, serves as a portable power source and provides backup power in lieu
of stationary batteries in offices. The PEM system allows compact design and
achieves a high energy-to-weight ratio. Another advantage is a relatively quick
start-up when applying hydrogen. The stack runs at a moderate temperature of 80C
(176F) and has an efficiency of 50 percent. (In comparison, the internal
combustion engine is only about 25 percent efficient.)
The limitations of the PEM fuel cell are high manufacturing costs and complex
water management systems. The stack contains hydrogen, oxygen and water. If dry,
water must be added to get the system going; too much water causes flooding. The
system requires pure hydrogen; lower fuel grades can cause decomposition and
clogging of the membrane. Testing and repairing a stack is difficult, given that
a 150V, 50kW stack to power a small car requires 250 cells.
Extreme operating temperatures are a further challenge. Freezing water can damage
the stack, and the manufacturer recommends heating elements to prevent ice
formation. When the fuel cell is cold, start-up is slow and the performance is
poor at first. Excessive heat can also cause damage. Controlling the operating
temperatures as well as supplying enough oxygen requires compressors, pumps and
other accessories that consume about 30 percent of the energy generated.
If operated in a vehicle, the PEMFC stack has an estimated service life of 2,000-
4,000 hours. Start-and-stop conditions induce drying and wetting that contribute
to membrane stress. Running continuously, the stationary stack is good for about
40,000 hours. Stack replacement is a major expense.
Alkaline Fuel Cell(AFC)
The alkaline fuel cell has become the preferred technologyfor aerospace,
including the space shuttle. Manufacturing and operating costs are low,
especially for the stack. While the separator for the PEM costs between $800 and
$1,100 per square meter, the same material for the alkaline system is almost
negligible. (The separator for a lead acid battery costs $5 per square meter.)
Water management is simple and does not need compressors and other peripherals. A
negative is that AFC is larger in physical size than the PEM and needs pure
oxygen and hydrogen as fuels. Carbon dioxide in a polluted city can poison the
stack.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)
Electric utilities use three types of fuel cells, which are molten carbonate,
phosphoric acid and solid oxide fuel cells. Among these choices, the solid oxide
(SOFC) is the least developed but has received renewed attention because of
breakthroughs in cell material and stack design. Rather than operating at the
very high operating temperature of 8001,000C (1,4721,832F), a new generation
of ceramic material has brought the core down to a more manageable 500600C
(9321,112F). This allows the use of conventional stainless steel rather than
expensive ceramics for auxiliary parts.
High temperature allows direct extraction of hydrogen from natural gas through a
catalytic reforming process. Carbon monoxide, a contaminant for the PEM, is a
fuel for the SOFC. Being able to accept carbon-based fuels without a designated
reformer and delivering high efficiency pose significant advantages for this type
of fuel cell. Cogeneration by running steam generators from the heat by-product
raises the SOFC to 60 percent efficiency, one of the highest among fuel cells. As
a negative, high stack temperatures require exotic materials for the core that
add to manufacturing costs, lower longevity and decrease reliability. With the
newer SOFC systems operating at lower temperatures, however, this drawback has
been reduced.
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)
During the past years, portable fuel cells, also known as miniature or micro fuel
cells, have gained public attention, and the most promising development is the
direct methanol fuel cell. This small fuel cell is inexpensive to manufacture,
convenient to use and does not require pressurized hydrogen gas. DMFC provides a
reasonably good electrochemical performance, and charging occurs by simply
replacing the fuel cartridge. This enables continued operation without downtime.
Fuel cells with liquid fuels (ethanol or methanol) have a further advantage over
hydrogen in the automotive market in that the fuel can be transported, stored and
dispensed with known technologies. Hydrogen, on the other hand, exhibits safety
risks, storage problems and needs large investments in special pipelines. Read
about the miniature fuel cell.
Table 3 describes the applications and summarizes the advantages and limitations
of common fuel cells. For completeness of listing, the table also includes the
Molten Carbonate (MCFC) and Phosphoric Acid (PAFC), two varieties not described
in the text above. These two fuel cell versions have been around for a long time
also but have received less publicity than the others.
Type of Fuel
Cell
Applications Advantages Limitations Status
Proton Exchange
Membrane
(PEMFC)
Medium to large
systems for
portable,
stationary and
automotive
Compact design;
long operating
life; offers
quick start-up,
50% efficient
Expensive to
build; needs
pure hydrogen;
complex heat
and water
management.
Practical and
most widely
developed
Alkaline
(AFC)
Space (NASA),
terrestrial
transport,
submarines
Low
manufacturing,
operation
costs; no
compressor;
fast cathode
kinetics
Large size;
needs pure
hydrogen and
oxygen
New interest
due to low
manufacturing,
operating costs
Molten
Carbonate
(MCFC)
Large-scale
power
generation
Efficient; co-
generation
utilizes heat
to run turbines
Electrolyte
instability;
limited service
life
Well developed;
semi-commercial
Phosphoric Acid
(PAFC)
Medium to large
power
generation
Lenient to
fuels; for
cogeneration
Low efficiency;
limited service
life; expensive
catalyst
In competition
with PEMFC
Solid Oxide
(SOFC)
Medium to large
power
generation
Lenient to
fuels; uses
natural gas;
60% efficient
with
cogeneration
High
temperatures;
exotic metals;
high
manufacturing
costs; short
life
New material,
stack design
sets off
renewed
development
Direct Methanol
(DMFC)
Portable,
mobile and
stationary use
Compact; feeds
directly off
methanol; no
compressor
Complex stack;
slow load
response; 20%
efficient
Liquid fuels
are easier to
handle than
hydrogen
Table 3: Advantages and disadvantages of various fuel cell systems
The development of the fuel cell has not advanced at the same pace as batteries;
a direct battery replacement is not yet feasible.
Developments
In spite of environmental benefits, the fuel cell requires extensive development
before it can compete in industrial and consumer markets. The existing problems
revolve around slow start-up times, low power output, sluggish response on power
demand, poor loading capabilities, narrow power bandwidth, short service life and
high cost. These negative traits are especially noticeable for the direct
methanol fuel cell. Similar to batteries, the performance of all fuel cells
degrades with age, and the stack gradually loses efficiency.
The relatively high internal resistance of full cells poses a challenge. Each
cell of a stack produces about one volt when in open-circuit condition, and a
heavy load causes a notable voltage drop. Figure 4 illustrates the voltage and
power bandwidth as a function of load.

Figure 4: Power band of a portable
fuel cell
High internal resistance causes
the cell voltage
to drop rapidly with load. The
power band is limited to between
300 and 800mA.
Courtesy of Cadex
Fuel cells operate best at a 30 percent load factor; higher loads reduce
efficiency. A load factor approaching 100 percent, as is common with a battery,
is not practical with the fuel cell. In addition, the fuel cell has poor response
characteristics and takes a few seconds to react to power demands. Rather than
acting as a stand-alone engine, as the developers had hoped, the fuel cell works
as a support function by giving the battery the master status. The fuel cell
becomes a slave providing the charge duty. This relationship enables both parties
to deliver continuous service.
Having failed in the automotive field, fuel cell manufacturers explore new
applications. Large 40,000kW fuel cells are being built to generate electricity
in remote locations. Fuel cells also replace battery banks and diesel generators
in office buildings, as they can be installed in tight storage places and on
rooftops with minimal maintenance. Forklifts running non-stop are further
candidates for fuel cell technology, which allows continuous, pollution-free
operation.
Paradox of the Fuel Cell
The fuel cell enjoyed the height of popularity in the 1990s, when scientists and
stock promoters envisioned a world run on a clean and inexhaustible resource
hydrogen. They predicted that cars would run on fuel cells and households would
generate electricity from back-yard fuel cells. The stock prices skyrocketed, and
it took a few years before marginal performance, high manufacturing costs and
short service life brought the hydrogen dream down. Hype and investment funding
have since moderated, and it is hoped that a more sensible approach will
eventually find the proper use for the fuel cell.
It had been said that the fuel cell would transform the world as the
microprocessor did. Experts further claimed that using an inexhaustible source of
fuel, hydrogen, would improve the quality of life, and the environmental
consequences of burning fossil fuels would be solved forever. From 1999 through
2001, more than 2,000 organizations were actively involved in fuel cell
development, and four of the largest public fuel cell companies in North American
raised over a billion dollars in public stock offerings. What went wrong?
Hydrogen is not a source of energy per se. We must look at it as a medium to
transport and store energy. When envisioning burning an endless supply of
hydrogen, we need to first produce the resource because hydrogen is not
available abundantly in the earth, ready to burn, as oil and natural gas are. To
retrieve the hydrogen for fuel, we need energy to convert the resource into a
usable product in a similar way as we use electricity to charge a flat battery.
If electricity produces hydrogen, then this energy source should come from a
renewable resource. This is often not the case; much of our current energy comes
from burning coal, oil and natural gas.
Fossil fuel lends itself well to producing hydrogen, but taking this valuable
fuel to unleash hydrogen does not make much sense when it costs as much or more
for extraction than burning it directly. It is conceivable that the fuel cell
will never become the engine that scientists had hoped, just as the attempt to
fly airplanes on steam failed in the mid 1800s.
Hydrogen is, however, being used to propel satellites and space vehicles into
orbit. Liquid hydrogen has the highest energy-to-mass ratio; but the specific
energy by volume reveals a truer picture when considering storage and delivery
for terrestrial use. Gasoline has almost 24 times the specific energy of pure
hydrogen by volume.
Is there hope for the fuel cell? Many hope it will succeed. Taxpayers may one day
need to subsidize this clean energy source similar to subsidizing the electric
car. Furthermore, governments may mandate its use for environmental reasons or as
an alternative for the dwindling fossil fuels. Wehope that the development of
fuel cells will eventually succeed in finding a replacement for the polluting
internal combustion engine.
The Miniature Fuel Cell
For a long time, manufacturers explored ways to replace the electrochemical
battery. Higher energy densities, smaller size, lower cost per watt and faster
charging times are on the wish list. Electrical energy from rechargeable batteries
is expensive when considering the high purchase price, the limited life span and
the limited power this portable source can deliver. Read more about Batteries
against Fossil Fuel.
Will the fuel cell replace the battery?
Since the invention in 1839 by Sir William Grove, the fuel cell remained a
scientific oddity. It was only in the 1950s that this power generator was used for
the first time as part of US space and military programs. In the 1980s, the fuel
cell had another rebirth when scientists and stock promoters envisioned a world
powered by a clean power source fed by an inexhaustible fuel, hydrogen. They
forecasted cars running by fuel cells and households deriving electrical power
from back-yard fuel cell units. In the late 1990s, fuel cell technology gained
hype status and many saw this power source as the gateway to the future. High
manufacturing costs and short service life were in the way to make this dream a
reality.
The fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen as fuel. Combining the two gases generates
electricity and water. There is not combustion and no pollution. The byproduct is
pure water. The system runs so clean that Ballard, a developer of fuel cell
stacks, offered the guests tea from the hot water produced by the fuel cell. The
absence of exhaust fumes enables running a fuel cell in an enclosed room, such as
an office of living room. The theoretical energy output of the fuel cell is high,
but over half is lost in heat.
During the past years, portable versions of the fuel cells have emerged. The most
promising miniature fuel cell is the direct methanol fuel cell. Read more about
Fuel Cell Technology. DMCF is inexpensive, convenient, does not require
pressurized hydrogen gas and provides a reasonably good electrochemical
performance. Current systems produce 900Wh of power and offer an energy density of
102Wh/l, but this volumetric dimension is still large compared to a lithium-ion
battery. Charging consists by replacing the cartridge on the fly. This provides a
continued source of energy, similar to fueling a car. Figure 1 shows a miniature
Toshiba fuel cell, also known as micro fuel cell; Figure 2 demonstrates refueling
with methanol that is 99.5 percent pure.


Figure 1: Micro fuel cell.
This prototype micro fuel cell
is capable of providing 300mW
of continuous power.
Courtesy of Toshiba
Figure 2: Toshiba fuel cell with refueling
cartridge. The fuel in a 10ml tank is 99.5
percent pure methanol.
Courtesy of Toshiba
Manufactures of micro fuel cells admit that a direct battery replacement with
high power, small size and competitive price is still several years away.
Rather than offering an outright battery replacement, todays micro fuel cell
serves as a charger to provide continuous operation for the onboard battery.

Miniature fuel cells are still in development and the reasons are multifold. A
typical micro fuel cell has an output of 300mW and can only supply enough
power to keep a cell phone battery charged. A laptop consuming 30 watts would
need 100 miniature fuel cells to sustain continuous operation. Furthermore,
transportation authorities prohibit passengers from carrying bottled fuel on
an aircraft, a rule that might soon change. The Dangerous Goods Panel (DGP) of
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has already made an
exclusion to allow the transport and operation of methanol fuel cells on
commercial flights. This provision does not yet extend to bottled hydrogen.

Improvements are being made, and Toshiba unveiled prototype fuel cells for
laptops and other applications generating 20 to 100 watts of power. At 100
Wh/l, the units are compact and the specific energy is comparable with a NiCd
battery. (I appreciate the honesty of Japanese manufacturers in describing the
technology as being in its infancy.) Toshiba has given no indication as to
when the product could be commercially available. Meanwhile, Panasonic claims
to have doubled the power output from 10 watts to 20 watts with similar size.
Panasonic specifies a calendar life of 5,000 hours if the fuel cell is used
intermittently for eight hours per day. Durability had been standing in the
way of commercializing its use.
Angstrom Power is developing a portable fuel cell that runs on stored hydrogen
and takes oxygen from the air. The system has no pump and fan and is totally
silent. Increased efficiency and smaller size are the advantages of pure
hydrogen over methanol. The aim is to offer a power source that is clean,
quiet and can be refueled on the fly. Similar applications are possible for
cellular phones. Figure 3 illustrates an application as a bicycle lamp.


Figure 3: Fuel cell powered bicycle lamp.
The 21cc cartridge provides the equivalent
energy of about 10 AA disposable alkaline
batteries. The only by-product is water vapor.
The runtime between refueling is 20 hours.
Courtesy of Angstrom Power
According to Angstrom Power, the micro hydrogen bike lights have delivered
good performance in winter and spring conditions and the user feedback is
positive. The hydrogen fuel is stored in a 21cc cartridge and provides the
equivalent energy of about 10 AA disposable alkaline batteries. The only by-
product is water vapor. Refueling takes a few minutes and provides a
continuous runtime of about 20 hours.

Current draw is not critical on a small bicycle light, especially when using
low-drain LED technology. A laptop, on the other hand, requires about 40 watts
of power, and a small fuel cell cannot provide enough output to sustain the
demand. The system needs a battery as back up. In essence, the fuel cell
becomes a slave to the battery and serves in the capacity of a charger. The
same scenario applies to fuel cell-powered cell phones and cameras.
Military and recreational users are also experimenting with the miniature fuel
cell. Figure 4 illustrates a portable fuel cell made by SFC Smart Fuel Cell.
The EFOY fuel cell comes in different capacities that ranges from 600 to 2160
watt hours per day.


Figure 4: Portable fuel cell for consumer
market
The fuel cell converts hydrogen and oxygen to
electricity and clean water is the only by-
product. Fuel cells can be used indoors as an
electricity generator.
Courtesy of SFC Smart Fuel Cell AG
(2010)
As good as the fuel cell may look from the outside, the product leaves many
unresolved problems that prevent broad consumer acceptance. One of the
drawbacks is a slow start-up, and another is the low electrochemical activity
at the anode. This is especially apparent with the DMCF. Each cell produces
about one volt and when loaded, the relatively high internal resistance causes
the voltage drops quickly. The inherent limited power bandwidth causes this
phenomenon. A third weakness is the relatively short life span. The capacity
may be high when new but the output begins to fade with use similar to an
aging battery. One of the inhibiting factors is the gradual rise of internal
resistance, which limits applications drawing heavy load currents. High device
and operating costs are another disadvantages. Read more about Fuel Cell
Technology.

It is regretful that the fuel cell has not enjoyed the same breakthroughs as
microelectronics. The Moores law does not apply here. When examining
alternative power sources to the struggling fuel cell, the traditional battery
begins to look surprisingly good. A battery pack is small, clean, quiet, and
provides an instant source of high power on demand, even at cold temperatures.
It is our hope, however, that the fuel cell will eventually succeed as a clean
energy source to extend the range of portable power and reduce pollution.

Alternate Battery Systems
The media tells us of wonderful new batteries being developed that promise long
runtimes and are paper-thin, durable, cheap and environmental friendly. While
these experimental packs may be able to produce a voltage, the downsides are
seldom revealed. The typical shortcomings are weak load capabilities and short
cycle life. Yes, even a lemon can be made into a battery. Just poke a copper coin
and galvanized nail into the innards. The power is low and you need 500 lemons to
light a flashlight bulb.
Using seawater as electrolyte has also been tried. The sea would produce an
endless supply of electricity, but the retrieved energy is only good to light a
flashlight and corrosion buildup limits the service life. Outside the much-
talked-about lead, nickel- and lithium-based batteries, other systems show
promise. Lets have a closer look at them in roughly the sequence of age.
Nickel-iron
After inventing nickel-cadmium in 1899, Swedens Waldemar Jungner tried to
substitute iron for cadmium to save money; however, poor charge efficiency and
gassing (hydrogen formation) prompted him to abandon the development without
securing a patent.
In 1901, Thomas Edison continued the development of the nickel-iron battery as a
substitute to lead acid for electric vehicles. He claimed nickel-iron was far
superior to batteries using lead plates and acid and counted on the emerging
electric vehicle market. He lost out when gasoline-powered cars took over and was
deeply disappointed when the auto industry did not adopt nickel-iron as the
starter, lighting and ignition battery (SLI) for cars.
The nickel-iron battery (NiFe) uses an oxide-hydroxide cathode and an iron anode
with potassium hydroxide electrolyte and produces a nominal cell voltage of 1.2V.
NiFe is resilient to overcharge and over-discharge and can last for more than 20
years in standby applications. Resistance to vibrations and high temperatures
made NiFe the preferred battery for mining in Europe, and during World War II the
battery powered the German V-1 flying bomb and the V-2 rockets. Other
applications are railroad signaling, forklifts, and power for stationary
applications. NiFe has a low specific energy of about 50Wh/kg, has poor low-
temperature performance and exhibits high self-discharge of 20 to 40 percent a
month. This, with high manufacturing cost, prompted the industry to stay faithful
to lead acid.
Nickel-zinc
Nickel-zinc batteries are similar to nickel-cadmium in that they use an alkaline
electrolyte and a nickel electrode, but differ in voltage; NiZn provides
1.6V/cell rather than 1.2V, which NiCd delivers. Nickel-zinc was first developed
in the 1920s but it suffered from short cycle life caused by dendrite growth.
This led to electrical shorting. Improvements in the electrolyte have reduced
this problem, and NiZn is being considered again for commercial uses. Low cost,
high power output and good temperature operating range make this chemistry
attractive. NiZn charges at a constant current to 1.9V/cell and cannot take
trickle charge. The specific energy is similar to other nickel-based systems.
NiZn can by cycled 200300 times, has no heavy toxic materials and can easily be
recycled. Some are available in AA cells.
Nickel-hydrogen
When research for nickel-metal-hydride began in 1967, problems with metal
instabilities caused a shift towards the development of the nickel-
hydrogenbattery (NiH). NiH uses a steel canister to store the hydrogen gases at a
pressure of 1,200psi (8,270kPa). The cell includes solid nickel electrodes,
hydrogen electrodes, gas screens and electrolyte. These components are
encapsulated in the pressurized vessel.
NiH has a nominal cell voltage of 1.25V and the specific energy is 4075Wh/kg.
The advantages are long service life even with full discharge cycles, good
calendar life due to low corrosion, minimal self-discharge, and a remarkable
temperature performance of 28C to 54C (20F to 130F). These attributes make
NiH ideal for satellite use. Scientists are developing NiH batteries for
terrestrial use and hope to supply markets for energy storage systems and the
electric vehicle. The negatives are low specific energy and high cost. A single
cell for a satellite application costs thousands of dollars.
Zinc-air
Zinc-air batteries generate electrical power by an oxidation process of zinc and
oxygen from the air. The cell can produce 1.65V, however, 1.4V and lower achieves
a longer lifetime. To activate the battery, the user removes a sealing tab that
enables airflow and the battery reaches full operating voltage within five
seconds. Once turned on, the battery cannot be reverted back to the standby mode,
the chemicals dry out, and the battery has a short shelf life. Adding a tape to
stop airflow slows the degeneration.
Zinc-air batteries have similarities to the proton exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC) in that they use oxygen in the air as fuel for the positive electrode.
Read about the fuel cell. Air can, to a certain extent, control the rate of the
reaction. Zinc-air is considered a primary battery, however, there are recharging
versions for high-power applications. Recharging occurs by replacing the spent
zinc electrodes, which can be in the form of a zinc electrolyte paste. Other
zinc-air batteries use zinc pellets.
At 300400Wh/kg, zinc-air has a high specific energy but the specific power is
low. Manufacturing cost is low and in a sealed state, zinc-air has a two percent
self-discharge per year. Zinc-air is sensitive to extreme temperatures and high
humidity. Pollution also affects performance, and high ambient carbon dioxide
reduces the performance by increasing the internal resistance. Typical
applications include hearing aids; high-power versions operate remote railway
signaling and safety lamps at construction sites.
Silver-zinc
The silver-zinc battery has served a critical role for defense and space
applications, as well as TV cameras and other professional equipment needing
extra runtime. High cost and short service life locked the battery out of the
commercial market but its on the verge of a rebirth.
The zinc electrode and separator were the primary cause of failure in the
original design; the zinc electrode degraded rapidly when cycled. The battery
developed zinc dendrites that pierced the separator, causing electrical shorts.
Furthermore, the separator degraded whether used or not by simply sitting in the
potassium hydroxide electrolyte. This limited the calendar life to about two
years. Improvements in the zinc electrode and separator promise a longer service
life and a 40 percent higher specific energy than Li-ion. Silver-zinc is safe,
has no toxic metals and can be recycled, but the use of silver makes the battery
expensive to manufacture.
Sodium-sulfur
Sodium batteries, also known as molten salt or thermal battery, come in primary
and secondary versions. The battery uses molten salts as an electrolyte and
operates at a temperature of 400700C (7521,292F). Newer designs run at a
lower 245350C (473662F) temperature.
Conceived by the Germans during World War II and used in their V-2 rockets, the
electrolyte of the molten salt batteries is inactive when cold and has a long
storage of more than 50 years. Once activated with a heat source, the battery can
provide a high power burst for a fraction of a second or deliver energy over
several hours. The high power is made possible by the good ionic conductivity of
the molten salt. Primary sodium batteries are almost exclusively used for the
military as a one-shot engagement in guided missiles. However, interest of the
reader lies in the rechargeable version.
The rechargeable sodium-sulfur (NaS) gained worldwide attention during the 1970s
and 1980s, but short service life and high cost dampened the enthusiasm. The
sodium-nickel-chloride battery, also known as ZEBRA,* came to the rescue and
today this battery is being used successfully in many applications.
ZEBRA has a nominal cell voltage of 2.58 volts and an specific energy of 90
120Wh/kg, a level comparable with Li-manganese and Li-phosphate. The service life
is about eight years and 3,000 cycles. It can be fast-charged, is non-toxic and
the raw materials are abundant and low-cost. ZEBRA batteries come in large sizes
of 10kWh or higher and typical applications are forklifts, railways, ships,
submarines and electric cars. A growing market for sodium-based batteries is load
leveling, also known as grid storage. The Think City EV has a choice of ZEBRA and
Li-ion. ZEBRA has advantages when operating at extreme temperatures and when the
battery is in continuous use, such as in taxis and delivery vans.
The ZEBRA battery must be heated to 270350C (518662F), a temperature that is
lower than the original sodium-sulfur battery. Even though special insulation
minimizes heat loss, heating consumes 14 percent of the batterys energy per day,
which results in a self-discharge of 18 percent. An active ZEBRA battery should
be on charge or in use. It takes 34 days to cool down, and reheating takes about
two days depending on the SoC at time of shutdown. Common failures include
electrical shorts due to corrosion of the insulators, which then become
conductive, as well as growth of dendrites, which increases self-discharge.
Reusable Alkaline
Introduced in 1992, the reusable alkaline serves as an alternative to disposable
batteries; however, the anticipated breakthrough never occurred and today the
reusable alkaline satisfies only a small market niche. The lack of consumer
appeal is regrettable when considering the environmental benefit of having to
discard fewer batteries. It is said that the manufacturing cost of the reusable
battery is similar to that of a regular alkaline and the ability to recharge,
although only for a limited time, offers definite advantages.
Recharging alkaline batteries is not new. Ordinary alkaline batteries have been
recharged in households for many years, but manufacturers do not endorse this
practice for safety reasons. Recharging is only effective if the alkaline is
discharged to less than 50 percent before recharging. The number of recharges
depends on the depth of discharge and is limited to just a few cycles at best.
Each recharge stores less capacity until the battery is finally worn out. There
is a cautionary advisory: charging ordinary alkaline batteries may generate
hydrogen gas that can lead to explosion.
The reusable alkaline overcomes some of these deficiencies, but not all. With
each recharge, the battery loses charge acceptance, and the longevity is in
direct relationship to the depth of discharge. The deeper the discharge, the
fewer cycles the battery can endure. At 50 percent depth of discharge, we can
expect 50 cycles. The manufacturer may have overestimated the eagerness of the
user wanting to recharge early; most users run a battery empty and recharge when
necessary.
Tests performed by Cadex on AA reusable alkaline cells show a capacity reading
on the first discharge that is similar to that of a regular alkaline. After the
first recharge using the manufacturers charger, however, the reusable alkaline
settles at only 60 percent, a capacity slightly below that of NiCd. Repeat
cycling in the same manner resulted in further capacity losses. The discharge
current was 200mA (0.2 C-rate, or one-fifth of the rated capacity) and the end-
of-discharge threshold was set to 1V/cell.
An additional limitation of the reusable alkaline system is its low permissible
load current of 400mA (lower than 400mA provides better results). Although
adequate for flashlights and personal entertainment devices, 400mA is
insufficient to power most digital cameras and communication devices.
Table 1 compares the specific energy, voltage, self-discharge and runtime of
over-the-counter batteries. Available in AA, AAA and other sizes, these cells can
be used in portable devices designed for these norms. Even though the cell
voltages may vary, the end-of-discharge voltages are common, which is typically
1V/cell. Portable devices have some flexibility in terms of voltage range. It is
important not to mix and match cells and to always use the same type of batteries
in the holder. Safety concerns and voltage incompatibility prevent the sales of
lithium-ion batteries in AA and AAA formats.

Battery
type
Specific energy
AA cell
Voltage
Self-discharge
Capacity after
1 year storage
Runtime
Estimated photos
on digital camera
Regular
alkaline
4,300mWh;
non-rechargeable
1.5V 95% 100 shots
Reusable
alkaline
2,000mWh; lower
on subsequent
recharge
1.4V 95% 100 shots
Eneloop*
2,400mWh,
rechargeable
1.2V 85% 500 shots
NiMH
2,700mWh,
rechargeable
1.2V 50% 600 shots
Table 1: Comparison of alkaline, reusable alkaline, Eneloop and NiMH
* Eneloop is a Sanyo trademark, based on NiMH.
Karl Kordesch, professor and co-inventor of the reusable alkaline, expressed
disappointment in the market failure of this battery by saying, and I paraphrase,
If only people could be taught to recharge the battery sooner, before the energy
is fully depleted. The reusable alkaline could indeed provide extended service
life if the user discharged the battery by only a small amount before recharging,
but this does not suit consumer behavior. A user expects to get the full use of a
battery before having to recharge.
NiMH has since replaced the reusable alkaline. Price is important and to lower
cost for the consumer market, some battery manufacturers have reduced the
capacity of the AA cell from 2,700mAh to 2,000mAh. The 2,700mAh AA cell is still
available. Manufacturers are well tuned to customer needs and make the necessary
adjustments to best serve the market.

* ZEBRA battery, so-called for the Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project.
Experimental Rechargeable Batteries
Experimental batteries live mostly in sheltered laboratories, communicating to
the outside world through rosy reports generated for investors. Some systems show
good potential, but many are years away from becoming commercially viable. Others
disappear from the scene and die gracefully in the lab without hearing of their
passing. Below are the most promising experimental batteries worth mentioning in
alphabetical order.
Lithium-air (Li-air)
Li-air batteries borrow the idea from zinc-air and the fuel cell in that they
breathe air. The battery uses a catalytic air cathode that supplies oxygen, an
electrolyte and a lithium anode. Scientists anticipate an energy storage
potential that is 5 to 10 times larger than that of Li-ion but speculate it will
take one to two decades before the technology can be commercialized. Depending on
materials used, Li-ion-air will produce voltages in between 1.7 and 3.2V/cell.
IBM, Excellatron, Liox Power, Lithion-Yardney, Poly Plus, Rayovac and others are
developing the technology. The theoretical specific energy of lithium-air is
13kWh/kg; aluminum-air has similar qualities, with an 8kWh/kg theoretical
specific energy.
Lithium-metal (Li-metal)
Most lithium-metal batteries are non-rechargeable. Moli Energy of Vancouver was
first to mass-produce a rechargeable Li-metal battery for mobile phones, but
occasional shorts from lithium dendrites caused thermal runaway conditions and
the batteries were recalled in 1989. Li-metal has a very high specific energy. In
2010, a trial Li-metal-polymer with a capacity of 300Wh/kg was tested in an
experimental electric vehicle (this compares to 80Wh/kg for the Nissan Leaf). DBM
Energy, the German manufacturer of this battery, claims 2,500 cycles, short
charge times and competitive pricing if the battery were mass-produced. Safety
remains a major issue.
Lithium-sulfur (Li-S)
By virtue of the low atomic weight of lithium and the moderate weight of sulfur,
lithium-sulfur batteries offer a very high specific energy of 550Wh/kg, about
three times that of Li-ion, and a specific power potential of 2,500W/kg. During
discharge, the lithium dissolves from the anode surface, and reverses itself when
charging by plating itself back onto the anode. Li-S has good cold temperature
discharge characteristics and can be recharged at 60C (76F). The challenges
are limited cycle life of only 40 to 50 charges/discharges and poor stability at
high temperature. Since 2007, Stanford engineers have been experimenting with
nanowire and this technology offers promise. Li-S has a cell voltage of 2.10V and
is environmentally friendly. Sulfur as the main ingredient is abundantly
available.
Silicon-carbon Nanocomposite Anodes for Li-ion
Researchers have developed a new high-performance anode structure for lithium-ion
batteries based on silicon-carbon nanocomposite materials. The material contains
rigid and robust silicon spheres with irregular channels to promote the access of
lithium ions into the particle mass. With graphite anodes, researchers have
achieved stable performance and capacity gains of five times that of regular Li-
ion. Manufacturing is said to be simple and low-cost, and the battery is safe and
broadly applicable. However, the cycle life is limited due to structural problems
when inserting and extracting lithium-ion at high volume.
A look at Old and New Battery Packaging
Early batteries of the 1700s and 1800s were mostly encased in glass jars, and as
the batteries grew in size, sealed wooden containers were used. With the need for
portability, sealed cylindrical cells appeared that eventually led to some
standardization in size format. To satisfy our curiosity, lets explore the
history of these battery norms.
In the early days, standardization involved primary cells mostly in carbon-zinc;
alkaline came only in the early 1960s. With the advent of the sealed nickel-
cadmium batteries in the 1950s and 1960s, new sizes appeared, many of which were
derived from the standard A and C sizes established at the end of the 1800s.
Manufacturers of lithium-ion departed from the conventional sizes and invented
their own formats of cylindrical, prismatic and pouch shapes. Looking at the many
formats of cell phone batteries alone, one realizes that standardizing has begun
to drift. Table 1 summarizes historic and current battery sizes.

Size Dimensions History
F cell 33 x 90 mm
Introduced in 1896 for lanterns; later used for radios;
only available in nickel-cadmium today
E cell N/A
Introduced ca. 1905 to power box lanterns and hobby
applications. Discontinued ca. 1980
D cell 34 x 61mm
Introduced in 1898 for flashlights and radios; still
current
C cell
25.5 x
50mm
Introduced ca. 1900 to attain smaller form factor
B cell
20.1 x
56.8mm
Introduced in 1900 for portable lighting, including bicycle
lights in Europe; discontinued in in North America in 2001
A cell
17 x 50mm
18.5 x
50.5mm
Only available for nickel-cadmium; also come in half sizes
Primary lithium, also known as 18505
AA cell
14.5 x
50mm
Known as penlight batteries; introduced as two side-by-side
cells for pocket lights ca. 1907; used as spy tool during
WWI; single AA cells were first sold in 1915 and became
popular in 1947 when the format was standardized.
AAA cell
10.5 x
44.5mm
Developed in 1954 to reduce size for Kodak and Polaroid
cameras; became popular in the mid-1970s in alkaline
AAAA
cell
8.3 x
42.5mm
Offshoot of 9V battery and available since 1990s; used for
laser pointers, LED penlights, computer styli, headphone
amplifiers
4.5V
battery
65 x 61
x 21mm
Three cells form a flat pack; short terminal strip is
positive, long strip is negative; common in Europe
9V
48.5 x
26.5
Introduced in 1956 for transistor radios; contains six
battery x 17.5mm prismatic or AAAA cells
18650 18 x 65mm
Developed in the mid-1990s for lithium-ion-ion; commonly
used in laptop battery packs
26650 26 x 65 Larger Li-ion battery for industrial applications
26700 26 x 70 Same as 26650 with slightly larger diameter
Table 1: Common old and new battery norms. Some sizes come in fractural lengths
mostly in nickel-based chemistries.
When first invented, a battery was perceived as being big and this reflects in
the sizing convention. While F was chosen as a medium-size battery in the late
1800s, our forefathers did not anticipate the need for miniature batteries.
Running out of letters towards smaller sizes brought on the awkward designations
of AA, AAA and AAAA. Its also interesting that many sizes never took off and A
was replaced with the thinner AA.
A successful standard for a cylindrical cell is the 18650. Developed in the mid
1990s for lithium-ion, these cells are used for laptops, electric bicycles and
even electric vehicles, such as the Tesla Roadster car.
Since the introduction of the 9V battery in 1956, no new consumer format has
emerged. Meanwhile, portable devices have lowered the operating voltages and 9V
is overkill. The 9V battery is expensive to manufacture and has a low specific
energy. A 3.6V battery alternative should be offered in primary and secondary
versions with different chemistries. Similar in size to the 9V, this pack would
be protected with unique battery terminals that would only allow charging
secondary batteries. A code would apply the appropriate algorithm.
Starter batteries for cars also follow battery norms, which consist of the North
American BCI, the European DIN and the Japanese JIS standards. These batteries
are similar in footprint to allow easy interchange. In an effort to standardize,
all American car manufacturers are in the process of converting to the American
DIN size batteries. Most manufacturers of deep-cycle and stationary batteries
produce their own sizes and the replacement must be sourced from the original
maker. Standardizing of the electric vehicle may be too early. Forcing the issue
could follow the failed attempt to standardize laptop batteries in the 1990s.
Types of Battery Cells
Early batteries were in jars, but mass production changed the packaging to the
cylindrical design. The year 1896 pioneered the large F cell for lanterns; the D
cell followed in 1898, the C cell in 1900, and the popular AA was introduced in
1907. Read more about Standardizing Batteries into Norms. Design criteria and
cost considerations required new battery formats that offer distinct advantages
over the cylindrical design.
Cylindrical Cell
The cylindrical cell continues to be one of the most widely used packaging styles
for primary and secondary batteries. The advantages are ease of manufacture and
good mechanical stability. The tubular cylinder has the ability to withstand
internal pressures without deforming. Figure 1 shows a cross section of a cell.

Figure 1: Cross section of a
lithium-ion cylindrical cell
The cylindrical cell design has good
cycling ability, offers a long calendar
life, is economical but is heavy and has
low packaging density due to space
cavities.
Courtesy of Sanyo
Typical applications for the cylindrical cell are power tools, medical
instruments and laptops. Nickel-cadmium offers the largest variety of cell
choices, and some popular formats have spilled over to nickel-metal-hydride. To
allow variations within a given size, manufacturers use fractural cell length,
such as half and three-quarter formats.
The established standards for nickel-based batteries did not catch on with
lithium-ion and the chemistry has established its own formats. One of the most
popular cell packages is the 18650, as illustrated in Figure 2. Eighteen denotes
the diameter and 65 is the length of the cell in millimeters. The Li-manganese
version 18650 has a capacity of 1,2001,500mAh; the Li-cobalt version is 2,400
3,000mAh. The larger 26650 cells have a diameter of 26mm with a length of 65mm
and deliver about 3,200mAh in the manganese version. This cell format is used in
power tools and some hybrid vehicles.


Figure 2: Popular 18650 lithium-ion cell
The metallic cylinder measure 18mm in diameter
and 65mm the length. The larger 26650 cell
measures 26mm in diameter.
Courtesy of Cadex
Lead acid batteries come in flooded and dry formats; portable versions are
packaged in a prismatic design resembling a rectangular box made of plastic. Some
lead acid systems also use the cylindrical design by adapting the winding
technique, and the Hawker Cyclone is in this format. It offers improved cell
stability, higher discharge currents and better temperature stability than the
conventional prismatic design.
Cylindrical cells include a venting mechanism that releases excess gases when
pressure builds up. The more simplistic design utilizes a membrane seal that
ruptures under high pressure. Leakage and subsequent dry-out may occur when the
membrane breaks. The re-sealable vents with a spring-loaded valve are the
preferred design. Cylindrical cells make inefficient use of space, but the air
cavities that result with side-by-side placement can be used for air-cooling.
Button Cell
Smaller devices required a more compact cell design, and in the 1980s the button
cell met this need. The desired voltage was achieved by stacking the cells into a
tube. Early cordless telephones, medical devices and security wands at airports
used these batteries.
Although small and inexpensive to build, the stacked button cell fell out of
favor, and newer designs reverted to more conventional battery configurations. A
drawback of the button cell is swelling if charged too rapidly. Button cells have
no safety vent and can only be charged at a 10- to 16-hour charge. However, newer
designs claim rapid charge capability. Most button cells in use today are non-
rechargeable and can be found in medical implants, watches, hearing aids, car
keys and memory backup. Figure 3 illustrates the button cells with accompanying
cross section.


Figure 3: Button cells

Button cells, also known as coin cells, offer small size and ease of stacking but
do not allow fast charging. Most commercial button cells are non-rechargeable.
Courtesy of Sanyo and Panasonic
Prismatic Cell
Introduced in the early 1990s, the prismatic cell satisfies the demand for
thinner sizes and lower manufacturing costs. Wrapped in elegant packages
resembling a box of chewing gum or a small chocolate bar, prismatic cells make
optimal use of space by using the layered approach. These cells are predominantly
found in mobile phones with lithium-ion. No universal format exists and each
manufacturer designs its own. If the housing design allows a few millimeters
extra in a cell phone or laptop, the manufacturer designs a new pack for the sake
of higher capacity. High volume justifies this move.
Prismatic cells are also making critical inroads into larger formats. Packaged
inwelded aluminum housings, the cells deliver capacities of 20 to 30Ah and are
primarily used for electric powertrains in hybrid and electric vehicles. Figure
4shows the prismatic cell.


Figure 4: Cross section
of a prismatic cell
The prismatic cell improves space
utilization and allows flexible design but
it can be more expensive to manufacture,
less efficient in thermal management and
have a shorter cycle life than the
cylindrical design.
Courtesy of Polystor Corporation

The prismatic cell requires a slightly thicker wall size to compensate for the
decreased mechanical stability from the cylindrical design, resulting in a small
capacity drop. Optimizing use of space makes up this loss. Prismatic cells for
portable devices range from 400mAh to 2,000mAh.
Pouch Cell
In 1995, the pouch cell surprised the battery world with a radical new design.
Rather than using a metallic cylinder and glass-to-metal electrical feed-through
for insulation, conductive foil tabs welded to the electrode and sealed to the
pouch carry the positive and negative terminals to the outside. Figure 5
illustrates such a pouch cell.

Figure 5: The pouch cell
The pouch cell offers a simple, flexible and
lightweight solution to battery design.
Exposure to high humidity and hot temperature
can shorten service life.
Courtesy of Cadex
The pouch cell makes the most efficient use of space and achieves a 90 to 95
percent packaging efficiency, the highest among battery packs. Eliminating the
metal enclosure reduces weight but the cell needs some alternative support in the
battery compartment. The pouch pack finds applications in consumer, military, as
well as automotive applications. No standardized pouch cells exist; each
manufacturer builds the cells for a specific application.
Pouch packs are commonly Li-polymer. Its specific energy is often lower and the
cell is less durable than Li-ion in the cylindrical package. Swelling or bulging
as a result of gas generation during charge and discharge is a concern. Battery
manufacturers insist that these batteries do not generate excess gases that can
lead to swelling. Nevertheless, excess swelling can occur and most is due to
faulty manufacturing, and not misuse. Some dealers have failures due to swelling
of as much as three percent on certain batches. The pressure from swelling can
crack a battery cover, and in some cases break the display and electronic circuit
board. Manufacturers say that an inflated cell is safe. While this may be true,
do not puncture a swollen cell in close proximity to heat or fire; the escaping
gases can ignite. Figure 6 shows a swelled pouch cell.


Figure 6: Swelling pouch cell
Swelling can occur as part of gas generation.
Battery manufacturers are at odds why this
happens. A 5mm (0.2) battery in a hard shell
can grow to 8mm (0.3), more in a foil package.
Courtesy of Cadex
To prevent swelling, the manufacturer adds excess film to create a gas bag
outside the cell. During the first charge, gases escape into the gasbag, which is
then cut off and the pack resealed as part of the finishing process. Expect some
swelling on subsequent charges; 8 to 10 percent over 500 cycles is normal.
Provision must be made in the battery compartment to allow for expansion. It is
best not to stack pouch cells but to lay them flat side by side. Prevent sharp
edges that could stress the pouch cell as they expand.
Summary of Packaging Advantages and Disadvantages
A cell in a cylindrical metallic case has good cycling ability, offers a
long calendar life, is economical to manufacture, but is heavy and has low
packaging density.

The prismatic metallic case has improved packaging density but can be more
expensive to manufacture, is less efficient in thermal management and may
have a shorter cycle life.

The prismatic pouch pack is light and cost-effective to manufacture.
Exposure to high humidity and hot temperature can shorten the service life.
A swelling factor of 810 percent over 500 cycles is normal.

Serial and Parallel Battery Configurations
Battery packs achieve the desired operating voltage by connecting several cells
in series, with each cell adding to the total terminal voltage. Parallel
connection attains higher capacity for increased current handling, as each cell
adds to the total current handling. Some packs may have a combination of serial
and parallel connections. Laptop batteries commonly have four 3.6V Li-ion cells
in series to achieve 14.4V and two strings of these 4 cells in parallel (for a
pack total of 8 cells) to boost the capacity from 2,400mAh to 4,800mAh. Such a
configuration is called 4S2P, meaning 4 cells are in series and 2 strings of
these in parallel. Insulating foil between the cells prevents the conductive
metallic skin from causing an electrical short. The foil also shields against
heat transfer should one cell get hot.
Most battery chemistries allow serial and parallel configuration. It is important
to use the same battery type with equal capacity throughout and never mix
different makes and sizes. A weaker cell causes an imbalance. This is especially
critical in a serial configuration and a battery is only as strong as the weakest
link.
Imagine a chain with strong and weak links. This chain can pull a small weight
but when the tension rises, the weakest link will break. The same happens when
connecting cells with different capacities in a battery. The weak cells may not
quit immediately but get exhausted more quickly than the strong ones when in
continued use. On charge, the low cells fill up before the strong ones and get
hot; on discharge the weak are empty before the strong ones and they are getting
stressed.
Single Cell Applications
The single-cell design is the simplest battery pack. A typical example of this
configuration is the cellular phone battery with a 3.6V lithium-ion cell. Other
uses of a single cell are wall clocks, which typically use a 1.5V alkaline cell,
as well as wristwatches and memory backup.
The nominal cell voltage of nickel is 1.2V. There is no difference between the
1.2V and 1.25V cell; the marking is simply preference. Whereas consumer batteries
use 1.2V/cell as the nominal rating, industrial, aviation and military batteries
adhere to the original 1.25V. The alkaline delivers 1.5V, silver-oxide 1.6V, lead
acid 2V, primary lithium 3V, Li-phosphate 3.3V and regular lithium-ion 3.6V. Li-
manganese and other lithium-based systems sometimes use 3.7V. This has nothing to
do with electrochemistry and these batteries can serve as 3.6V cells.
Manufacturers like to use a higher voltage because low internal resistance causes
less of a voltage drop with a load. Read more: Confusion with Voltages
Serial Connection
Portable equipment needing higher voltages use battery packs with two or more
cells connected in series. Figure 3-8 shows a battery pack with four 1.2V nickel-
based cells in series to produce 4.8V. In comparison, a four-cell lead acid
string with 2V/cell will generate 8V, and four Li-ion with 3.6V/cell will give
14.40V. If you need an odd voltage of, say, 9.5 volts, you can connect five lead
acid, eight NiMH/NiCd), or three Li-ion in series. The end battery voltage does
not need to be exact as long as it is higher than what the device specifies. A
12V supply should work; most battery-operated devices can tolerate some over-
voltage.

Figure 1: Serial connection of four NiCd or NiMH cells
Adding cells in a string increases the voltage; the current remains the same.
Courtesy of Cadex
A higher voltage has the advantage of keeping the conductor size small. Medium-
priced cordless power tools run on 12V and 18V batteries; high-end power tools
use 24V and 36V. The car industry talked about increasing the starter battery
from 12V (14V) to 36V, better known as 42V, by placing 18 lead acid cells in
series. Logistics of changing the electrical components and arcing problems on
mechanical switches derailed the move. Early hybrid cars run on 148V batteries;
newer models have batteries with 450500V. Such a high-voltage battery requires
400 nickel-based cells in series. Li-ion cuts the cell count by three.
High-voltage batteries require careful cell matching, especially when drawing
heavy loads or when operating in cold temperatures. With so many cells in series,
the possibility of one failing is real. One open cell would break the circuit and
a shorted one would lower the overall voltage.
Cell matching has always been a challenge when replacing a faulty cell in an
aging pack. A new cell has a higher capacity than the others, causing an
imbalance. Welded construction adds to the complexity of repair and for these
reasons, battery packs are commonly replaced as a unit when one cell fails. High-
voltage hybrid batteries, in which a full replacement would be prohibitive,
divide the pack into blocks, each consisting of a specific number of cells. If
one cell fails, the affected block is replaced.
Figure 2 illustrates a battery pack in which cell 3 produces only 0.6V instead
of the full 1.2V. With depressed operating voltage, this battery reaches the end-
of-discharge point sooner than a normal pack and the runtime will be severely
shortened. The remaining three cells are unable to deliver their stored energy
when the equipment cuts off due to low voltage. The cause of cell failure can be
a partial short cell that consumes its own charge from within through elevated
self-discharge, or a dry-out in which the cell has lost electrolyte by a leak or
through inappropriate usage.

Figure 2: Serial connection with one faulty cell
Faulty cell 3 lowers the overall voltage from 4.8V to 4.2V, causing the
equipment to cut off prematurely. The remaining good cells can no longer deliver
the energy.
Courtesy of Cadex
Parallel Connection
If higher currents are needed and larger cells with increased ampere-hour (Ah)
ratings are not available or the design has constraints, one or more cells are
connected in parallel. Most chemistries allow parallel configurations with little
side effect. Figure 3 illustrates four cells connected in parallel. The voltage
of the illustrated pack remains at 1.2V, but the current handling and runtime are
increased fourfold.



Figure 3: Parallel connection of four cells
With parallel cells, the current handling
and runtime increases while voltage stays
the same.
Courtesy of Cadex
A high-resistance cell, or one that is open, is less critical in a parallel
circuit than in serial configuration, however, a weak cell reduces the total load
capability. Its like an engine that fires on only three cylinders instead of all
four. An electrical short, on the other hand, could be devastating because the
faulty cell would drain energy from the other cells, causing a fire hazard. Most
so-called shorts are of mild nature and manifest themselves in elevated self-
discharge. Figure 4 illustrates a parallel configuration with one faulty cell.


Figure 4: Parallel/connection with one
faulty cell
A weak cell will not affect the voltage but
will provide a low runtime due to reduced
current handling. A shorted cell could cause
excessive heat and become a fire hazard.
Courtesy of Cadex
Serial/Parallel Connection
The serial/parallel configuration shown in Figure 5 allows superior design
flexibility and achieves the wanted voltage and current ratings with a standard
cell size. The total power is the product of voltage times current, and the four
1.2V/1000mAh cells produce 4.8Wh. Serial/parallel connections are common with
lithium-ion, especially for laptop batteries, and the built-in protection circuit
must monitor each cell individually. Integrated circuits (ICs) designed for
various cell combinations simplify the pack design.



Figure 5: Serial/ parallel connection of four
cells
This configuration provides maximum design
flexibility.
Courtesy of Cadex
Simple Guidelines for Using Household Primary Batteries
Keep the battery contacts clean. A four-cell configuration has eight
contacts (cell to holder and holder to next cell); each contact adds
resistance.

Never mix batteries; replace all cells when weak. The overall performance is
only as good as the weakest link in the chain.

Observe polarity. A reversed cell subtracts rather than adds to the cell
voltage.

Remove batteries from the equipment when no longer in use to prevent leakage
and corrosion. While spent alkaline normally do not leak, spent carbon-zinc
discharge corrosive acid that can destroy the device.

Dont store loose cells in a metal box. Place individual cells in small
plastic bags to prevent an electrical short. Dont carry loose cells in your
pockets.

Keep batteries away from small children. If swallowed, the current flow of
the battery can ulcerate the stomach wall.The battery can also rupture and
cause poisoning.

Do not recharge non-rechargeable batteries; hydrogen buildup can lead to an
explosion. Perform experimental charging only under supervision.
Simple Guidelines for Using Household Secondary Batteries
Observe polarity when charging a secondary cell. Reversed polarity can cause
an electrical short that can lead to heat and fire if left unattended.

Remove fully charged batteries from the charger. A consumer charger may not
apply the optimal trickle charge and the cell could be stressed with
overcharge.
Confusion with Voltages
A battery is an electrochemical device that produces a voltage potential when
placing different metals in acid solutions. The open circuit voltage (OCV)
attained varies according to the metals and acid solutions (electrolyte) used.
Applying a charge or discharge places the battery in the closed circuit voltage
(CCV) condition; charging raises the voltage and discharging lowers it. This
voltage behavior is governed by the internal battery resistance; a low resistance
produces less fluctuation under load or charge than a high one. Charging and
discharging agitates the battery and a full stabilization takes up to 24 hours.
Temperature also has a role; cold rises the voltage and heat lowers it.
Manufacturers rate a battery by assigning a nominal voltage and with a few
exceptions, these voltages follow an agreed convention. Rating some Li-ion higher
than the standard 3.6V/cell may help in product marketing but for the user, a
chemistry-specific voltage counts. Here are the nominal voltages of the most
common batteries in brief.
Lead Acid
The nominal voltage of lead acid is 2.00 volts per cell, however when measuring
the open circuit voltage (OCV), the voltage of a fully charged battery should be
2.10V/cell. Keeping lead acid below 2.10V/cell will cause the buildup of
sulfation.
Nickel-based
In consumer applications, NiCd and NiMH are rated at 1.2V/cell, industrial,
aviation and military batteries adhere to the original 1.25V. There is no
difference between the 1.2V and 1.25V cell; the marking is simply preference.
Lithium-ion
The nominal voltage of lithium-ion had been 3.60V/cell. This is a practical
figure because it represents three nickel-based batteries connected in series (3
x 1.2V = 3.6V). Some cell manufacturers mark their Li-ion products as 3.70V/cell
or higher. This poses a marketing advantage because of higher watt-hours on paper
(multiplying voltage times current equals W). It also creates unfamiliar
references of 11.1V and 14.8V when connecting three and four cells in series. Let
this higher voltage not cause confusion; equipment manufacturers will always
adhere to the nominal cell voltage of 3.60V for most Li-ion systems, and the
standard designation of 10.8V and 14.4V will always work.
How did this higher voltage creep in? To calculate the nominal voltage, we take a
fully charged battery that measures 4.20V and then fully discharge it to 3.00V at
a rate of 0.5C while plotting the average voltage. For Li-cobalt, the average
voltage comes to 3.6V/cell. Performing the same discharge on a fully charged Li-
manganese with a lower internal resistance will result in a higher average
voltage. Pure spinel has one of the lowest internal resistances, and the plotted
voltage on a load moves up to between 3.70 and 3.80V/cell. This higher midpoint
voltage does not change the full-charge and end-of-discharge voltage threshold.
The phosphate-based lithium-ion deviates from others in the Li-ion family and the
nominal cell voltages are specified at between 3.20 and 3.30V. Because of the
voltage difference, the two lithium-ion families are not interchangeable. New
lithium-based batteries will have other voltages and specialty chargers may be
needed.
Primary Batteries
The alkaline delivers 1.5V, silver-oxide 1.6V and primary lithium 3V. The 9-volt
battery has six cells in series. Do not charge primary batteries because
overcharge can produce explosive gases. See Reusable Alkaline.
Protection Circuits
Batteries can release high power, and most packs include protection to safeguard
against malfunction. The most basic safety device in a battery is a fuse that
opens on high current. Some devices open permanently and render the battery
useless; others are more forgiving and reset. The Polyswitch is such a re-
settable device. It creates a high resistance on excess current and reverts back
to the low ON position when the condition normalizes. A third method is a solid-
state switch that measures the current and disconnects on excessive load
conditions. All switching devices have a residual resistance during normal
operation, which causes a slight increase in overall battery resistance and a
subsequent voltage drop.
Intrinsically Safe Batteries
Intrinsically safe (IS) batteries contain protection circuits that prevent the
formation of high currents, which could lead to excess heat, sparks and
explosion. Authorities mandate IS batteries for two-way radios, gas detectors and
other electronic instruments operating in hazardous areas such as oil refineries,
chemical plants and grain elevators. There are several levels of intrinsic
safety, each serving a specific hazard level, and the requirements vary from
country to country. The provisions are in addition to the protection circuit for
lithium-ion, and the approval standards are rigorous. This results in a high
price for the battery.
Making Lithium-ion Safe
Battery packs for laptops and other portable devices contain many levels of
protection to assure safety under (almost) all circumstances when in the hands of
the public. The safety begins with the battery cell, which includes: [1] a built-
in temperature switch called PTC that protects against high current surges, [2] a
circuit interrupt device (CID) that opens the electrical path if an over-charge
raises the internal cell pressure to 1000 kPa (145psi), and [3]a safety vent that
releases gas in the event of a rapid increase in cell pressure.
In addition to these internal safeguards, an external electronic protection
circuit prevents the charge voltage of any cell from exceeding 4.30V.
Furthermore, a fuse cuts the current if the skin temperature of any cell
approaches 90C (194F). To prevent the battery from over-discharging, a control
circuit cuts off the current path at about 2.20V/cell.
Each cell in a string needs independent voltage monitoring. The higher the cell
count, the more complex the protection circuit becomes. Four cells in series had
been the practical limit for consumer applications. Today, new chips accommodate
57, 710 and 13 cells in series. For specialty applications, such as the hybrid
or electric vehicle delivering several hundred volts, specialty protection
circuits are made, which sharply increases the overall cost of the battery.
Monitoring two or more cells in parallel to get higher current is less critical
than controlling voltages in a string configuration.
Protection circuits can only shield abuse from the outside, such as an electrical
short or faulty charger. If, however, a defect occurs within the cell, such as
contamination caused by microscopic metal particles, the external protection
circuit has little effect and cannot arrest the reaction. Reinforced and self-
healing separators are being developed for cells used in electric powertrains,
but this makes the batteries large and expensive. While a Li-ion for a laptop
provides a capacity of 170200Wh/kg, the EV Li-ion has only 100110Wh/kg.
The gas released by venting of a Li-ion cell as part of pressure buildup is
mainly carbon dioxide (CO
2
). Other gases that form through abusive heating are
vaporized electrolyte consisting of ethylene and/or propylene. Burning gases
include combustion products of the organic solvents.
Li-ion commonly discharges to 3.0V/cell. This is the threshold at which most
portable equipment stops working. The lowest low-voltage power cut-off is
2.5V/cell, and during prolonged storage, the self-discharge causes the voltage to
drop further. This causes the protection circuit to turn off and the battery goes
to sleep as if dead. Most chargers ignore Li-ion packs that have gone to sleep
and a charge is no longer possible.
While in the ON position, the internal protection circuit has a resistance of 50
to 100mOhm. The circuit typically consists of two switches connected in series;
one is responsible for the high cut-off, and the other for the low cut-off. The
protection circuit of some smaller cellular batteries can be relaxed, and some
get away with only the cells intrinsic protection and/or an external fuse. The
absence of a full protection circuit saves money, but a new problem arises. Here
is what can happen.
Some low-cost chargers rely solely on the batterys protection circuit to
terminate charge current. Without a functioning voltage termination switch in the
battery, the cell voltage can rise too high and overcharge the battery. Heat
buildup and bulging are early indications of pending failures before potential
disintegration occurs. Figure 1 shows a battery that has fragmented while
charging in a car.

Figure 1:
Exploded cellular phone
Generic cell phone disintegrated while
charging in the back of a car.Combination of
unsafe battery and charger can have a lethal
effect. Manufacturers advise only to use
approved batteries and chargers.
By owners permission

A concern also arises if static electricity or a faulty charger has destroyed the
batterys protection circuit. This can fuse the solid-state switches into a
permanent ON position without the users knowledge. A battery with a faulty
protection circuit may function normally but fail to provide the required safety.
Low price makes generic replacement batteries from Asia popular with cell phone
users. While the quality and performance of these batteries is improving, some do
not provide the same high safety as the original branded version. A wise shopper
spends a little more and replaces the battery with an approved model.
I receive many questions on www.BatteryUniversity.com from visitors wanting to
know why the aftermarket does not provide low-cost laptop batteries as readily as
cellular batteries. This is mainly due to safety. While a 1,400mAh cellular
battery stores only 4Wh of energy, a laptop battery holds about 60Wh, 15 times
more. Many manufacturers of consumer batteries protect the batteries with a
security inscription that very few can break. Although aftermarket batteries are
available, many do not offer all the functions of the branded version. Typical
problems are fuel-gauge errors and not being able to charge correctly.
Manufacturers of lithium-ion batteries do not mention the word explosion and
refer to venting with flame or rapid disassembly. Although seen as a slower
and more controlled process than explosion, venting with flame, or rapid
disassembly, can nevertheless be violent and inflict injury to those in close
proximity. The court hears many legal cases involving laptops and other batteries
that are said to have caused property damage, fire and personal injury. This is
also a large concern in the aviation industry. Most of the batteries for consumer
products are shipped by air just in time for improved inventory control.
Simple Guidelines for Using Lithium-ion Batteries
Exercise caution when handling and testing lithium-ion batteries.

Do not short-circuit, overcharge, crush, drop, mutilate, penetrate with
foreign objects, apply reverse polarity, expose to high temperature or
disassemble packs and cells.

Use only lithium-ion cells with a designated protection circuit and approved
charger.

High temperature during charge or discharge may hint of pending failure.
Discontinue using the battery and/or charger.

The electrolyte is highly flammable and battery rupture can cause physical
injury.

Use a foam extinguisher, CO
2
, dry chemical, powdered graphite, copper powder
or soda(sodium carbonate) to extinguish a lithium-ion fire. Only pour water
to prevent the fire from spreading.

If the fire of a burning lithium-ion battery cannot be extinguished, allow
the pack to burn out on its own in a controlled and safe way.

* IATA (International Air Transport Association) works with airlines and air
transport industry to promote safe, reliable, secure and economical air travel.
Safety Concerns with Li-ion
Modern batteries contain highly reactive chemicals that will react at elevated
temperature by default. The objective is to operate in a stable environmental
bandwidth.
Safety is a sensitive issue that gets much media and legal attention, especially
with Li-ion batteries. Any energy storage device carries a risk, and in the 1800s
steam engines exploded and people got hurt. Carrying highly flammable gasoline in
cars was a hot topic in the early 1900s. Battery makers are obligated to meet
safety requirements, but less reputable firms may cheat its buyers be
beware! Most OEMs use only Li-ion batteries that comply with one or several
safety standards.
Lithium-ion has a high specific energy and even though safe, high usage by
millions of consumers is bound to generate failures. In 2006, a one-in-200,000
breakdown triggered a recall of almost six million lithium-ion packs. Heat-
related battery failures are taken very seriously, and manufacturers choose a
conservative approach. Lets examine this closer.
Sony, the maker of the lithium-ion cells in question, points out that on rare
occasions microscopic metal particles may come into contact with other parts of
the battery cell, leading to a short circuit within the cell. Battery
manufacturers strive to minimize the presence of such particles; however, complex
assembly techniques make the elimination of all metallic dust nearly impossible.
Cells with ultra-thin separators of only 2025m are more susceptible to
impurities than the older designs with lower Ah ratings. Whereas the 1,350mAh
cell in the 18650 package could tolerate the nail penetration test, the high-
density 2,400mAh becomes a bomb when performing the same test. New safety
standards are more lifelike and the UL1642 Underwriters Laboratories (UL) test no
longer mandates nail penetration for safety acceptance of lithium-based
batteries.
Li-ion using conventional metal oxides is nearing its theoretical limit on
specific energy. Rather than optimizing runtime, battery makers are improving
manufacturing methods to enhance safety and increase the calendar life. The real
problem lies in rare occasions when an electrical short develops inside the cell.
In such a case, the external protection peripherals are ineffective to stop the
thermal runaway, once in progress. The batteries recalled in 2006 passed the UL
safety requirements yet they failed in normal use.
Lets examine the inner workings of the cell closer. A mild short will only cause
elevated self-discharge and the heat buildup is minimal because the discharging
power is very low. If, however, enough microscopic metallic particles converge on
one spot, a sizable current begins to flow between the electrodes of the cell,
and the spot heats up.
Uneven separators may also trigger cell failure. Poor conductivity due to dry
area increases the resistance, which can generate local heat spots that weaken
the integrity of the separator. Heat is always an enemy of the battery. When
fully charged, elevated temperature causes a harmful reaction between the
positive and negative electrodes and the electrolyte. As a small water leak in a
faulty hydro dam can develop to a torrent and take a structure down, so also can
heat buildup damage the insulation layer in a cell and cause an electrical short.
The temperature can quickly reach 500C (932F), at which point the cell catches
fire or explodes. This thermal runaway that occurs is known as venting with
flame. Rapid disassembly is the preferred term by the battery industry.
If the battery gets very hot, immediately remove the device from proximity to
flammable materials and bring it to a non-combustible surface. If at all
possible, put a disintegrating laptop or cell phone outdoors and let it burn out.
If the fire occurs in an airplane, FAA tells flight attendants not to use fire
extinguishers but specify water or pop (soda). Water cools the adjacent material
and prevents the fire from spreading. Many research laboratories and factories
also use water to put out battery fires. Allow good ventilation while the battery
burns itself out. Li-ion contains no lithium metal and does not react with water.
A fire with batteries containing lithium metal requires a different extinguishing
method.
During a thermal runaway, the high heat of the failing cell may propagate to the
next cells, causing them to become thermally unstable also. A chain reaction can
occur in which each cell disintegrates on its own timetable. A pack can thus be
destroyed in a few seconds or over several hours as each cell is being consumed
one by one. To increase safety, packs should include dividers to protect the
failing cell from spreading to the neighboring one. (In the Tesla Roadster car,
each cell is encased in its own metal compartment.) Figure shows a laptop that
was damaged by a faulty Li-ion battery.


Figure: Suspected Li-ion battery
destroys laptop
The owner says the laptop popped,
hissed, sizzled and began filling the
room with smoke.
Courtesy of Shmuel De-Leon
While Li-ion is being scrutinized for safety, other chemistries also have
problems. Nickel- and lead-based batteries cause fires too, and some are being
recalled. The reasons of these failures are faulty separators resulting from
aging, rough handling, excessive vibration and high-temperature.
Let me assure you that lithium-ion batteries are safe and that heat-related
failures are rare. While the safety measures are especially critical for larger
multi-cell batteries, small packs for cell phones need fewer safety precautions.
Building a Lithium-ion Pack
Reputable battery manufacturers do not supply lithium-ion cells to uncertified
battery assemblers. This precaution is reasonable when considering the danger of
explosion and fire when charging and discharging a Li-ion pack beyond safe limits
without an approved protection circuit.
Authorizing a battery pack for the commercial market and for air transport can
cost $10,000 to $20,000. Such a high price is troubling when considering that
obsolescence in the battery industry is common. Manufacturers often discontinue a
cell in favor of higher capacities. The switch to the improved cell will require
a new certification even though the dimensions of the new cell are the same as
the previous model.
Cell manufacturers must comply with their own vigorous cell testing and we ask,
Why are additional tests required when using an approved cell? The cell
approvals cannot be transferred to the pack because the regulatory authorities do
not recognize the safety confirmation of the naked cell. The finished battery
must be tested separately to assure correct assembly and is registered as a
standalone product. Read about Safety Concerns with Li-ion.
As part of the test, the finished battery must undergo electrical and mechanical
assessment to meet the Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods on
lithium-ion batteries for air shipment, rules set by the United Nations (UN). The
electrical test stresses the battery by applying high heat, followed by a forced
charge, abnormal discharge and an electrical short. During the mechanical test,
the battery is crush-tested and exposed to high impact, shock and vibration. The
UN Transport test also requires altitude, thermal stability, vibration, shock,
short circuit and overcharge checks. The UN Transport works in conjunction with
the Federal Aviation Administration(FAA), the US Department of Transport (US DOT)
and the International Air Transport Association (IATA).*
The authorized laboratory performing the tests needs 24 battery samples
consisting of 12 new packs and 12 specimens that have been cycled for 50 times.
IATA wants to assure that the batteries in question are airworthy and have field
integrity. Cycling them for 50 times before the test satisfies this requirement.
The high certification costs make many small manufacturers shy away from using
Li-ion for low-volume products; they choose nickel-based systems instead. While
strict control is justified, an uncertified Li-ion kept in the hands of the
expert and out of aircraft would be acceptable, but controlling such movement in
the public domain is next to impossible. This makes it hard for the hobbyist who
wants to win a race with a high-powered Li-ion battery but is bogged down by many
rules.
With recurring accidents while transporting lithium-based batteries by air,
regulatory authorities will likely tighten the shipping requirements further.
However, anything made too cumbersome and difficult will entice some battery
manufacturers to trick the system, defeating the very purpose of protecting the
traveling public. Read about How to Transport Batteries.

* IATA (International Air Transport Association) works with airlines and air
transport industry to promote safe, reliable, secure and economical air travel.
All about Chargers
The performance and longevity of rechargeable batteries are to a large extent
governed by the quality of the charger. In a price-competitive world, battery
chargers are often given low priority, especially as consumer products. Choosing
a quality charger is important considering the cost of battery replacement and
the frustration poorly performing batteries create. The charger should serve as a
quintessential master and guardian angel to protect the environment and save
money by extending battery life.
There are two varieties of chargers: the personal chargers and the fleet
chargers. For cell phones, laptops, tablets or digital cameras, manufacturers
include personal chargers. These are made for one battery type, are economically
priced and perform well when used for the application intended.
The fleet charger serves employees in a team environment and often has multiple
bays. The original equipment manufacturer (OEM) sells the chargers and third
parties also provide them. While the OEMs meet the basic requirements, third-
party manufacturers often include special features, such as a discharge function
for battery conditioning and calibration.
Some manufacturers of third-party chargers have become creative and offer
advanced charge methods for lead- and nickel-based batteries. While pulse
charging may be beneficial for nickel-based batteries, this method is not
recommended for Li-ion. The voltage peaks are too high and cause havoc with the
protection circuit. Battery manufacturers do not support alternative charging
methods and say that pulse charging could shorten the life of Li-ion.
There are many valuable additional features for chargers, and hot- and cold-
temperature protection is one. Below freezing, the charger lowers or prevents
charge depending on the type of battery. When hot, the charger only engages when
the battery temperature has normalized to a safe level. Advanced lead acid
chargers offer temperature-controlled voltage thresholds, as well as adjustments
to optimize charging for aging batteries.
Some chargers, including Cadex chargers, feature a wake-up feature or boost to
allow charging Li-ion batteries that have fallen asleep. This can occur if a Li-
ion battery is stored in a discharged condition and self-discharge has depressed
the voltage to the cut-off point. Regular chargers read these batteries as
unserviceable and the packs are discarded. The boost feature applies a small
charge current to activate the protection circuit to 2.202.90V/ cell, at which
point a normal charge commences. Caution should be applied not to boost lithium-
based batteries back to life that have dwelled below 1.5V/cell for a week or
longer.
There are two common charge methods, which are voltage limiting (VL) and current
limiting (CL). Lead- and lithium-based chargers cap the voltage at a fixed
threshold. When reaching the cut-off voltage, the battery begins to saturate and
the current drops while receiving the remaining charge on its own timetable. Full
charge detection occurs when the current drops to a designated level. Read more
about Charging Lead Acid.
Nickel-based batteries, on the other hand, charge with a controlled current and
the voltage is allowed to fluctuate freely. This can be compared to lifting a
weight with an elastic band. The slight voltage drop after a steady rise
indicates a fully charged battery. The voltage drop method works well in
terminating the fast charge, however, the charger should include other safeguards
to respond to anomalies such as shorted or mismatched cells. Most batteries and
chargers also include temperature sensors to end the charge if the temperature
exceeds a safe level. Read more about Charging Nickel-cadmium.
A temperature rise is normal, especially when nickel-based batteries move towards
full-charge state. When in ready mode, the battery must cool down to room
temperature. Heat causes stress and prolonged exposure to elevated temperature
shortens battery life. If the temperature remains above ambient, the charger is
not performing right and the battery should be removed when ready appears.
Extended trickle charge also inflicts damage, and nickel-based batteries should
not be left in the charger for more than a few days.
A lithium-based battery should not get warm in a charger and if this happens, the
battery or charger might be faulty. Discontinue using the battery and/or charger.
Li-ion chargers do not apply a trickle charge and disconnect the battery
electrically when fully charged. If these packs are left in the charger for a few
weeks, a recharge may occur when the open circuit voltage drops below a set
threshold. It is not necessary to remove Li-ion from the charger when full;
however, if not used for a week or more, it is better to remove them and recharge
before use.
A mobile phone charger draws about 2 watts on charge, while a laptop on charge
takes close to 100 watts. The standby current must be low and Energy Star offers
mobile phone chargers drawing 30mW or less five stars for high efficiency; 30
150mW earns four stars, 150250mW three stars, and 250350mW two stars. The
industry average is 300mW on no-load consumption and this gets one star; higher
than 500mW earns no stars. Low standby wattage is only possible with small
chargers, such as the four billion mobile phone chargers that are mostly plugged
in.
Simple Guidelines When Buying a Charger
Use the correct charger for the battery chemistry. Most chargers serve one
chemistry only.
The battery voltage must agree with the charger. Do not charge if different.
Within reason, the Ah rating of a battery can be higher or lower than
specified. A larger battery will take longer to charge than a smaller one
and vice versa.
The higher the amperage of the charger, the shorter the charge time will be.
There are limitations as to how fast a battery can be charged.
Accurate charge termination and correct trickle charge prolong battery life.
When fully saturated, a lead acid charger should switch to a lower voltage;
a nickel-based charger should have a trickle charge NiMH; a Li-ion charger
provides no trickle charge.
Chargers should have a temperature override to end charge on a
malfunctioning battery.
Observe the temperature of the charger and battery. Lead acid batteries stay
cool during charge; nickel-based batteries elevate the temperature towards
the end of charge and should cool down after charge; Li-ion batteries should
stay cool throughout charge.
Slow Charger
Also known as an overnight charger, the slow charger goes back to the old
nickel-cadmium days and applies a fixed charge of about 0.1C (one-tenth of the
rated capacity) as long as the battery is connected. Slow chargers are very
simple; they have no full-charge detection, the charge current is always engaged,
and the charge time on an empty battery is 14 to 16 hours.
When fully charged, a slow charger keeps NiCd luke warm to the touch. Some
overcharge is acceptable and the battery does not need to be removed immediately
when ready. However, the pack should not stay in the charger for more than a day
or two because of memory, also known as crystalline formation. Read more about
Memory: Myth or Fact?.
A problem arises when charging a battery with a lower mAh rating than specified.
Although the slow charger will charge the battery normally at first, higher than
0.1C current for this smaller battery will heat up the pack towards the full-
charge state. Because there is no provision to lower the current or terminate the
charge, excessive heat will shorten the life of this pack. Observe the battery
temperature while charging and remove the battery when warm to the touch. Most
slow chargers have no ready light.
The opposite can also occur when the slow charger charges a larger battery. In
this case, the battery may never reach full charge and remains cold. Performance
is poor because the battery does not receive a full charge. A nickel-based
battery that is undercharged will eventually lose the ability to accept a full
charge due to crystalline formation.
Slow chargers are found in cordless phones, electric toothbrushes and childrens
toys. A slow charger works well for these products because the battery and
charger are harmonized. Chargers servicing a broader range of batteries need some
intelligence to supervise the charge, control the current when full, and provide
safety if an anomaly occurs.
Rapid Charger
The rapid charger falls between the slow and fast chargers and services nickel-
and lithium-based batteries. Unless specially designed, the rapid charger cannot
service both nickel- and lithium-based chemistries on the same platform; it needs
a designated platform.
The rapid charger is most commonly used for consumer products. The charge time of
an empty pack is 3 to 6 hours (less for a partially charged battery), and when
the battery is full, the charger switches to ready. Most rapid chargers include
temperature protection to safeguard against failures. This and other features
offer improved service over the slow charger, and batteries tend to perform
better. Although they are more expensive to build, high-volume production makes
the rapid charger available at a moderate price.
Fast Charger
The fast charger offers several advantages, and the obvious one is shorter charge
times. The need for a larger power supply and more complex control circuits
reserve fast chargers mostly for commercial use, such as medical, military,
communications and power tools.
Faster charge times demand tighter communication between the charger and battery.
At a 1C charge rate, which the fast charger typically uses, an empty NiCd and
NiMH charges in a little more than an hour. (See What is C-rate?) As a battery
approaches full charge, some nickel-based chargers reduce the charge current to
adjust to lower charge acceptance, and when the battery is full the charger
switches to trickle charge, also known as maintenance charge.
Most nickel-based fast chargers accommodate NiCd and NiMH batteries on the same
algorithm, but not Li-ion. To service nickel- and Li-ion-based chemistries in the
same charger, a provision is needed to select the correct charge algorithm. In
many ways, Li-ion batteries are easier to charge than NiCd and NiMH. The charge
to 70 percent at 1C occurs in less than an hour, the rest of the time is devoted
to topping charge.
Lead acid batteries cannot be fast-charged and the term fast-charge is a
misnomer. Most lead acid chargers charge the battery in 14 hours; anything slower
may be a compromise. As with all chemistries, lead acid can be charged relatively
quickly to 70 percent; the all-important saturation charge takes up the remaining
time. A partial charge at a high rate is fine provided the battery receives a
fully saturated charge once every few weeks to prevent sulfation.
Simple Guidelines on Chargers
Turn the portable device off while charging. A parasitic load confuses the
charger.

If possible, charge at a moderate rate. Ultra-fast charging causes undue
stress.

Fast and ultra-fast charge fills the battery only partially. A slower
topping charge completes the charge. Read about Ultra-fast Chargers.

Do not apply fast and ultra-fast charge when the battery is cold or hot.
Only charge batteries at moderate temperatures.

Do not apply fast and ultra-fast charge to low-performing batteries. Very
few chargers are able to assess battery condition and govern a suitable
charge accordingly.

Type Chemistry C-rate Time Temperatures Charge termination
Slow
charger
NiCd
Lead acid

0.1C 14h
0C to 45C
(32F to
113F)
Continuous low charge or fixed
timer. Subject to overcharge.
Remove battery when charged.
Rapid
charger
NiCd,
NiMH,
Li-ion
0.3-
0.5C
3-6h
10C to 45C
(50F to
113F)
Senses battery by voltage,
current, temperature and time-out
timer.
Fast
charger
NiCd,
NiMH,
Li-ion
1C 1h+
10C to 45C
(50F to
113F)
Same as a rapid charger with
faster service.
Ultra-
fast
charger
Li-ion,
NiCd,
NiMH
1-10C
10-60
minutes
10C to 45C
(50F to
113F)
Applies ultra-fast charge to 70%
SoC; limited to specialty
batteries.
Table 1: Charger characteristics. Each chemistry uses a unique charge
termination.
Fast and Ultra-fast Chargers
Nowhere is fast-charging in higher demand than with the electric car. Recharging
an EV in minutes replicates the convenience of filling up 50 liters (13 gallons)
of gasoline into a tank that is capable of delivering 600kWh of energy. Such
large storage of energy in an electrochemical system is difficult to fathom and a
battery holding this capacity would weigh 6 tons. However, electric energy from a
battery delivers far more efficient and cleaner propulsion than the internal
combustion engine.
Charging an EV will always take longer than filling a tank with liquid fuel, and
the battery will always deliver less energy per weight than fossil fuel. This
ratio with current battery technology is roughly 1:100 in favor of fossil fuel.
Read more about Net Calorific Value. Breaking the rule and forcing ultra-fast
charging would cause undue stress to the battery and strain the power grid by
dimming the city. When talking about ultra-fast charging we must remember that
the battery is an electrochemical device that is sluggish and loses performance
with use and aging. Charging a battery cannot be compared to filling a tank with
fuel that contains 12,000Wh of calorific value per liter. Furthermore, while a
fuel tank keeps its volumetric dimensions, a battery begins to fade by the time
it leaves the factory.
Ultra-fast Chargers
Ultra-fast chargers have been around for many years. Most NiCd and specialty
types of Li-ion batteries, can be charged at a very high rate up to 70 percent
state-of-charge (SoC). At a rate of 10C (see What is the C-rate?) or 10 times the
rated current, a 1A battery could theoretically be charged in six minutes, but
there are limits. To apply an ultra-fast charge, the following conditions must be
observed:
The battery must be designed to accept an ultra-fast charge. Current handing
poses limitation with many pack designs.

Ultra-fast charging only applies during the first charge phase. The charge
current must be lowered when the 70 percent state-of-charge threshold is
reached.

All cells in the pack must be balanced and in good condition. Older
batteries with high internal resistance will heat up; they are no longer
suitable for ultra-fast charging.

Ultra-fast charging can only be done under moderate temperatures. Low
temperature slows the chemical reaction, and energy that cannot be absorbed
causes gassing and heat buildup.

The charger must include temperature compensations and other safety
provisions to halt the charge if the battery gets unduly stressed. Failure
to heed to these conditions could cause rapid disintegration of the battery
and fire.
An ultra-fast charger can be compared to a high-speed train that is capable to
travel 300km per hour (188 mph) on a track built for it. The tracks, and not the
machinery, govern the maximum speed. Adding power to a charger is relatively
simple; the intelligence lies in assessing the condition of the battery and
applying the right amount of maximum charge. A properly designed ultra-fast
charger will lower the current when certain conditions occur. In essence, only
newer batteries can be ultra-fast charged.
Do not ultra-fast charge batteries if possible and charge at a more moderate rate
of 1C or less. (A maker of the 18650 Li-ion recommends 0.7C.) Makers of electric
cars prefer if EV owners charge at an eight-hour or 16-hour charge, both of which
are below 1C. The 30-minute charge with a three-phase 440V outlet charges the
battery at above 1C and this method should only be used if no other option exists
(1C is the current rating of a battery. A 1C charge or discharge of a battery
rated at 1Ah is 1A.)
Figure 1 compares the cycle life of a lithium-ion battery when charged and
discharged at 1C, 2C and 3C. A 1C charge and discharge cycle causes the capacity
drop from 650mAh to 550mAh after 500 cycles, reflecting a decrease to 84 percent.
A 2C accelerates capacity fade to 310mAh, representing a decrease to 47 percent,
and with 3C the battery fails after only 360 cycles with 26 percent remaining
capacity.


Figure 1: Cycle performance
of Li-ion with 1C, 2C and 3C
charge and discharge
Charging and discharging Li-
ion above 1C reduces service
life. Use a slower charge
and discharge if possible.
This applies to most
batteries.
Although the battery performs best at a gentle rate of 1C and less, we must keep
in mind that some applications require high charge and discharge rates, and the
user must take shorter life expectation into account. If full cycles with rapid
charge and discharge are the norm, consider using a larger battery. This will not
only provide more reserve capacity but it will also lower the C-rate in that a
given charge and discharge current is less intrusive on the larger pack. An
analogy can be made with an underpowered engine pulling a large vehicle; the
stress is too large and the engine will not last.
What is the C-rate?
In the late 1700s, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb ruled that a battery that receives
a charge current of one ampere (1A) passes one coulomb (1C) of charge every
second. In 10 seconds, 10 coulombs pass into the battery, and so on. On
discharge, the process reverses. Today, the battery industry uses C-rate to scale
the charge and discharge current of a battery.
Most portable batteries are rated at 1C, meaning that a 1,000mAh battery that is
discharged at 1C rate should under ideal conditions provide a current of 1,000mA
for one hour. The same battery discharging at 0.5C would provide 500mA for two
hours, and at 2C, the 1,000mAh battery would deliver 2,000mA for 30 minutes. 1C
is also known as a one-hour discharge; a 0.5C is a two-hour, and a 2C is a half-
hour discharge.
The battery capacity, or the amount of energy a battery can hold, can be measured
with a battery analyzer. The analyzer discharges the battery at a calibrated
current while measuring the time it takes to reach the end-of-discharge voltage.
An instrument displaying the results in percentage of the nominal rating would
show 100 percent if a 1,000mAh test battery could provide 1,000mA for one hour.
If the discharge lasts for 30 minutes before reaching the end-of-discharge cut-
off voltage, then the battery has a capacity of 50 percent. A new battery is
sometimes overrated and can produce more than 100 percent capacity; others are
underrated and never reach 100 percent even after priming.
When discharging a battery with a battery analyzer capable of applying different
C-rates, a higher C-rate will produce a lower capacity reading and vice versa. By
discharging the 1,000mAh battery at the faster 2C, or 2,000mA, the battery should
ideally deliver the full capacity in 30 minutes. The sum should be the same as
with a slower discharge since the identical amount of energy is being dispensed,
only over a shorter time. In reality, internal resistance turns some of the
energy into heat and lowers the resulting capacity to about 95 percent or less.
Discharging the same battery at 0.5C, or 500mA over two hours, will likely
increase the capacity to above 100 percent.
To obtain a reasonably good capacity reading, manufacturers commonly rate lead
acid at 0.05C, or a 20-hour discharge. Even at this slow discharge rate, the
battery seldom attains a 100 percent capacity. Manufacturers provide capacity
offsets to adjust for the discrepancies in capacity if discharged at a higher
C-rate than specified. Figure 1 illustrates the discharge times of a lead acid
battery at various loads as expressed in C-rate.

Figure 1: Typical discharge curves of lead acid as a function of C-rate
Smaller batteries are rated at a 1C discharge rate. Due to sluggish behavior,
lead acid is rated at 0.2C (5h) and 0.05C (20h).
While lead- and nickel-based batteries can be discharged at a high rate, a safety
circuit prevents Li-ion with cobalt cathodes from discharging above 1C. Manganese
and phosphate can tolerate discharge rates of up to 10C and the current threshold
is set higher accordingly.
Charging Lead Acid
We now study various charging methods and examine why some systems work better
than others. We focus on closed-loop techniques that communicate with the battery
and terminate charge when certain responses occur.
Lead acid charging uses a voltage-based algorithm that is similar to lithium-ion.
The charge time of a sealed lead acid battery is 1216 hours, up to 3648 hours
for large stationary batteries. With higher charge currents and multi-stage
charge methods, the charge time can be reduced to 10 hours or less; however, the
topping charge may not be complete. Lead acid is sluggish and cannot be charged
as quickly as other battery systems.
Lead acid batteries should be charged in three stages, which are [1] constant-
current charge, [2] topping charge and [3] float charge. The constant-current
chargeapplies the bulk of the charge and takes up roughly half of the required
charge time; the topping charge continues at a lower charge current and provides
saturation, and the float charge compensates for the loss caused by self-
discharge. Figure 4-4 illustrates these three stages.

Figure 4-4: Charge stages of a lead acid battery
The battery is fully charged when the current drops to a pre-determined level or
levels out in stage 2. The float voltage must be reduced at full charge.
Courtesy of Cadex
During the constant-current charge, the battery charges to 70 percent in 58
hours; the remaining 30 percent is filled with the slower topping charge that
lasts another 710 hours. The topping charge is essential for the well-being of
the battery and can be compared to a little rest after a good meal. If deprived,
the battery will eventually lose the ability to accept a full charge and the
performance will decrease due to sulfation. The float charge in the third stage
maintains the battery at full charge.
The switch from Stage 1 to 2 occurs seamlessly and happens when the battery
reaches the set voltage limit. The current begins to drop as the battery starts
to saturate, and full charge is reached when the current decreases to the three
percent level of the rated current. A battery with high leakage may never attain
this low saturation current, and a plateau timer takes over to initialize the
charge termination.
The correct setting of the charge voltage is critical and ranges from 2.30 to
2.45V per cell. Setting the voltage threshold is a compromise, and battery
experts refer to this as dancing on the head of a needle. On one hand, the
battery wants to be fully charged to get maximum capacity and avoid sulfation on
the negative plate; on the other hand, an over-saturated condition causes grid
corrosion on the positive plate and induces gassing.
To make dancing on the head of a needle more difficult, the battery voltage
shifts with temperature. Warmer surroundings require slightly lower voltage
thresholds and a cold ambient prefers a higher level. Chargers exposed to
temperature fluctuations should include temperature sensors to adjust the charge
voltage for optimum charge efficiency. If this is not possible, it is better to
choose a lower voltage for safety reasons. Table 4-5 compares the advantages and
limitations of various peak voltage settings.




2.30V to 2.35V/cell 2.40V to 2.45V/cell
Advantages
Maximum service life;
battery stays cool;
charge temperature can
exceed 30C (86F).
Faster charge times;
higher and more
consistent capacity
readings; less
sulfation.
Disadvantages
Slow charge time;
capacity readings may
be inconsistent and
declining with each
cycle. Sulfation may
occur without
equalizing charge.
Subject to corrosion
and gassing. Needs
constant water. Not
suitable for charging
at high room
temperatures, causing
severe overcharge.
Table 4-5: Effects of charge voltage on a small lead acid battery (SLA)
Cylindrical lead acid cells have higher voltage settings than VRLA and starter
batteries.
Once fully charged through saturation, the battery should not dwell at the
topping voltage for more than 48 hours and must be reduced to the float voltage
level. This is especially critical for sealed systems because these systems are
less able to tolerate overcharge than the flooded type. Charging beyond what the
battery can take turns the redundant energy into heat and the battery begins to
gas. The recommended float voltage of most low-pressure lead acid batteries is
2.25 to 2.27V/cell. (Large stationary batteries float at 2.25V at 25C (77F.)
Manufacturers recommend lowering the float charge at ambient temperatures above
29C (85F).
Not all chargers feature float charge. If your charger stays on topping charge
and does not drop below 2.30V/cell, remove the charge after 48 hours of charge.
Whereas the voltage settings in Table 4-5 apply to low-pressure lead acid
batteries with a pressure relief valve of about 34kPa (5psi), cylindrical sealed
lead acid, such as the Hawker Cyclon cell, requires higher voltage settings and
the limits should be set according to the manufacturers specifications. Failing
to apply the recommended voltage will cause a gradual decrease in capacity due to
sulfation. The Hawker Cyclon cell has a pressure relief setting of 345kPa (50psi)
and this allows some recombination of the gases generated during charge.
Aging batteries pose a challenge when setting the optimal float charge voltage
because each cell has its own age-related condition. Weak cells may go into
hydrogen evolution as part of overcharge early on, while the stronger ones
undergo oxygen recombination in an almost starved state. Connected in a string,
all cells receive the same charge current and controlling individual cell
voltages is almost impossible. A float current that is too high for the faded
cell might starve the strong neighbor and cause sulfation due to undercharge.
Companies have developed cell-balancing devices, which are placed on the battery
and compensate the differences in cell voltages that occur as a result of cell
imbalance.
Ripple voltage imposed on the voltage of large stationary batteries also causes a
problem. The voltage peak constitutes an overcharge, causing hydrogen evolution,
while the valleys induce a brief discharge that creates a starved state that
results in electrolyte depletion. Manufacturers typically limit the ripple to
five percent, or 5A for a 100Ah battery.
Much has been said about pulse charging of lead acid batteries. There are
apparent advantages in reducing sulfation; however, manufacturers and service
technicians are divided on the benefits, and the results are inconclusive. If
sulfation could be measured with accuracy and the pulses applied as a corrective
service, then the remedy could be beneficial. Assumptions without knowing the
underlying results can be harmful.
Most stationary batteries are kept on float charge. To reduce stress, the so-
called hysteresis charge disconnects the float current when the battery is full.
As the terminal voltage drops due to self-discharge, an occasional topping charge
replenishes the lost energy. In essence, the battery is only borrowed from time
to time for brief moments. This mode works well for installations that do not
draw a load when on standby.
Lead acid batteries must always be stored in a charged state. A topping charge
should be applied every six months to prevent the voltage from dropping below
2.10V/cell. With AGM, these requirements can be somewhat relaxed.
Measuring the open circuit voltage (OCV) while in storage provides a reliable
indication as to the state-of-charge of the battery. A voltage of 2.10V at room
temperature reveals a charge of about 90 percent. Such a battery is in good
condition and needs only a brief full charge prior to use. If the voltage drops
below 2.10V, the battery must be charged to prevent sulfation. Observe the
storage temperature when measuring the open circuit voltage. A cool battery
lowers the voltage slightly and a warm one increases it. Using OCV to estimate
state-of-charge works best when the battery has rested for a few hours, because a
charge or discharge agitates the battery and distorts the voltage.
Some buyers do not accept shipments of new batteries if the OCV at incoming
inspection is below 2.10V per cell. A low voltage suggests partial charge due to
long storage or a high self-discharge induced by a possible micro-short. Battery
users have indeed found that a pack arriving at a lower than specified voltage
has a higher failure rate than the others. Although in-house service can often
bring such batteries to full performance, the time and equipment required adds to
operational costs. (Please note that the 2.10V/cell acceptance threshold does not
apply to all lead acid types.)
Watering
Watering is the single most important step in maintaining a flooded lead acid
battery, a requirement that is all to often neglected. The frequency of watering
depends on usage, charge method and operating temperature. A new battery should
be checked every few weeks to determine the watering requirement. This prevents
the electrolyte from falling below the plates. Avoid exposed plates at all times,
as this will sustain damage, leading to reduced capacity and lower performance.
Exposed plates will sustain damage, leading to reduced capacity and lower
performance. If the plates are exposed, immediately fill the battery with
distilled or de-ionized water to cover the plates, and then apply a charge. Do
not fill to the correct level before charging as this could cause an overflow
during charging. Always top up to the desired level after charging. Never add
electrolyte as this upsets the specific gravity and induces rapid corrosion.
Watering systems eliminate low electrolyte levels by automatically adding the
right amount of water.
Simple Guidelines for Charging Lead Acid Batteries
Charge in a well-ventilated area. Hydrogen gas generated during charging is
explosive. Read more about Health Concerns with Batteries.

Choose the appropriate charge program for flooded, gel and AGM batteries.
Check manufacturers specifications on recommended voltage thresholds.

Charge lead acid batteries after each use to prevent sulfation. Do not store
on low charge.

The plates of flooded batteries must always be fully submerged in
electrolyte. Fill battery with distilled or de-ionized water to cover the
plates if low. Tap water may be acceptable in some regions. Never add
electrolyte.

Fill water level to designated level after charging. Overfilling when the
battery is empty can cause acid spillage.

Formation of gas bubbles in a flooded lead acid indicates that the battery
is reaching full state-of-charge (hydrogen on negative plate and oxygen on
positive plate).

Reduce float charge if the ambient temperature is higher than 29C (85F).

Do not allow a lead acid to freeze. An empty battery freezes sooner than one
that is fully charged. Never charge a frozen battery.

Do not charge at temperatures above 49C (120F).
Equalizing Charge
Stationary batteries are almost exclusively lead acid and some maintenance is
required, one of which is equalizing charge. Applying an equalizing charge every
six months or after 20 cycles brings all cells to similar levels by increasing
the voltage to 2.50V/cell, or 10 percent higher than the recommended charge
voltage.
An equalizing charge is nothing more than forced overcharge. It removes sulfation
that may have formed during low-charge conditions. Battery manufacturers
recommend first measuring sulfation. One method is to apply a saturated charge
and then to compare the specific gravity readings (SG) on the individual cells of
a flooded lead acid battery. Only apply equalization if the SG difference between
the cells is 0.030. During equalizing charge, check the changes in the SG reading
every hour and disconnect the charge when the gravity no longer rises. This is
the time when no further improvement is possible, and a continued charge would
cause damage. The battery must be kept cool and under close observation for
unusual heat rise and excessive venting. Some venting is normal and the hydrogen
emitted is highly flammable. The battery room must have good ventilation.
Equalizing VRLA and other sealed batteries involves guesswork. Good judgment
plays a pivotal role when estimating the frequency and duration of the service.
Some manufacturers recommend monthly equalizations for 2 to 16 hours. Most VRLAs
vent at 34kPa (5psi), and repeated venting leads to the depletion of the
electrolyte that can lead to a dry-out condition.
Charging with a Power Supply
With technical knowledge, batteries can be charged manually with a power supply
featuring user-adjustable voltage and current limiting. I stress manual because
charging cannot be left unattended; charge termination is not automated. You need
to observe the state-of-charge according to voltage and current behaviors. Lower
the charge voltage or disconnect the charge when the battery is full. Because of
difficulties in detecting full charge with nickel-based batteries, I recommend
only charging lead acid and Li-ion batteries manually.
Before connecting the battery, calculate the charge voltage according to the
number of cells in series, and then set the desired voltage and current limit. To
charge a 12-volt lead acid battery (six cells) to a voltage limit of 2.40V, set
the voltage to 14.40V (6 x 2.40). Select the charge current according to battery
size. For lead acid this is between 10 and 30 percent of the rated capacity. A
10Ah battery at 30 percent charges at about 3A. Starter batteries charge at lower
currents, and an 80Ah pack would charge at about 10 percent of the rating, or 8A.
Higher currents are possible.
Observe the battery temperature, voltage and current during charge. Charge only
at ambient temperatures in a well-ventilated room. Once the battery is fully
charged and the current has dropped to three percent of the rated Ah, the charge
is completed. Disconnect the charge. High self-discharge (soft electrical short)
may prevent the current from going to the anticipated low current level when
fully charged. Disconnect the charge also when the current has bottomed out and
cannot go lower. If you need float charge for operational readiness, lower the
charge voltage to about 2.25V/cell.
You can also use the power supply to equalize a lead acid battery by setting the
charge voltage 10 percent higher than recommended. The time in overcharge is
critical and must be carefully observed. When using the power supply to perform
equalizing, refer to the previous article entitled Equalizing Charge.
A power supply can also reverse sulfation but there is no guarantee of success.
When applying a charge, a totally sulfated lead acid may draw very little current
at first, and as the sulfation layer dissolves the current will gradually
increase. If you must increase the charge voltage above the recommended level,
set the current limiting to the lowest practical value and observe the battery
voltage. If the battery does not accept a charge after 24 hours, restoration is
unlikely.
Lithium-ion charges similarly to lead acid and you can use the power supply also
but use extra caution. Set the voltage threshold to 4.20V/cell and make certain
that none of the cells connected in series exceeds this voltage. (The protection
circuit in a commercial pack does this.) Full charge is reached when the cell(s)
reach 4.20V/cell voltage and the current drops to three percent of the rated
current, or has bottomed out and cannot go down further. Once fully charged,
disconnect the battery. Never allow a cell to dwell at 4.20V for more than a few
hours. Read more about Charging Lithium-ion.
I do not recommend charging nickel-based batteries with a power supply. Full-
charge detection is difficult to assess because the voltage signature varies with
the applied charge current. If you must charge, use the temperature rise on a
rapid charge as an indication for full charge. When charging at a low current,
estimate the level of remaining charge and calculate the charge time. An empty
2Ah NiMH will charge in three hours at 500mA. The trickle charge must be reduced
to 0.05C. Read more about Charging Nickel-based batteries.
Battery as a Buffer
The main purpose of a stationary battery is to provide power during power outage.
A battery bank can also provide supplementarypowerduring high-traffic periods. In
essence, the battery acts as a buffer to assist the AC power supply when so
needed. The term AC power supply refers to the unit that provides electrical
power to the system and charges stationary batteries.
Cellular repeater towers are an example where the battery serves as a buffer to
bridge heavy usage times. During off-peak periods, the batteries are fully
charged, and at peak times when the load exceeds the capacity of the power
supply, the batteries kick in to provide the extra power. A starter battery in a
vehicle works in a similar way. While the motor is on idle at a traffic light,
the battery complements the power to run the lights, windshield wipers and other
accessories. Driving at highway speed replenishes the borrowed power.
When relying on the battery as buffer, make certain that the battery has enough
time to charge between peak periods. The net charge must always be greater than
what was drawn from the battery. Avoid deep discharges and make sure that the
float charge voltage is set correctly. Stationary and starter batteries are not
made for deep cycling. If excessively cycled, the battery will experience
unwanted stresses that will shorten the life.
Charging Nickel-cadmium
NOTE: For NiMH batteries, please read our Charging Nickel-metal-hydride article.

Battery manufacturers recommend that new batteries be slow-charged for 16 to 24
hours before use. A slow charge brings all cells in a battery pack to an equal
charge level. This is important because each cell within the nickel-cadmium
battery may have self-discharged at its own rate. Furthermore, during long
storage the electrolyte tends to gravitate to the bottom of the cell and the
initial trickle charge helps redistribute the electrolyte to eliminate dry spots
on the separator.
Battery manufacturers do not fully format the batteries before shipment. The
cells reach optimal performance after priming that involves several
charge/discharge cycles. This is part of normal use and can also be done with a
battery analyzer. Early readings are often inconsistent and a battery may require
50100 charge/discharge cycles to reach the best formation. Quality cells are
known to perform to full specifications after only 57 cycles. Peak capacity
occurs between 100300 cycles, after which the performance starts to drop
gradually.
Most rechargeable cells include a safety vent that releases excess pressure if
incorrectly charged. The vent on a NiCd cell opens at 1,0001,400kPa (150
200psi). Pressure release through a re-sealable vent causes no damage; however,
with each venting, some electrolyte escapes and the seal may begin leaking. The
formation of a white powder at the vent opening makes this visible, and multiple
venting will eventually result in a dry-out condition. A battery should never be
stressed to the point of venting.
Full-charge Detection by Temperature
Full-charge detection of sealed nickel-based batteries is more complex than that
of lead acid and lithium-ion. Low-cost chargers often use temperature sensing to
end the fast-charge, but this can be inaccurate. The core of a cell is several
degrees warmer than the skin where the temperature is measured, and the delay
that occurs causes over-charge. Charger manufacturers use 50C (122F) as
temperature cut-off. Although any prolonged temperature above 45C (113F) is
harmful to the battery, a brief overshoot is acceptable as long as the battery
temperature will drop quickly when the ready light appears.
With microprocessors, advanced chargers no longer rely on a fixed temperature
threshold, but sense the rate of temperature increase over time, also known as
delta Temperature over delta time, or dT/dt. Rather than waiting for an absolute
temperature to occur, this method uses the rapid temperature increase towards the
end of charge to trigger the ready light. The delta Temperature method keeps
the battery cooler than a fixed temperature cut-off, but the cells need to charge
reasonably fast to trigger the temperature rise. Charge termination occurs when
the temperature rises 1C (1.8F) per minute. If the battery cannot achieve the
pace of temperature rise, an absolute temperature cut-off set to 60C (140F)
terminates the charge.
Chargers relying on temperature inflict harmful overcharges when a fully charged
battery is removed and reinserted. This is the case with chargers in vehicles and
desktop stations where a two-way radio is being removed with each use. Every
reconnection initiates a fast-charge cycle that raises the battery temperature to
the triggering point again. Li-ion systems have an advantage in that state-of-
charge is being detected by voltage. Reinserting a fully charged Li-ion battery
pushes the voltage to the full-charge threshold, and the charger turns off
shortly without needing to create a temperature signature.
Full-charge Detection by Voltage Signature
Advanced chargers terminate charge when a defined voltage signature occurs. This
provides more precise full-charge detection of nickel-based batteries than
temperature-based methods. Monitoring time and voltage, a microcontroller in the
charger looks for a voltage drop that occurs when the battery has reached full
charge. This method is called negative delta V (NDV).
NDV is the recommended full-charge detection for open-lead nickel-based
chargers. Open-lead refers to batteries that have no thermistor. NDV offers a
quick response time and works well with a partially or fully charged battery.
When inserting a fully charged battery, the terminal voltage rises quickly, and
then drops sharply to trigger the ready state. The charge in this case lasts only
a few minutes and the cells remain cool. NiCd chargers based on the NDV full-
charge detection typically respond to a voltage drop of 10mV per cell.
To obtain voltage drop of 10mV per cell, the charge rate must be 0.5C and higher.
Slower charging produces a less defined voltage drop and this becomes difficult
to measure, especially if the cells are mismatched. In this case, each cell in a
mismatched pack reaches the full charge at a different time and the voltage curve
flattens out.
Failing to achieve a sufficient negative slope would allow the fast charge to
continue. To prevent this, most chargers combine NDV with a voltage plateau
detector that terminates the charge when the voltage remains in a steady state
for a given time. For additional safety, most advanced chargers also include
delta temperature, absolute temperature and a time-out timer.
NDV works best with fast charging. A fast charge also improves charge efficiency.
At a 1C charge rate, the charge efficiency of a standard NiCd is 91 percent, and
the charge time is about an hour (66 minutes at an assumed charge efficiency of
91 percent). A battery that is partially charged or has reduced capacity due to
age will have a shorter charge time because there is less to fill. In comparison,
the efficiency on a slow charger drops to 71 percent. At a charge rate of 0.1C,
the charge time is about 14 hours.
During the first 70 percent of charge, the efficiency of a NiCd is close to 100
percent; the battery absorbs almost all energy and the pack remains cool. NiCd
batteries designed for fast charging can be charged with currents that are
several times the C-rating without much heat buildup. Ultra-fast chargers use
this quality and charge to 70 percent in minutes. Read more about Ultra-fast
Chargers. The full charge must be done with a reduced current.
Figure 1 illustrates the relationship of cell voltage, pressure and temperature
of a charging NiCd. We observe an almost perfect charge behavior up to about 70
percent, after which the battery loses the ability to accept charge. The cells
begin to generate gases, the pressure rises and the temperature increases
rapidly. One can appreciate the importance of accurate full-charge detection to
terminate the fast charge before damaging overcharge occurs. In an attempt to
gain a few extra capacity points, however, some chargers allow a limited amount
of overcharge.



Figure 1:
Charge
characteristics
of a NiCd cell
NiMH batteries
exhibits
similar
characteristics
to NiCd.

Courtesy of
Cadex
Ultra-high-capacity NiCd batteries tend to heat up more than standard NiCds when
charging at 1C and higher, and this is partly due to the higher internal
resistance. Applying a high current at the initial charge and then tapering to a
lower rate as the charge acceptance decreases achieves good results with all
nickel-based batteries. This moderates excess temperature rise while assuring
fully charged batteries.
Interspersing discharge pulses between charge pulses is known to improve charge
acceptance of nickel-based batteries. Commonly referred to as a burp or
reverseload charge, this method assists in the recombination of gases generated
during charge. The result is a cooler and more effective charge than with
conventional DC chargers. There is also the believed benefit of reduced memory
effect, as the battery is being exercised while charging with pulses. Read about
Memory: Myth or Fact? While pulse charging may be valuable for NiCd and NiMH
batteries, this type of charge does not apply to lead- and lithium-based systems.
These batteries work best with a pure DC charge voltage.
After full charge, the NiCd battery receives a trickle charge of between 0.05C
and 0.1C to compensate for the self-discharge. To reduce possible overcharge,
charger designers aim for the lowest possible trickle charge current. Even though
the trickle charge is carefully measured, it is best not to leave nickel-based
batteries in a charger for more than a few days. Remove them and recharge before
use.
Charging Flooded Nickel-cadmium Batteries
The flooded NiCd is charged with a constant voltage to about 1.55V/cell. The
current is then reduced to 0.1C-rate and the charge continues until 1.55V/cell is
reached again. At this point, a trickle charge is applied and the voltage is
allowed to float freely. Higher charge voltages are possible but this generates
excess gas and causes rapid water depletion.
Charging Nickel-metal-hydride
Charging Nickel-metal-hydride
The charge algorithm for NiMH is similar to NiCd with the exception that NiMH is
more complex. The NDV method to measure full charge shows only a faint voltage
drop, especially when charging at less than 0.5C. A hot battery or one with
mismatched cells works against the already minute voltage drop.
The NDV in a NiMH charger must respond to a voltage drop of 5mV per cell. To
assure reliable charging, NiMH chargers must include electronic filtering to
compensate for noise and voltage fluctuations induced by the battery and the
charger. Modern chargers achieve this by combining NDV, voltage plateau, delta
temperature (dT/dt), temperature threshold and time-out timers into the full-
charge detection algorithm. These or-gates utilize whatever comes first
depending on battery condition. Many chargers include a 30-minute topping charge
of 0.1C to add a few percentage points of extra charge.
Some advanced chargers apply an initial fast charge of 1C. When reaching a
certain voltage threshold, a rest of a few minutes is added, allowing the battery
to cool down. The charge continues at a lower current and applies further current
reductions as the charge progresses. This scheme continues until the battery is
fully charged. Known asthe step-differential charge, this method works well for
all nickel-based batteries.
Chargers utilizing the step-differential or other aggressive charge methods
achieve a capacity gain of about six percent over a more basic charger, an
increase that is not possible without stressful overcharge. Although a higher
capacity is desirable, filling the battery to the brim has a negative effect in
that it will shorten the overall battery life. Rather than achieving the expected
350 to 400 service cycles, the aggressive charger might exhaust the pack after
300 cycles.
NiMH cannot absorb overcharge well and the trickle charge is set to around 0.05C.
In comparison, the older NiCd charger trickle charges at 0.1C, double that rate.
Differences in trickle charge and the need for a more sensitive full-charge
detection render the original NiCd charger unsuitable for NiMH batteries. A NiMH
in a NiCd charger would overheat, but a NiCd in a NiMH charger does well because
the lower trickle charge is also sufficient for NiCd.
It is difficult, if not impossible, to slow-charge a NiMH battery. At a C-rate of
0.1 to 0.3C, the voltage and temperature profiles fail to exhibit defined
characteristics to measure the full-charge state accurately and the charger must
depend on a timer. Harmful overcharge will occur if a fixed timer controls the
charge. This is especially apparent when charging partially or fully charged
batteries.
The same scenario occurs if the battery has lost capacity due to aging and can
only hold half the capacity. In essence, this battery has electrically shrunk to
half size while the fixed timer is programmed to apply a 100 percent charge
without regard for the battery condition. In most cases an overcharge will heat
the battery, but this is not always the case. A poorly designed NiMH charger is
capable of overcharging a battery without heat buildup. At a sufficiently low
charge rate, NiMH can remain totally cool and yet suffer from overcharge.
Battery users are often dissatisfied with shorter than expected service life of a
battery. Lets not blame the battery manufacturer, because the fault might lie in
the charger. Low-priced consumer chargers are especially prone to incorrectly
charging. If you use such a charger and want to improve battery performance,
estimate the battery state-of-charge and capacity and set the charge time
accordingly. Remove the batteries when you think they are full. If your charger
charges at a high charge rate, do a temperature touch. Lukewarm indicates that
the batteries may be full enough for removal. It is far better to remove the
batteries and then recharge before use than to leave them in the charger for
eventual use.
Note that some nickel-based batteries heat up during charge and this is in part
due to high internal resistance. Such a battery may be warm to the touch even
though it is only partially charged. Another battery might be fully charged and
remain cool. Charging NiCd and NiMH batteries on an inexpensive charger is
guesswork, and it is best not to charge them longer than necessary. Remove the
batteries when perceived full and give them a quick charge before use.
Simple Guidelines on Charging Nickel-based Batteries
Consumer chargers do not always terminate the charge correctly. Remove the
batteries when perceived full.

Do not charge at high or freezing temperatures. Room temperature is best.
Read more about Charging at High and Low Temperatures.

Do not use chargers that cook batteries. If no alternative exists, charge
under supervision and remove the battery when warm to the touch.

Nickel-based batteries are best fast charged; a lingering slow charge causes
memory.

Below 70 percent, the charge efficiency of an industrial NiMH is close to
100 percent; the battery the pack remains cool.

Not all NiMH can be charged fast. Excess heat buildup-up is caused by a
charge current that is too high, overcharge or and aging battery. Read more
about Ultra-fast Chargers.

A NiMH charger can charge NiCd, but not the other way around. The original
NiCd chargers would overcharge NiMH.

To charge NiMH with a NiCd charger, estimate the time and disconnect the
charger manually. Do not leave NiMH on charge longer than needed (full
charge detection may not work and the trickle charge current is too high for
NiMH).

Do not leave a nickel-based battery in the charger for more than a few days,
even with correct trickle charge. Remove and apply a brief charge before
use.

Nickel- and lithium-based batteries require different charge algorithms.
Unless provisions are made, these two chemistries cannot share the same
charger.

Charging Lithium-ion
Charging and discharging batteries is a chemical reaction, but Li-ion is claimed
as an exception. Here, battery scientists talk about energies flowing in and out
as part of ion movement between anode and cathode. This claim has merits, but if
the scientists were totally right then the battery would live forever, and this
is wishful thinking. The experts blame capacity fade on ions getting trapped. For
simplicity, we consider aging a corrosion that affects all battery systems.
The Li-ion charger is a voltage-limiting device that is similar to the lead acid
system. The difference lies in a higher voltage per cell, tighter voltage
tolerance and the absence of trickle or float charge at full charge. While lead
acid offers some flexibility in terms of voltage cut-off, manufacturers of Li-ion
cells are very strict on the correct setting because Li-ion cannot accept
overcharge. The so-called miracle charger that promises to prolong battery life
and methods that pump extra capacity into the cell do not exist here. Li-ion is a
clean system and only takes what it can absorb. Anything extra causes stress.
Most cells charge to 4.20V/cell with a tolerance of +/50mV/cell. Higher voltages
could increase the capacity, but the resulting cell oxidation would reduce
service life. More important is the safety concern if charging beyond 4.20V/cell.
Figure 1 shows the voltage and current signature as lithium-ion passes through
the stages for constant current and topping charge.

Figure 1: Charge stages of lithium-ion. Li-ion is fully charged when the current
drops to a predetermined level or levels out at the end of Stage 2. In lieu of
trickle charge, some chargers apply a topping charge when the voltage drops to
4.05V/cell (Stage 4).
Courtesy of Cadex
The charge rate of a typical consumer Li-ion battery is between 0.5 and 1C in
Stage 1, and the charge time is about three hours. Manufacturers recommend
charging the 18650 cell at 0.8C or less. Charge efficiency is 97 to 99 percent
and the cell remains cool during charge. Some Li-ion packs may experience a
temperature rise of about 5C (9F) when reaching full charge. This could be due
to the protection circuit and/or elevated internal resistance. Full charge occurs
when the battery reaches the voltage threshold and the current drops to three
percent of the rated current. A battery is also considered fully charged if the
current levels off and cannot go down further. Elevated self-discharge might be
the cause of this condition.
Increasing the charge current does not hasten the full-charge state by much.
Although the battery reaches the voltage peak quicker with a fast charge, the
saturation charge will take longer accordingly. The amount of charge current
applied simply alters the time required for each stage; Stage 1 will be shorter
but the saturation Stage 2 will take longer. A high current charge will, however,
quickly fill the battery to about 70 percent.
Li-ion does not need to be fully charged, as is the case with lead acid, nor is
it desirable to do so. In fact, it is better not to fully charge, because high
voltages stresses the battery. Choosing a lower voltage threshold, or eliminating
the saturation charge altogether, prolongs battery life but this reduces the
runtime. Since the consumer market promotes maximum runtime, these chargers go
for maximum capacity rather than extended service life.
Some lower-cost consumer chargers may use the simplified charge-and-run method
that charges a lithium-ion battery in one hour or less without going to the Stage
2 saturation charge. Ready appears when the battery reaches the voltage
threshold at Stage 1. Since the state-of-charge (SoC) at this point is only about
85 percent, the user may complain of short runtime, not knowing that the charger
is to blame. Many warranty batteries are being replaced for this reason, and this
phenomenon is especially common in the cellular industry.
Avoiding full charge has benefits, and some manufacturers set the charge
threshold lower on purpose to prolong battery life. Table 2 illustrates the
estimated capacities when charged to different voltage thresholds with and
without saturation charge.
Charge V/cell
Capacity at
cut-off
voltage
Charge time
Capacity with
full
saturation
3.80
3.90
4.00
4.10
4.20
60%
70%
75%
80%
85%
120 min
135 min
150 min
165 min
180 min
~65%
~75%
~80%
~90%
100%
Table 2: Typical charge characteristics of lithium-ion. Adding full saturation at
the set voltage boosts the capacity by about 10 percent but adds stress due to
high voltage.
When the battery is first put on charge, the voltage shoots up quickly. This
behavior can be compared to lifting a heavy weight with an elastic band. The
lifting arm moves up quickly but the weight lags behind. The voltage of the
charging battery will only catch up when the battery is almost fully charged (see
Figure 3. This charge characteristic is typical of all batteries.



Figure 3: Capacity as a
function of charge voltage on
a lithium-ion battery
The capacity trails the charge
voltage, like lifting a heavy
weight with an elastic band.
Courtesy of Cadex

Relying on the closed circuit voltage (CCV) to read the available capacity during
charge is impractical. The open circuit voltage (OCT) can, however, be used to
predict state-of-charge after the battery has rested for a few hours. The rest
period calms the agitated battery to regain equilibrium. Similar to all
batteries, temperature affects the OCV. Read "How to Measure State-of-Charge".
Li-ion cannot absorb overcharge, and when fully charged the charge current must
be cut off. A continuous trickle charge would cause plating of metallic lithium,
and this could compromise safety. To minimize stress, keep the lithium-ion
battery at the 4.20V/cell peak voltage as short a time as possible.
Once the charge is terminated, the battery voltage begins to drop, and this eases
the voltage stress. Over time, the open-circuit voltage will settle to between
3.60 and 3.90V/cell. Note that a Li-ion battery that received a fully saturated
charge will keep the higher voltage longer than one that was fast-charged and
terminated at the voltage threshold without a saturation charge.
If a lithium-ion battery must be left in the charger for operational readiness,
some chargers apply a brief topping charge to compensate for the small self-
discharge the battery and its protective circuit consume. The charger may kick in
when the open-circuit voltage drops to 4.05V/cell and turn off again at a high
4.20V/cell. Chargers made for operational readiness, or standby mode, often let
the battery voltage drop to 4.00V/cell and recharge to only 4.05V/cell instead of
the full 4.20V/cell. This reduces voltage-related stress and prolongs battery
life.
Some portable devices sit in a charge cradle in the on position. The current
drawn through the device is called the parasitic load and can distort the charge
cycle. Battery manufacturers advise against parasitic load while charging because
it induces mini-cycles, but this cannot always be avoided; a laptop connected to
the AC main is such a case. The battery is being charged to 4.20V/cell and then
discharged by the device. The stress level on the battery is high because the
cycles occur at the 4.20V/cell threshold.
A portable device must be turned off during charge. This allows the battery to
reach the set threshold voltage unhindered, and enables terminating charge on low
current. A parasitic load confuses the charger by depressing the battery voltage
and preventing the current in the saturation stage to drop low. A battery may be
fully charged, but the prevailing conditions prompt a continued charge. This
causes undue battery stress and compromises safety.
Battery professionals agree that charging lithium-ion batteries is simpler and
more straightforward than nickel-based systems. Besides meeting the voltage
tolerances, the charge circuits are relatively simple. Limiting voltage and
observing low current in triggering ready is easier than analyzing complex
signatures that may change with age. Charge currents with Li-ion are less
critical and can vary widely. Any charge will do, including energy from a
renewable resource such as a solar panel or wind turbine. Charge absorption is
very high and with a low and intermittent charge, charging simply takes a little
longer without negatively affecting the battery. The absence of trickle charge
further helps simplify the charger.
Overcharging Lithium-ion
Lithium-ion operates safely within the designated operating voltages; however,
the battery becomes unstable if inadvertently charged to a higher than specified
voltage. Prolonged charging above 4.30V forms plating of metallic lithium on the
anode, while the cathode material becomes an oxidizing agent, loses stability and
produces carbon dioxide (CO
2
). The cell pressure rises, and if charging is allowed
to continue the current interrupt device (CID) responsible for cell safety
disconnects the current at 1,380kPa (200psi).
Should the pressure rise further, a safety membrane bursts open at 3,450kPa
(500psi) and the cell might eventually vent with flame. The thermal runaway moves
lower when the battery is fully charged; for Li-cobalt this threshold is between
130150CC (266302F), nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) is 170180C (338356F),
and manganese is 250C (482F). Li-phosphate enjoys similar and better
temperature stabilities than manganese.
Lithium-ion is not the only battery that is a safety hazard if overcharged. Lead-
and nickel-based batteries are also known to melt down and cause fire if
improperly handled. Nickel-based batteries have also been recalled for safety
concerns. Properly designed charging equipment is paramount for all battery
systems.
Over-discharging Lithium-ion
Li-ion should never be discharged too low, and there are several safeguards to
prevent this from happening. The equipment cuts off when the battery discharges
to about 3.0V/cell, stopping the current flow. If the discharge continues to
about 2.70V/cell or lower, the batterys protection circuit puts the battery into
a sleep mode. This renders the pack unserviceable and a recharge with most
chargers is not possible. To prevent a battery from falling asleep, apply a
partial charge before a long storage period.
Battery manufacturers ship batteries with a 40 percent charge. The low charge
state reduces aging-related stress while allowing some self-discharge during
storage. To minimize the current flow for the protection circuit before the
battery is sold, advanced Li-ion packs feature a sleep mode that disables the
protection circuit until activated by a brief charge or discharge. Once engaged,
the battery remains operational and the on state can no longer be switched back
to the standby mode.
Do not recharge lithium-ion if a cell has stayed at or below 1.5V for more than a
week. Copper shunts may have formed inside the cells that can lead to a partial
or total electrical short. If recharged, the cells might become unstable, causing
excessive heat or showing other anomalies. Li-ion packs that have been under
stress are more sensitive to mechanical abuse, such as vibration, dropping and
exposure to heat.
Charging Lithium-ion Polymer
Charging Li-ion polymer, also referred as Li-polymer, is very similar to a
regular lithium-ion battery and no changes in algorithm are necessary. Most users
wont even know if their battery is Li-ion or Li-polymer. The word polymer has
been used as promotional hype and does not reflect special attributes other than
to know that the battery is built in a different way to a standard Li-ion.
Most polymer batteries are based on a hybrid architecture that is a cross between
Li-ion and Li-polymer. There are many variations within the polymer family, and
the true dry polymer battery for the consumer market is still years away. Also
know as the plastic battery, this system was first announced in early 2000 but
was never able to attain the conductivity needed for most applications at ambient
temperatures. Read more about the Lithium-polymer battery and the Pouch Cell.
Simple Guidelines for Charging Lithium-based Batteries
A portable device should be turned off while charging. This allows the
battery to reach the threshold voltage unhindered and reflects the correct
saturation current responsible to terminate the charge. A parasitic load
confuses the charger.

Charge at a moderate temperature. Do not charge below freezing.

Lithium-ion does not need to be fully charged; a partial charge is better.

Chargers use different methods for ready indication. The light signal may
not always indicate a full charge.

Discontinue using charger and/or battery if the battery gets excessively
warm.

Before prolonged storage, apply some charge to bring the pack to about half
charge.

Over-discharged batteries can be boosted to life again. Discard pack if
the voltage does not rise to a normal level within a minute while on boost.

Charging at High and Low Temperatures
Rechargeable batteries operate in a wide temperature range but this does not give
license to charge them at extreme temperatures. Extreme cold and high heat reduce
charge acceptance, and the battery must be brought into moderate temperature
conditions before charging.
Older battery technologies, such as lead acid and NiCd, have higher charging
tolerances than newer systems and can be charged below freezing at a reduced 0.1C
rate. This is not possible with most NiMH and lithium-ion systems. Table 1
summarizes the permissible charge and discharge temperatures of common lead acid,
NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion. We exclude specialty batteries designed to charge outside
these parameters.
Battery
Type
Charge
Temperature
Discharge
Temperature
Charge Advisory
Lead acid
20C to 50C
(4F to
122F)
20C to 50C
(4F to
122F)
Charge at 0.3C or lessbelow freezing.
Lower V-threshold by 3mV/C when hot.
NiCd,
NiMH
0C to 45C
(32F to
113F)

20C to 65C
(4F to
149F)

Charge at 0.1C between 18 and 0C.
Charge at 0.3C between 0C and 5C.
Charge acceptance at 45C is 70%.
Charge acceptance at 60C is 45%.
Li-ion
0C to 45C
(32F to
113F)
20C to 60C
(4F to
140F)
No charge permitted below freezing.
Good charge/discharge performance at
higher temperature but shorter life.
Table 1: Permissible temperature limits for various batteries. Batteries can be
discharged over a large temperature range but charge temperature is limited. For
best results, charge between 10C and 30C (50F and 86F). Lower the charge
current when cold.
Low-temperature Charge
Fast charging of most batteries is limited to a temperature of 5 to 45C (41 to
113F); for best results consider narrowing the temperature bandwidth to between
10C and 30C (50F and 86F). Nickel-based batteries are most forgiving in
accepting charge at low temperatures, however, when charging below 5C (41F),
the ability to recombine oxygen and hydrogen diminishes. If NiCd and NiMH are
charged too rapidly, pressure builds up in the cell that will lead to venting.
Not only do escaping gases deplete the electrolyte, the hydrogen released is
highly flammable. The charge current of all nickel-based batteries should be
reduced to 0.1C below freezing.
Nickel-based chargers with NDV full-charge detection offer some protection when
fast-charging at low temperatures. The resulting poor charge acceptance mimics a
fully charged battery. This is in part due to the pressure buildup caused by gas
recombination problems. Pressure rise and a voltage drop at full charge appear to
be synonymous.
To enable fast-charging at all temperatures, some industrial batteries include a
thermal blanket that heats the battery to an acceptable temperature; other
chargers adjust the charge rate to prevailing temperatures. Consumer chargers do
not have these provisions and users should make all attempts to only charge
batteries at room temperatures.
Lead acid is reasonably forgiving when it comes to temperature extremes, as we
know from the starter batteries in our cars. Part of this tolerance is their
sluggish behavior. The recommended charge rate at low temperature is 0.3C, which
is almost the same as under normal conditions. At a comfortable temperature of
20C (68F), gassing starts at 2.415V/cell, and by lowering the temperature to
20C (0F), the gassing voltage rises to 2.97V/cell.
Do not freeze a lead acid battery. This would causes permanent damage. Always
keep the batteries fully charged. In the discharged state the electrolyte becomes
more water-like and freezes earlier than a fully charged battery. According to
BCI, a specific gravity of 1.15 has a freezing temperature of 15C (5F). This
compares to 1.265 of a fully charged starter battery. Flooded lead acid batteries
tend to crack the case and cause leakage if frozen; sealed lead acid packs lose
potency and only deliver a few cycles before a replacement is necessary.
Li-ion batteries offer reasonably good charging performance at cooler
temperatures and allow fast-charging in a temperature bandwidth of 5 to 45C (41
to 113F). Below 5C, the charge current should be reduced, and no charging is
permitted at freezing temperatures. During charge, the internal cell resistance
causes a slight temperature rise that compensates for some of the cold. With all
batteries, cold temperature raises the internal resistance.
Many battery users are unaware that consumer-grade lithium-ion batteries cannot
be charged below 0C (32F). Although the pack appears to be charging normally,
plating of metallic lithium can occur on the anode during a subfreezing charge.
The plating is permanent and cannot be removed with cycling. Batteries with
lithium plating are known to be more vulnerable to failure if exposed to
vibration or other stressful conditions. Advanced chargers, such as those made by
Cadex, prevent charging Li-ion below freezing.
Manufactures continue to seek ways to charge Li-ion below freezing and low-rate
charging is indeed possible with most lithium-ion cells; however, it is outside
the specified (and tested) limits of most manufacturers products. Low-
temperature charging would need to be addressed on a case-by-case basis and would
be manufacturer and application dependent. According to information received from
university research centers, the allowable charge rate at 30C (22F) is 0.02C.
At this low current, a 1,000mAh Li-ion could only charge at 20mA, and this would
take more than 50 hours to reach full charge.
Some Li-ion cells developed for power tool and EV applications can be charged at
temperatures down to 10C (14F) at a reduced rate. To charge at a higher rate,
Li-ion systems for automotive propulsion systems require a heating blanket. Some
hybrid cars circulate warm cabin air through the batteries to raise the battery
temperature, while high-performance electric cars heat and cool the battery with
a liquid agent.
High-temperature Charge
Heat is the worst enemy of most batteries, including lead acid. Adding
temperature compensation on a lead acid charger to adjust for temperature
variations prolongs battery life by up to 15 percent. The recommended
compensation is 3mV per cell per degree Celsius applied on a negative
coefficient, meaning that the voltage threshold drops as the temperature
increases. For example, if the continued float voltage were set to 2.30V/cell at
25C (77F), the recommended setting would be 2.27V/cell at 35C (95F) and
2.33V/cell at 15C (59F). This represents a 30mV correction per cell per 10C
(18F). Table 2 indicates the optimal peak voltage at various temperatures when
charging lead acid batteries. The table also includes the recommended float
voltage while in standby mode.

Battery status 0C (32F) 25C (77F) 40C (104F)
Voltage limit
on recharge
2.55V/cell 2.45V/cell 2.35V/cell
Float voltage
at full charge
2.35V/cell or
lower
2.30V/cell or lower 2.25V/cell or lower
Table 2: Recommended voltage limits when recharging and maintaining stationary
lead acid batteries on float charge. Voltage compensation prolongs battery life
when operating at temperature extremes.
Charging nickel-based batteries at high temperatures lowers oxygen generation,
which reduces charge acceptance. Heat fools the charger into thinking that the
battery is fully charged when its not.
NiCd has the largest pool of published information on this subject, and Figure 3
demonstrates a strong decrease in charge efficiency above 30C (86F). At 45C
(113F), the battery can only accept 70 percent of its full capacity; at 60C
(140F) the charge acceptance is reduced to 45 percent. NDV for a full-charge
detection becomes unreliable at higher temperature and temperature sensing is
essential for backup. Newer type NiMH batteries perform better at elevated
temperatures than NiCd.

Figure 3: NiCd charge acceptance as a function of temperature. High temperature
reduces charge acceptance. At 55C, commercial NiMH has a charge efficiency of
3540%; newer industrial NiMH attains 7580%.
Courtesy of Cadex
Lithium-ion performs well at elevated temperatures; however, prolonged exposure
to heat reduces longevity. The charge efficiency is 97 to 99 percent, regardless
of temperature. In fact, high temperature increases charge effectiveness slightly
by improving the internal resistance.
While other chemistries can tolerate stepping outside set boundaries once in a
while, there are limitations with Li-ion. Safety concerns dictate that Li-ion
remains within specified limits because of possible thermal runaway if stressed.
A fully charged Li-ion is more sensitive to a thermal runaway than an empty one;
the thermal runaway temperature moves lower with higher charge. In spite of this,
specialty Li-ion batteries serve in applications that go to momentary high
temperatures, and surgical tools that undergo steam sterilization at 137C
(280F) are such an example. Other uses that reach similar temperatures are
batteries in drilling bits for mining.
Caution:
In case of rupture, leaking electrolyte or any other cause of exposure
to the electrolyte, flush with water immediately. If eye exposure
occurs, flush with water for 15 minutes and consult a physician
immediately.

Charging from a USB Port
The Universal Serial Bus (USB) was introduced in 1996 and has since become one of
the most widespread and convenient interfaces for electronic devices. The USB
port is a bi-directional data port that provides a supply voltage to power memory
sticks, keyboards, mice, wireless interfaces, cameras, MP3 players and chargers.
With 5V and 500mA of available current, the USB bus can charge a small single-
cell Li-ion pack, but there is a danger of overloading the USB hub when attaching
too many gadgets. Plugging in a charger that draws 500mA along with other devices
will exceed the ports current limit, leading to a voltage drop and a possible
system failure. To prevent overload, some hosts include current-limiting circuits
that shut down the supply when overdrawn. Another method is limiting the current
of all attachments to 400mA to reserve 100mA for housekeeping.
The most common USB chargers are designed for single-cell Li-ion. The charge
begins with a constant current charge to 4.20V/cell, at which point the voltage
caps and the current begins to decrease. Due to a voltage drop in the cable,
which is about 350mV, and losses in the charger circuit, it is possible that the
5V supply cannot supply the batterys 4.2V charge threshold. This is no problem;
the battery does not suffer but will deliver shorter than expected runtimes.
The rectangular Type A USB plug has four connector pins and a shield. The
rightmost contact is number 1 and carries 5V; the leftmost contact is number 4
and forms the ground. The two shorter pins in the middle are reserved for data
transfer and have no function in the USB charger. Figure 1 illustrates the
rectangular Type A USB plug.

Figure 1: Rectangular Type A USB plug
The rightmost contact is number 1 and carries
+5VDC; the leftmost pin is number 4 and is the
ground. The housing connects to the ground and
provides shielding. Pins 2 and 3 carry data.
With the USB supply current limited to 500mAh, doing active work on a laptop or
watching a video on a tablet with a bright screen can result in a net discharge.
A larger internal load than what the charger can provide will gradually drain the
battery; however, the pack will replenish itself when the activity ends.
Some USB chargers plugging into the AC main or the cigarette lighter of a car
deliver higher peak currents than 500mAh. This allows connecting several devices
via a USB bar without causing overload.
Note that the USB port is unidirectional and cannot take power from an outside
source. In other words, power only flows out.
Charging without Wires
Wireless charging may one day replace plugs and wires similar to how Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth have modernized personal communication. Wireless charging with
inductive coupling uses an electromagnetic field that transfers energy from the
transmitter to the receiver. Consumers are wild about the convenience of simply
placing a portable device on a charging mat. Wireless charging works well with
mobile phones, digital cameras, media players, gaming controllers and Bluetooth
headsets. Other potential applications are power tools, medical devices, e-bikes
and electric cars (EVs).
Wireless transfer of power is not new. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered
induction and stated that electromagnetic forces can travel through space. In the
late 1800s and early 1900s, Nicola Tesla began demonstrating wireless
broadcasting and power transmission. Early experiments in Colorado Springs in
1899 lead to the Wardenclyffe Tower in New York Tesla was adamant to prove that
electrical power could be transmitted without wires, but a lack of funding halted
the project.
It was not until the 1920s that public broadcasting began, and Europe built
massive AM transmitters with signal strengths to penetrate many countries. The
transmitter at Beromnster in Switzerland (Figure 1) could have transmitted at
600kW, but legislation on electro-smog and protests from the local population
limited the power to 180kW. Smaller FM stations have since replaced these large
national transmitters.


Figure 1: Switzerland's National AM Radio Station Beromnster
Constructed in 1931 as an independent voice against the Nazi
propaganda of Germany to the displeasure of Adolf Hitler. The
station broadcasted AM signals until 2008.
How does wireless charging relate to radio transmission? Both models are similar
in that they transmit power by electro-magnetic waves. Wireless charging operates
in a near field condition in which the primary coil produces a magnetic field
that is picked up by the secondary coil in close proximity. The radio transmitter
works on the far field principle by sending waves that travel through space.
While the receiving coil of the wireless charger captures most of the energy
generated, the receiving antenna of the radio needs only a few microvolt (one
millionth of a volt) to rise the signal above the noise level and receive clear
intelligence when amplified.
Types of Wireless Charging
Wireless charging is classified into three categories: Radio charging, inductive
charging andresonance charging. Radio charging will serve low-power devices
operating within a 10-meter (30 feet) radius from the transmitter to charge
batteries in medical implants, hearing aids, watches and entertainment devices.
Radio charging can also activate advanced RFID (radio frequency identification)
chips through resonantly enhanced induction. The transmitter sends a low-power
radio wave at a frequency of 915MHz (frequency of large industrial/commercial
microwave ovens, consumer ovens usually use 2.45GH) and the receiver converts the
signal to energy. The radio charging method is closest to a regular radio
transmitter; it offers high flexibility but has low power capture and exposes
people to electro-smog.
Most of todays wireless chargers use inductive charging featuring a transmit and
receive coil in close proximity. Electric toothbrushes were one of the first
devices to use this charging method, and mobile phones are the largest growing
sector to charge without wires. To retrofit an existing mobile phone for mobile
charging, simply attach a skin that contains the receiver and provides
interconnection to the charger socket. Many new devices will have this feature
built in.
For larger batteries such as electric vehicles, resonance charging, or electro
dynamic induction,is being developed. Resonance charging works by making a coil
ring. The oscillating magnetic field works within a one meter (3 feet) radius;
the distance between transmit and receive coil must be well within the 1/4
wavelength (915Mhz has a wavelength of 0.328 meters). Currently, resonance
charging in trials can deliver roughly 3,000 watts at a transfer efficiency of
8090 percent.
Standard
The success for wireless charging was subject to adapting a global standard and
the WPC (Wireless Power Consortium) accomplished this in 2008. With the Qi
norm, device manufacturers can now build charger platforms to serve a broad range
of compatible Qi devices. The first release limits the power to 5 watts and works
as follows:
While in ready mode, the charging mat sends signals that sense the placing of an
object. Detection occurs by a change in capacitance or resonance. The mat
validates the device for WPC compatibility by sending a packet of data by
modulating the load with an 8-bit data string. The receiving device awakens and
responds by providing the signal strength. The mat then sends multiple digital
pings to identify the best positioning of the placed object. Only then will
service begin. During charging, the receiver sends control error packets to
adjust the power level. Figure 2 illustrates a Qi compatible charger mat.

Figure 2: Charging mat for a mobile phone
Wireless charging is most practical for mobile
phones and accessories.
Courtesy of Powermat

The charge mat only transmits power when a valid object is recognized. With no
load, or when the battery is fully charged, the mat switches to standby mode. The
transmit and receive coils are shielded to obtain good coupling and to reduce
stray radiation. Some charge mats use a free moving transmit coil that seeks the
object placed above for best coupling, others systems feature multiple transmit
coils by engaging only those in close proximity with the object. Figure 3 shows a
Qi kit representing the transmitter and receiver.


Figure 3: Wireless charging system by Texas
Instruments
Qi-compatible transmitter module (left) and the
receiver module. Commercial applications are
currently limited to 5 watts.
Courtesy of Texas Instruments
Drawbacks of Wireless Charging
Inductive charging is not without disadvantages. The California Energy Commission
(CEC), Level V, mandates that AC adapters meet a minimum efficiency of 85
percent; Energy Star, Level V, requires 87 percent (European CE uses CEC as a
base). Adding the losses of the charger circuit to the AC adapter brings the
overall efficiency for a hardwired charger to about 70 percent. Wireless charging
has a transfer efficiency of 7080 percent; coupled with their own AC power
conversion the overall charge efficiency hovers between 60 and 70 percent. In
addition to efficiency losses, the wireless charger includes the readiness mode
to identify the placement of an object, a feature that adds to power consumption.
Charger manufacturers, including Cadex Electronics, make great efforts to meet
regulatory requirements. Losses incurred through less efficient charge methods go
against the government-backed Energy Star program, and exceptions may need to be
made to allow more energy use to support convenience. With roughly one billion
chargers on standby or in charge mode, the extra power consumed is significant.
The number of mobile phones is estimated at over five billion in the world; in
2008, 3.2 billion power supplies were manufactured globally; most are plugged
into the main drawing power.
Lost energy turns into heat and a wireless charger can get quite warm during
charge. Any temperature increase to the battery causes undue stress, and
batteries charged on wireless devices may not last as long on a mat as on the
regular plug-in charger. It should be noted that the heat buildup only occurs
during charging; the Qi wireless charger will cool down when the battery is fully
charged.
The WPC was very careful when releasing Qi; the first version has a power limit
of 5 watts. A medium-power version of up to 120 watts is in the works but this
norm must meet stringent radiation standards before release. There are health
concerns because the devices operate in close proximity to human activity at a
radio frequency ranging from 80300kHz. Some stations transmit at 915MHz, the
frequency used to heat food in microwave ovens.
Electromagnetic energy from radio towers, mobile phones, Wi-Fi, routers, and now
wireless charging, are categorized as non-ionizing radiation and are believed to
be harmless. Ionizing rays from x-rays, on the other hand, have been shown to
cause cancer. As the number of non-ionizing devices increases, people begin to
question safety. Regulatory authorities are waiting for evidence and will only
impose restrictions if a health risk can be scientifically proven. Meanwhile,
parents object to schools installing Wi-Fi, and homeowners protest about electric
meters that communicate data without wires. Radiation from wireless chargers may
be seen as harmless because they do not transmit intelligence. In most cases, the
household radiation is low enough not to worry, but it is the field strength and
close proximity to the source that could add to potential harm.
Charging EVs without plug and cable offers the ultimate in convenience as the
driver simply parks the vehicle over a transmit coil. Engineers talk about
embedding charging coils into highways for continuous charging while driving or
when waiting at a traffic light. While this is technically feasible, cost,
efficiency and radiation issues at these higher powers are insurmountable
challenges.
At a transfer efficiency of 8090 percent, 1020 percent of the power is lost.
This reflects in a substantial energy cost to the user and should be calculated
as a decrease in drivable distance per watts. Applied to a large
vehiclepopulation, this goes against the efforts to conserve energy. Daimlers
Head of Future Mobility, Professor Herbert Kohler, says that inductive charging
for EVs is at least 15 years away and cautioned about safety. The potential
radiation of EV charging is higher than Wi-Fi or talking on a mobile phone; it
could also endanger people wearing a pacemaker.
Besides low efficiency and radiation concerns, wireless charging offers decisive
advantages in industry. It allows safe charging in a hazardous environment where
an electrical spark through charge contacts could cause an explosion, or where
heavy grease, dust and corrosion would make electrical contacts impractical.
Wireless charging also helps when multiple insertions would wear out the battery
contacts too quickly. There is, however, a cost premium and this is especially
apparent in custom devices that cannot take advantage of cost reductions through
mass production.
Currently, a wireless charging station will cost roughly 25 percent more than a
regular charger. A 25 percent premium also applies to the receiver. If the
portable device cannot be charged with the battery installed, as is possible with
a mobile phone, then each battery would need its own receiver and the battery
pack would bear the added cost. Unless wireless charging is necessary for
convenience or environmental reasons, charging through battery contact continues
to be a practical alternative.
Charging with Solar, Turbine
Can I charge cellular phones, laptops or power tools with solar power or a wind
turbine? Absolutely. This is an exciting way to step outside our four walls and
use renewable energy. The sun provides peak energy of about 1,000 watts per
square meter (93W/sq.ft.). From that source, a solar panel will generate roughly
130W/m2 (12W/sq.ft.). Photovoltaic systems are 10 to 20 percent efficient.
A solar cell produces an open circuit voltage of 0.50.65V. Like batteries, solar
cells can be connected in series and parallel to achieve higher voltages and load
currents (Reference: Series and Parallel Battery Connections article).

Solar energy can be expensive. It costs $8 to $10 in materials to generate one
watt. Producing 50W from solar panels to operate a laptop continuously, or charge
a 50Wh battery in two hours will cost $400 to $500. A system to charge a larger
12V, 150Wh, lead acid battery for a cottage will cost between $1,200 and $1,500.
Arguably, you can use smaller solar panels and charge the battery longer. This,
however, may not be enough to keep your laptop and other appliances running all
day. For example, a 20-watt solar charger costs between $200 and $250 and the
output on an overcast day may not be sufficient for continuous operation.

In addition to the solar panels, you also need an inverter and charge controller.
Its best to get a combined unit and most charge 12-volt lead acid batteries. An
advanced charge controller takes virtually any energy. It lowers a high voltage
and boosts a low one to the desired level. A controller with maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) allows optimal power transfer without overloading the source if
weak. A device offering the three functions of boosting and lowering of voltage,
as well as adjusting the load to the best power factor is complex and expensive.
Most commercial charger controllers require a high enough voltage to enable down-
regulation; boosting and maximizing power point tracking is seldom done. If a
dark cloud covers the sun, most charge controllers simply shut down.

To charge a laptop or cell phone, you need an inverter that transforms the DC
voltage from the solar panel to the correct supply voltage. Do not connect the
raw voltage from a solar panel or wind turbine directly to the device. Over-
voltage on a high-output day could overload the system. If the device has no DC
input for charging, boost the DC source with an inverter to 115AC or 230VAC, and
then use a regular charger. Observe the input voltage of the inverter. You may
need additional DC regulation if the voltage swing from the source is too large.

A solar-powered cottage would be the ultimate, however, a photovoltaic system
costs about $20,000. To produce one kW of power, you would need 10 to 12 large
panels, which would occupy about 33 square meters (355 square feet). According to
Solarbuzz, the cost to generate one kWh on a photovoltaic system is about $0.35.
This compares to about $0.10 for grid electricity. Charging with solar panels in
the winter is a challenge. The panels provide low power and batteries charge
poorly at freezing temperatures. Li-ion should not be charged below 0C (32F).
(Reference: Charging at High and Low Temperatures article)


Charger Chips

Charger design has been simplified through chips that embed charge intelligence.
When first introduced in the 1980s, these chips were hot commodities and were
made popular with the arrival of NiMH and Li-ion that need special charging
algorithms. Charger chips have since matured and serve in more basic charging
devices.
Although charger chips are easy to use, they have limitations. Most offer a fixed
charge algorithm that does not permit fine-tuning for specialty uses. Features
such as boost, which reactivates the protection circuit when a Li-ion battery
falls asleep, do not exist, nor can a charger chip accommodate different
chemistries selectable by a code, or do ultra-fast charging with safeguards that
include scaling the charge current to battery condition and temperature.
Temperature control is mostly through an on/off switch.
Microcontrollers offer an alternative to charger chips. Although the design cost
is higher because of programming, manufacturing costs are compatible to charger
chips. We must keep in mind that the charge chip or microcontroller form only a
small part of the charger circuit, and the bulk of the cost lies in the
peripheral components, which include solid-state switches and the power supply.
The cost of these parts is in direct relationship to current handling.
How to Charge and When to Charge?
Batteries have unique needs and Table 1 explains how to satisfy these desires
based of common batteries. Because of similarities within the battery family, we
only list lead, nickel and lithium systems. Although each chemistry has its own
requirements, there are common denominators that affect the life of all
batteries. These are:
Keep a moderate temperature. As food stays fresher when refrigerated, so
also does cool temperature retard battery corrosion, a life-robbing
adversary of any battery.
Control discharge. Each cycle wears the battery down by a small amount. A
partial discharge before charge is better than a full discharge. Apply a
deliberate full discharge only to calibrate a smart battery and to prevent
memory on a nickel-based pack.
Avoid abuse. Like a machine that is exposed to strenuous work, a battery
wears down more quickly if discharged harshly and if force-charged with high
currents. Strenuous demands cannot always be prevented, but the user has the
choice of selecting the right battery size, keeping the temperature moderate
and following life-extending service guidelines.
Batteries for the electric powertrain have changed the philosophy of battery
manufacturers from designing packs for maximum energy density, as demanded by the
consumer market, to focusing on optimal safety and longevity. Batteries on the
road are exposed to extreme environmental hazards; they must perform at maximum
duty under severe heat, cold, shock and vibration. Storing energy of several
kilowatts, batteries for the electric powertrain can be dangerous if stressed
beyond normal conditions. Furthermore, vehicular batteries are expensive and must
last for the life of the car.
Pampering a battery to achieve an extended service life, as is sometimes possible
with a laptop or cell phone pack, is more difficult with a large battery in a
vehicle that must deliver high load currents on command and is exposed to
freezing temperatures in the winter and blistering summer conditions. The user
has limited control as to the care and attention of the battery. This task is
passed over to an intelligent battery management system (BMS), which takes over
the command and does the supervising. The BMS assumes the duty of a lead
commander who must make sure that the troops in a large army are well organized
and that all soldiers are marching in the same direction.
While a battery in a portable device can have its own personality and
occasionally slack off, this liberty does not exist in a large battery system
where all members must be of equal strength. Managing fading and failing cells as
the battery ages is a complex issue that the BMS must address effectively.
Monitoring and eventual replacing the cells or battery groups is far more complex
than getting a new pack for a portable device when the old one becomes a
nuisance.


Frequently
asked question
Lead acid
(Sealed,
flooded)
Nickel-based
(NiCd and NiMH)
Lithium-ion
(Li-ion, polymer)
How should I
prepare a new
battery?
Battery comes
fully charged.
Apply topping
charge
Charge 1416h.
Priming may be
needed
Apply a topping before use. No
priming needed
Can I damage
a battery with
incorrect use?
Yes, do not
store
partially
charged, keep
fully charged
Battery is
robust and the
performance
will improve
with use
Keep some charge. Low charge can
turn off protection circuit
Do I need to
apply a full
charge?
Yes, partial
charge causes
sulfation,
Partial charge
is fine
Partial charge better than a full
charge
Can I disrupt
a charge
cycle?
Yes, partial
charge causes
no harm
Interruptions
can cause heat
buildup
Partial charge
causes no harm
Should I use
up
all battery
energy before
charging?
No, deep
discharge
wears battery
down. Charge
more often
Apply scheduled
discharges only
to prevent
memory
Deep discharge wears the battery
down
Do I have to
worry about
No, there is
Discharge NiCd
every 13
No memory
memory? no memory months
How do I
calibrate a
smart
battery?
Not applicable
Apply discharge/charge when the fuel gauge gets
inaccurate. Repeat every 13 months
Can I charge
with the
device on?
Some UPS
systems
simultaneous
charge and
deliver
current.
It's best to turn the device off during charge;
parasitic load can alter full-charge detection and
overcharge battery or cause mini-cycles
Must I remove
the battery
when full?
Depends on
charger; needs
correct float
V
Remove after a
few days in
charger
Not necessary; charger turns off
How do I store
my battery?
Keep cells
above 2.10V,
charge
every 6 months
Store in cool
place;
a total
discharge
causes no harm
Store in cool place partially
charged, do not fully drain
Is the battery
allowed to
heat up during
charge?
Battery may
get lukewarm
towards the
end of charge
Battery gets
warm but must
cool down on
ready
Battery may get lukewarm towards
the end of charge
How do I
charge when
cold?
Slow charge (0.1): 045C (32
113F)
Fast charge (0.51C): 545C
(41113F)
Do not charge
below freezing
Can I charge
at hot
temperatures?
Above 25C,
lower
threshold by
3mV/C
Battery will
not fully
charge when hot
Do not charge
above 50C (122F)
What should I
know about
chargers?
Charger should
float at 2.25
2.30V/cell
when ready
Battery should
not get too
hot; should
include temp
sensor
Battery must stay cool; no trickle
charge when ready
Table 1: Best charging methods. Strenuous demands cannot always be prevented.
Basics About Discharging
The purpose of a battery is to store and release energy at the desired time and
in a controlled manner. This section examines discharges under different C-rates
and evaluates the depth to which a battery can safely be depleted. Chapter 5 also
observes different discharge signatures and explores how certain patterns can
affect battery life. But first, lets look at charge and discharge rates, also
known as C-rate.
Depth of Discharge
The end-of-discharge voltage for lead acid is 1.75V/cell; nickel-based system is
1.00V/cell; and most Li-ion is 3.00V/cell. At this level, roughly 95 percent of
the energy is spent and the voltage would drop rapidly if the discharge were to
continue. To protect the battery from over-discharging, most devises prevent
operation beyond the specified end-of-discharge voltage.
When removing the load after discharge, the voltage of a healthy battery
gradually recovers and rises towards the nominal voltage. Differences in the
metal concentration of the electrodes enable this voltage potential when the
battery is empty. An aging battery with elevated self-discharge cannot recover
the voltage because of the parasitic load.
A high load current lowers the battery voltage, and the end-of-discharge voltage
threshold should be set lower accordingly. Internal cell resistance, wiring,
protection circuits and contacts all add up to overall internal resistance. The
cut-off voltage should also be lowered when discharging at very cold
temperatures; this compensates for the higher-than-normal internal resistance.
Table 1 shows typical end-of-discharge voltages of various battery chemistries.

End-of-
discharge
Li-manganese Li-phosphate Lead acid NiCd/NiMH
Normal load
Heavy load
3.00V/cell
2.70V/cell
2.70V/cell
2.45V/cell
1.75V/cell
1.40V/cell
1.00V/cell
0.90V/cell
Table 1: Recommended end-of-discharge voltage under normal and heavy load
The lower end-of-discharge voltage on a high load compensates for the losses
induced by the internal battery resistance.
Some battery analyzers apply a secondary discharge (recondition) that drains the
battery voltage of a nickel-based battery to 0.5V/cell and lower, a cut-off point
that is below what manufacturers specify. These analyzers (Cadex) keep the
discharge load low to stay within an allowable current while in sub-discharge
range. A cell breakdown with a weak cell is possible and reconditioning would
cause further deterioration in performance rather than making the battery better.
This phenomenon can be compared to the experience of a patient to whom strenuous
exercise is harmful.
What Constitutes a Discharge Cycle?
Most understand a discharge/charge cycle as delivering all stored energy, but
this is not always the case. Rather than a 100 percent depth of discharge (DoD),
manufacturers prefer rating the batteries at 80 percent DoD, meaning that only 80
percent of the available energy is being delivered and 20 percent remains in
reserve. A less-than-full discharge increases service life, and manufacturers
argue that this is closer to a field representation because batteries are seldom
fully discharged before recharge.
There are no standard definitions of what constitutes a discharge cycle. A smart
battery that keeps track of cycle count may require a depth of discharge of 70
percent to define a discharge cycle; anything less does not count as a cycle.
There are many other applications that discharge the battery less. Starting a
car, for example, discharges the battery by less than 5 percent, and the depth of
discharge in satellites is 6 to 10 percent before the onboard batteries are being
recharged during the satellite day. Furthermore, a hybrid car only uses a
fraction of the capacity during acceleration before the battery is being
recharged.
Discharge Signature
A classic discharge is a battery that delivers a steady load at, say, 0.2C. A
flashlight is such an example. Many applications demand momentary loads at double
and triple the batterys C-rating, and GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communications) of a cellular phone is such an example (Figure 2). GSM loads the
battery with up to 2A at a pulse rate of 577 micro-seconds (s). This is a large
demand for a small 1,000mAh battery; however, with a high frequency the battery
begins to behave like a capacitor and the characteristics change.


Figure 2: GSM Pulse of a cellular phone
The 577 microsecond pulses adjust to field
strength and can reach 2 amperes.
Courtesy of Cadex
In terms of cycle life, a moderate current at a constant discharge is better than
a pulsed or momentary high load. Figure 3 shows the decreasing capacity of a NiMH
battery at different load conditions and includes a gentle 0.2C DC discharge, an
analog discharge and a pulsed discharge. The cycle life of other battery
chemistries is similar under such load conditions.

Figure 3:
Cycle life of NiMH under
different operating conditions
NiMH performs best with DC and
analog loads; digital loads
lower the cycle life. Li-ion
behaves similarly.
Source: Zhang (1998)

Figure 4 examines the number of full cycles a Li-ion battery with a cobalt
cathode can endure when discharged at different C-rates. At a 2C discharge, the
battery exhibits higher stress than at 1C, limiting the cycle count to about 450
before the capacity drops to half level.


Figure 4:
Cycle life of
Li-ion with cobalt cathode at
varying discharge levels
The wear-and-tear of a battery
increases with higher loads.
Source: Choi et al (2002)

For a long time, Li-ion had been considered fragile and unsuitable for high
loads. This has changed, and today many lithium-based systems are more robust
than the older nickel and lead chemistries. Manganese and phosphate-type Li-ion
permit a continuous discharge of 30C. This means that a cell rated at 1,500mAh
can provide a steady load of 45A, and this is being achieved primarily by
lowering the internal resistance through optimizing the surface area between the
active cell materials. Low resistance keeps the temperature down, and running at
the maximum permissible discharge current, the cells heat up to about 50C
(122F); the maximum temperature is limited to 60C (140F).
One of the unique qualities of Li-ion is the ability to deliver continuous high
power. This is possible with an electrochemical recovery rate that is far
superior to lead acid. The slow electrochemical reaction of lead acid can be
compared to a drying felt pen than works for short marking but needs rest to
replenish the ink.
Simple Guidelines for Discharging Batteries
The battery performance decreases with cold temperature and increases with
heat.
Heat increases battery performance but shortens life by a factor of two for
every 10C increase above 2530C (18F above 7786F).
Although better performing when warm, batteries live longer when kept cool.
Operating a battery at cold temperatures does not automatically permit
charging under these conditions. Only charge at moderate temperatures.
Some batteries accept charge below freezing but at a much-reduced charge
current. Check the manufacturers specifications.
Use heating blankets if batteries need rapid charging at cold temperatures.
Prevent over-discharging. Cell reversal can cause an electrical short.
Deploy a larger battery if repetitive deep discharge cycles cause stress.
A moderate DC discharge is better for a battery than pulse and aggregated
loads.
A battery exhibits capacitor-like characteristics when discharging at high
frequency. This allows higher peak currents than is possible with a DC load.
Lead acid is sluggish and requires a few seconds of recovery between heavy
loads.
Calculating the Battery Runtime
If the battery were a perfect power source and behaved linearly, the discharge
time could be calculated according to the in-and-out flowing currents. What is
put in should be available as an output in the same amount goes the argument,
and a one-hour charge at 5A should deliver a one-hour discharge at 5A, or a 5-
hour discharge at 1A." This is not possible because of intrinsic losses. The
output is always less than what has been put in, and the losses escalate with
increasing load. High discharge currents make the battery less efficient. To
learn about the coulomb counter, see Inner Workings of a Smart Battery.
The efficiency factor of a discharging battery is expressed in the Peukert Law.
W. Peukert, a German scientist (1897), was aware of this loss and devised a
formula that expresses the loss at a given discharge rate in numbers. Because of
sluggish behavior of lead acid, the Peukert numbers apply mostly to this battery
chemistry and help in calculating the capacity when loaded at various discharge
rates.
The Peukert Law takes into account the internal resistance and recovery rate of a
battery. A value close to one (1) indicates a well-performing battery with good
efficiency and minimal loss; a higher number reflects a less efficient battery.
The Peukert Law of a battery is exponentialand the readings for lead acid are
between 1.3 and 1.4. Nickel-based batteries have low numbers and lithium-ion is
even better. Figure 1 illustrates the available capacity as a function of ampere
drawn with different Peukert ratings.

Figure 1: Available capacity
of a lead acid battery at
Peukert numbers
of 1.081.50
A value close to
1 has the smallest losses;
higher numbers deliver lower
capacities.
Source: von Wentzel (2008)

The lead acid battery prefers intermittent loads to a continuous heavy discharge.
The rest periods allow the battery to recompose the chemical reaction and prevent
exhaustion. This is why lead acid performs well in a starter application with
brief 300A cranking loads and plenty of time to recharge in between. All
batteries require recovery, and with nickel- and lithium-based system, the
electrochemical reaction is much faster than with lead acid. Read more about the
Basics About Charging.
The runtime of batteries in portable devices relates to the specific energy
marked in Ah (mAh in personal devices). Ah as a performance indicator works best
at low discharge currents. At higher loads, the internal resistance begins to
play a larger role in the ability to deliver power. Resistance acts as the
gatekeeper. Energy in Ah presents the available storage capacity of a battery
and is responsible for the runtime; power governs the load current. These two
attributes are critical in digital devices that require long runtimes and must
deliver high-current pulses.
Ah alone is not a reliable runtime indicator and the relationship between
capacity and the ability to deliver current can best be illustrated with the
Ragone Chart. Named after David V. Ragone, the Ragone chart evaluates batteries
not on energy alone but also represents power.
Figure 2 illustrates the Ragone chart on a digital camera that is powered by an
Alkaline, Lithium (Li-FeS2) or NiMH battery drawing 1.3W. (1.3W at 3V draws
433mA.) The horizontal axis displays energy in Watt/hours and the vertical axis
displays power in Watts. The scale is logarithmic to allow a wide selection of
battery sizes.

Figure 2: Ragone chart
illustrates battery performance
with various load conditions.
Digital camera loads NiMH, Li-
FeS2 and Alkaline with 1.3W
pulses according to ANSI C18.1
(dotted line). The results are:
-Li- FeS2 690 pluses
-NiMH 520 pulses
-Alkaline 85 pulses
Energy = Capacity x V
Power = Current x V
Courtesy of Exponent
The dotted line represents the power demand of the digital camera. All three
batteries have similar Ah rating: NiMH delivers the highest power but has the
lowest specific energy. This battery works well at high loads such as power
tools. The Lithium Li-FeS2 offers the highest specific energy but has moderate
loading conditions. Digital cameras and personal medical instruments suit the
system well. Alkaline offers an economic solution for lower current drains such
as flashlights, remote controls and wall clocks, but a digital camera is
stretching the capability of Alkaline. Read more about the Choices of Primary
Batteries.

Reference
Presentation by Quinn Horn, Ph.D., P.E. Exponent, Inc. Medical Device &
Manufacturing (MD&M) West, Anaheim, CA, 15 February 2012
Discharging at High and Low Temperatures
Like humans, batteries function best at room temperature, and any deviation
towards hot and cold changes the performance and/or longevity. Operating a
battery at elevated temperatures momentarily improves performance by lowering the
internal resistance and speeding up the chemical metabolism, but such a condition
shortens service life if allowed to continue for a long period of time. Some
manufacturers of lead acid batteries make use of the improved performance at
warmer temperatures and specify the batteries at a toasty 27C (80F).
Cold temperature increases the internal resistance and diminishes the capacity.
Batteries that would provide 100 percent capacity at 27C (80F) will typically
deliver only 50 percent at 18C (0F). The capacity decrease is linear with
temperature. The capacity decrease is momentary and the level of decline depends
on the battery chemistry.
Li-ion also performs better at high temperatures than at low ones. Heat lowers
the internal resistance but this stresses the battery. Warming a dying flashlight
or cellular phone battery in your jean pocket might provide additional runtime in
the winter. As all drivers in cold countries know, a warm battery cranks the car
engine easier than a cold one.
The dry solid polymer battery uses heat to promote ion flow in what is called a
true plastic battery. The battery requires a core temperature of 60 to 100C
(140 to 212F) to become conductive. The dry solid polymer has found a niche
market for stationary power applications in warm climates where heat serves as a
catalyst rather than a disadvantage. Built-in heating elements keep the battery
operational at all times. High battery cost and safety concerns have limited the
application of this technology. The more common Li-polymer uses moist electrolyte
to enhance conductivity, as discussed earlier. Read more about the Lithium-
polymer battery.
Batteries achieve optimum service life if used at 20C (68F) or slightly below,
and nickel-based chemistries degrade rapidly when cycled at high ambient
temperatures. If, for example, a battery operates at 30C (86F) instead of a
more moderate room temperature, the cycle life is reduced by 20 percent. At 40C
(104F), the loss jumps to a whopping 40 percent, and if charged and discharged
at 45C (113F), the cycle life is only half of what can be expected if used at
20C (68F).
The performance of all battery chemistries drops drastically at low temperatures.
At 20C (4F) most nickel-, lead- and lithium-based batteries stop functioning.
Although NiCd can go down to 40C (-40F), the permissible discharge is only
0.2C (5-hour rate). Specially built Li- ion brings the operating temperature down
to 40C, but only on discharge and at a reduced discharge. With lead acid we
have the danger of the electrolyte freezing, which can crack the enclosure. Lead
acid freezes more easily with a low charge when the specific gravity of the
electrolyte is more like water.
Cell matching by using cells of similar capacity plays an important role when
discharging at low temperature under heavy load. Since the cells in a battery
pack can never be perfectly matched, a negative voltage potential can occur
across a weaker cell on a multi-cell pack if the discharge is allowed to continue
beyond a safe cut-off point. Known as cell reversal, the weak cell suffers damage
to the point of developing a permanent electrical short. The larger the cell-
count, the greater the likelihood that a cell might reverse under load. Over-
discharge at a heavy load and low temperature is a large contributor to battery
failure of cordless power tools, especially nickel-based packs; Li-ion packs come
with protection circuits and the failure rate is lower. Read about Cell Mismatch
and Balancing.
Users of electric vehicles need to understand that the driving distance specified
per charge is given under normal temperature; frigid cold will sharply reduce the
available mileage. Using electricity for cabin heating is not the only cause for
the shorter driving distance between charging; the battery performance is reduced
when cold.
Inner Workings of a Smart Battery
A speaker at a battery conference said, The battery is a wild animal and
artificial intelligence domesticates it. Domesticating requires knowing the
temperament of a battery, because an ordinary or dumb battery has an
uncommunicative manner. Weight, color and size do not reveal its state-of-charge
(SoC) and state-of-health (SoH). The user is at the mercy of the battery, and
simply charging a battery does not guarantee the expected runtime.
Most batteries for laptops and similar devices are smart, meaning that some
communication occurs between the battery, the equipment and the user. The
definition of smart varies among manufacturers and regulatory authorities. Some
call their batteries smart by simply adding a chip that sets the charger to the
correct charge algorithm. The Smart Battery System (SBS) forum states that a
smart battery must provide state-of-charge (SoC) indications.
An increasing number of rechargeable batteries are made smart. Smart means that
the battery pack includes some level of intelligence. Equipped with a microchip,
these batteries talk to the charger and inform the user of its status, such as
indicating state-of-charge. Most smart batteries work on the principle of coulomb
counting, a theory that goes back 250 years when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
first established the Coulomb Rule. Figure 1 illustrates a fuel gauge that
measures the in-and-out flowing energies; the stored energy represents state-of-
charge.


Figure 1: Principle of and fuel gauge based on
coulomb counting
A circuit measures the in-and-out flowing energy;
the stored energy represents state-of-charge.
Courtesy of Cadex
There are several types of smart batteries, each offering different complexities
and cost variants. The most basic smart battery may contain nothing more than a
chip that sets the charger to the correct charge algorithm. In the eyes of the
Smart Battery System (SBS) forum, these batteries cannot be called smart. What
then makes a battery intelligent?
Definitions vary among organizations and manufacturers. The SBS forum states that
a smart battery must provide SoC indications, and in 1990, Benchmarq was the
first company to offer fuel-gauge technology. Today, several manufacturers offer
integrated circuit (IC) chips in single-wire and two-wire systems, also known as
System Management Bus (SMBus).
Single-wire Bus
The single-wire system delivers communications through one wire. A closer look
reveals, however, that the battery still uses three wires. They consist of the
data line that also provides the clock information, and the positive and negative
battery terminals. For safety reasons, most battery manufacturers also run a
separate wire for temperature sensing. Figure 2 shows the layout of a single-wire
system.

Figure 2: Single-wire system of a smart battery
A single wire provides data communication. For
safety reasons, most batteries also feature a
separate wire for temperature sensing.
Courtesy of Cadex
The single-wire system stores the battery code and tracks battery readings that
typically include voltage, current, temperature and state-of-charge information.
Because of the relatively low hardware cost, the single-wire system is used for
less complex and more price-sensitive products such as two-way radios, cameras
and portable computing devices.
Most single-wire systems do not use a common form factor and this makes
standardized state-of-health measurements impossible. Deviating from a set
standard poses a further problem with attempting to charge diverse batteries with
a universal charger. The Benchmarq single-wire solution, for example, cannot
measure the current directly; this information must be extracted from a change in
capacity over time. In addition, the single-wire bus only allows battery SoH
measurement when marrying the host to a designated battery pack, and this
requires a designated battery. Any deviation from the original battery will make
the system unreliable or incompatible.
System Management Bus
The System Management Bus (SMBus) represents a concerted effort from the
electronics industry to standardize on one communications protocol and one set of
data. The Duracell/Intel smart battery system in use today was standardized in
1993 and consists of two separate lines for data and clock. Figure 3 shows the
layout of the two-wire SMBus system.



Figure 3: Two-wire SMBus system
The SMBus works on a two-wire system using a
standardized communications protocol. This
system lends itself to standardized state-of-
charge and state-of-health measurements.
Courtesy of Cadex
An SMBus battery contains permanent and temporary data. The manufacturer programs
the permanent data into the battery, which includes battery ID, battery type,
manufacturers name, serial number and date of manufacture. The temporary data is
being added during use and consists of cycle count, user pattern and maintenance
requirements. Some of the information is kept for record, while other data is
being renewed throughout the life of the battery.
The SMBus is divided into Level 1, 2 and 3. Level 1 has been discontinued because
it does not provide chemistry-independent charging. It supported only one
chemistry. Level 2 works with in-circuit charging, and a laptop servicing the
battery is a typical example. Another application is a battery containing the
charging circuit within the pack. Battery and support circuit in Level 2 are
married to each other. Level 3 supports external SMBus chargers.
Most external SMBus chargers are Level 3 and are expensive to manufacture. Some
lower-cost chargers have emerged that accommodate SMBus batteries, but they may
not be fully SBS compliant. Manufacturers of SMBus batteries do not completely
endorse this shortcut because of safety concerns, but pricing dictates the
purchase decisions. Applications such as biomedical instruments, data collection
devices and survey equipment lean towards Level 3 chargers with full-fledged
charge protocols.
The original design philosophy behind the SMBus battery was to remove the charge
control from the charger and assign it to the battery. With a true SMBus system,
the battery becomes the master and the charger serves as slave that follows the
dictates of the battery. This is done out of concerns over charger quality and
compatibility with new battery chemistries in applying the correct charge and
managing full-charge detection. Such a system makes charging fully transparent to
the user, regardless of what chemistry is used.
Offering a charger in which the command is embedded in the battery makes sense
because the universal charger can charge all compatible batteries. Algorithms of
future battery chemistries convert the charger to the correct settings and the
charger will never be obsolete. During the 1990s, several SMBus battery packs
emerged, including the 35 and 202 (Figure 4). Manufactured by Sony, Hitachi, GP
Batteries and others, these batteries work (or should work) in all portable
equipment designed for this system.

Figure 4: 35 and 202 series batteries
featuring SMBus
Available in nickel- and lithium-based
chemistries, these batteries power laptops,
biomedical instruments and survey equipment.
Non-SMBus (dumb) versions with the same
footprint are also available.
Courtesy of Cadex
The idea was good but the desired standardization did not take hold and most
manufacturers went their own way by offering proprietary packs. The reasons are
to optimize the form factor and to ensure performance and safety, which can only
be guaranteed with the manufacturers own battery brands. This makes good sense,
but the leading motive behind this may be pricing policies. In the absence of
competition, the batteries can be sold at a premium price. To assure sole
ownership, many manufacturers protect the battery with a code that is difficult
to break.
Limitations
Twenty years after introducing the smart battery, the battery industry has still
not solved key battery problems and this keeps haunting the users. I asked a
hospital technician in the USA about the use of smart batteries and he provided
me with his frank opinion. Lets examine why the smart battery does not fulfill
all the promises made in the 1990s.
There is a notion that a battery indicating 100 percent SoC is good. This is not
always the case because the user has no knowledge of the capacity level. The
readout can be deceiving because the actual runtime is a product of capacity and
SoC. Technicians also fret over the lack of standardization between manufactures,
and there is little compatibility among packs. Other issues with SMBus batteries
are logic problems, memory errors and glitches on low-voltage recovery. Custom-
designed systems are said to be the most reliable.
Compliance among SMBus batteries and chargers is not improving. Unlike other
tightly regulated standard formats, such as the long-play record introduced in
the late 1950s, the audiocassette of the 1960s, the VCR of the 1970s, ISDN and
GSM of the 1980s, or USB and MP3 in the 1990s, the SMBus protocol permits
variations that include adding check bids to halt service if the circuit crashes,
counting the number of discharges to advise on calibration and disallowing a
charge if a certain fault condition occurs. While these additions are good by
themselves, they cause compatibility problems with some chargers.
Ironically, the more features that are added to the SMBus battery and charger,
the higher the likelihood of incompatibilities. Before implementing a system,
SMBus batteries and chargers should be checked for proper function. The need to
approve the marriage between battery and charger is unfortunate, given the
assurance that SMBus technology would simplify life and not make it more complex.
Can this be the reason why the smart battery has not received the acceptance
battery manufacturers had hoped for? When the SMBus battery was conceived in the
early 1990s, cost was not as critical as it is now. Today, customers want
products that are economically priced. Adding high-level intelligence to the
battery may simply be too expensive for the purpose it serves. Some engineers go
so far as to say that the SMBus battery is a misguided principle.
An SMBus battery costs about 25 percent more than the dumb equivalent, and this
is also reflected in the charger. Instead of simplification, a full-fledged Level
3 charger must work as a hybrid by providing full charging function when charging
dumb batteries and becoming a slave to obey the dictates of the battery on an
SMBus-controlled charge. A large part of the cost is making the two systems
compatible, and progress is being made in standardizing.
Besides electrical compliance, battery shape also varies and nowhere is this
diversity more visible than with laptop packs. The efforts made in the 1990s to
standardize on battery size did not materialize as expected and today each device
comes with its own unique pack. Large-scale batteries for the electric
powertrains also have their own batteries. This may one day change by making
batteries with a common form factor available.

Advantages
Provides state-of-charge status
Records battery history such as cycle count, user pattern,
maintenance requirements, etc.
Reminds user of periodic service
Protects battery from unauthorized use
Limitations
Adds 25% to the cost of a battery
Complicates charger; most chargers for intelligent battery are
hybrid and also service non-intelligent batteries
Requires periodic calibration
Readout only shows state-of-charge and not actual runtime
Table 6-8: Advantages and limitations of the smart battery. The smart battery has
not enjoyed the same success as with other standards, and this may have to do
with lack of enforced standards.
Simple Guidelines for Using Smart Batteries
Calibrate a smart battery by applying a full discharge and charge every
three months or after every 40 partial cycles.
A 100 percent fuel gauge does not assure a good battery, nor does an
inaccurate fuel gauge tell for certain that the battery is bad.
Not all chargers are compatible with a smart battery, nor can all batteries
be serviced on a given charger. Replace the battery with the same brand, or
use an equivalent that is fully compatible. Always test the battery and the
charger before use.
Exercise caution when using a smart battery that does not indicate state-of-
charge correctly. This battery may be faulty or not fully compatible with
the equipment.
Battery Fuel Gauge
One of the main tasks of the smart battery is to establish communication between
the battery and user. A fuel gauge that indicates state-of-charge is part of this
effort. When pressing the TEST button on a fully charged SMBus battery, all
signal lights illuminate. On a partially discharged battery, half the lights
illuminate, and on an empty battery all lights remain dark or a red light
appears. Figure 1 shows a fuel gauge of a battery that is 75 percent charged,
with three lights glowing.

Figure 1: State-of-charge readout of
a smart battery
Signal lights indicate the battery
SoC when pressing the TEST button.
Courtesy of Cadex
While the SoC information displayed on a battery or computer screen is helpful to
the user, it does not assure sufficient runtime, because the fuel gauge resets to
100 percent on a full recharge regardless of how much capacity the battery can
store. A serious miscount occurs if an aged battery shows 100 percent SoC while
the batterys ability to hold charge has dropped to 50 percent or less. We ask,
100 percent of what? If, for example, 100 percent of a good battery results in
a four-hour runtime, the same indication with a battery holding half the capacity
would run for only two hours. The user should know that the fuel gauge only shows
SoC and capacity is missing.
Other than using coulomb counting and measuring internal resistance, there is no
reliable method to calculate the state-of-health (SoH) of a battery; current
technologies provide only rough estimations. However, there is a way to display
the capacity of a smart battery digitally.
At time of manufacture, the SMBus battery is programmed with a specified
capacity, which is 100 percent by default, and the battery keeps this information
as permanent data. With each full charge, the battery resets to the charge flag;
and during discharge the coulomb counter measures the consumed energy. A perfect
battery would deliver 100 percent on a calibrated fuel gauge. As the battery ages
and the capacity drops, the delivered energy between charges decreases. The
discrepancy between the factory-set 100 percent and the delivered coulombs after
a full charge can thus determine the battery capacity.
The SoC and capacity information can be shown on a linear display using colored
LEDs. The green lights indicate the usable capacity; the empty part of the
battery is marked with dark LEDs; and the unusable part is shown with red LEDs.
Figure 2 illustrates a tri-state fuel gauge. Alternatively, the results can be a
shown on a digital display.

Figure 2: Tri-state fuel gauge.The tri-state fuel gauge reads the learned
battery information on the SMBus and displays it on a multi colored LED bar. The
illustration shows a partially discharged battery of 50% SoC with 20% empty and
30% unusable.
Courtesy of Cadex
Installed in a SMBus charger, the tri-state fuel gauge indicates the usable
capacity of SMBus compatible batteries and gives the user a clear indication of
when to retire a pack. The pass/fail level is user-selectable at, say, 60, 70
or 80 percent depending on the minimum required performance level. A failed
battery prompts the user to first calibrate the battery. If the
charge/discharge/charge cycle did not raise the capacity to the set target level,
a red light on the charger indicates a fail. A lit green ready light always
assures that the battery has been successfully charged and meets the capacity
requirements. (Cadex offered such a charger but the buyers did not appreciate the
benefit.)
Cars with electric propulsion systems use similar fuel-gauge technologies to
determine the state-of-charge and state-of-function of the battery. The challenge
is in knowing how far a vehicle can travel with a fully charged battery in
various ambient conditions. A tailwind on a sunny day is more forgiving than a
headwind with snow. The aging of a battery adds to the challenge and the fuel
gauge will lose accuracy over time. Showing 30 minutes of remaining runtime and
then shutting down, as is common with laptops, will not be easily forgiven with
the electric vehicle.
Battery Calibration
The fuel gauge has the inherent drawback that it needs periodic calibration, also
known as capacity re-learning. This is unfortunate, but is required to correct
the tracking error that develops between the chemical and digital battery over
many charge and discharge cycles.
Calibration could be omitted if the battery received a full charge followed by a
full discharge at a constant current. This way, the battery would reset with each
full cycle and the tracking error would be kept at less than one percent per
cycle. In real life, however, a battery may be discharged for a few minutes with
a load signature that is difficult to capture, then is partially recharged and
stored with varying levels of self-discharge depending on temperature. These
anomalies contribute to an unavoidable error. The true capacity of the battery
begins to deviate from the fuel gauge readout and the battery needs to re-learn.
Battery engineers say jokingly that Li-ion got rid of memory and SMBus adds
digital memory.
Calibration occurs naturally by occasionally running the equipment down until the
battery is fully depleted and Low Battery appears. The full discharge sets the
discharge flag, and the subsequent recharge sets the charge flag. By establishing
these two markers, the battery can calculate the state-of-charge by knowing the
distance between the flags. Figure 1 illustrates the full-discharge and full-
charge flags.

Figure 1: Full-discharge and full-
charge flags
Calibration occurs by applying a full
charge, discharge and charge. This is
done in the equipment or with a
battery analyzer as part of battery
maintenance.
Courtesy Cadex
How often does a battery need calibrating? The answer depends on the application.
For practical purposes, a calibration should be done once every three months or
after 40 partial cycles. If the portable device applies a periodic deep discharge
on its own, no additional calibration will be needed. However, if the equipment
had been in constant battery power with no full-discharge interval for a period
of a few months, then a deliberate discharge is recommended. This can be done in
the equipment, with a charger featuring a discharge function or a battery
analyzer. Avoid doing too many deep discharges for the sake of calibration
because this would wear the battery down.
What happens if the battery is not calibrated regularly? Can such a battery be
used with confidence? Most smart battery chargers obey the dictates of the
chemical battery rather than the electronic circuit, and there are no safety
issues. In spite of being out of calibration, the battery charges fully and
functions normally; however, the digital readout may become increasingly more
inaccurate and will eventually become a nuisance.