Chapter 3

Fluid Properties
3.1 Introduction
A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when a shear stress is applied to
it. Figure 3.1-1 shows the fluid motion when a force F is applied to a plate on top of the fluid
causing the plate to move. As long as there is movement of the plate, the fluid continues to
flow or deform since the fluid next to the plate is under the action of a shear stress equal to
the force F divided by the surface area of the plate. hen a fluid is at rest !no relative motion
between the fluid elements", there can be no shear stress.
F l u i d
F
P l a t e
Figure 3.1-1 Fluid moves with the plate.
#oth liquids and gases are fluids even though they are quite different at the molecular level.
$n liquids the molecules are held close together by significant attraction forces% in gases are
relatively far apart and have very wea& attraction forces. Figure 3.1-' shows a PV diagram
for water where the isotherms are plotted with the isotherm of highest temperature on the top.
An isotherm is a curve that relates pressure to volume at a constant temperature. As
temperature and pressure increase, the differences between liquid and gas become less and
less, until the liquid and gas become identical at the critical point. For water the critical point
occurs at 3().1)
o
*

and ''.+, -.a. #ecause of their closer molecular spacing, liquids
normally have higher densities, viscosities, and other physical properties than gases.
Figure 3.1-2 PV diagram for water.
1
3.2 Rheology
/heologh is the study of the deformation and flow behavior of fluids. For a 0ewtonian fluid,
we have a linear relationship between shear stress !" and the shear rate !

" or rate of shear

strain.
1

!3.'-1"
$n this equation, the proportional constant is called the viscosity of the fluid. 2he viscosity
is the property of a fluid to resist the rate at which deformation ta&es place when the fluid is
acted upon by a shear forces. As a property of the fluid, the viscosity depends upon the
temperature, pressure, and composition of the fluid, but is independent of the shear rate. -ost
simple homogeneous liquids and gases are 0ewtonian fluid.

y
x
( v | - v | ) t
x y + y x y

E l e m e n t a t
t i m e t
E l e m e n t a t
t i m e t + t
y
x
Figure 3.2-1 3eformation of a fluid element.
2he rate of deformation of a fluid element for a simple one-dimensional flow is illustrated in
Figure 3.'-1. 2he flow parallel to the x-axis will deform the element if the velocity at the top
of the element is different than the velocity at the bottom. 2he shear rate at a point is defined
as

1
dt
d
1
+ , ,
lim
t y x
t
t t t

+

dt
d
1
+ , ,
lim
t y x
t
y t v v
y
x
y y
x

+
' 4 5 4 " arctan6! ' 4
dt
d
1
+ , ,
lim
t y x
t
y t v v
y
x
y y
x

+
5 4 " arctan6!
For small angle , arctan!" 1 , therefore
dt
d
1
+ , ,
lim
t y x
t
y t v v
y
x
y y
x

+
4 " !
1
+ , ,
lim
t y x
y
v v
y
x
y y
x

+
" !
'

1
dt
d
1
dy
dv
x
2he shear stress for this simple flow is also the molecular momentum flux in the y-direction
and is given as
yx 1
dy
dv
x
!3.'-'"
2he subscript yx on yx denotes the viscous flux of x momentum in the y direction. $n this
equation, the shear stress is defined to be the same as the momentum flux !yx"mf. e may use
equation !3.'-'" to obtain an expression for shear stress as a function of the fluid velocity and
the system dimension. *onsider the situation shown in Figure 3.'-' where a fluid is
contained between two large parallel plates both of area A. 2he plates are separated by a
distance h. 2he system is initially at rest then a force F is suddenly applied to the lower plate
to set the plate into motion in the x direction at a constant velocity V. -omentum is
transferred from a region of higher velocity to a region of lower velocity. As time proceeds,
momentum is transferred in the y direction to successive layers of fluid from the plate that is
in motion in the x direction.
x
y
t < 0
r e s t
t = 0
l o w e r p l a t e
m o v e s
t > 0
v e l o c i t y
d e v e l o p s
t > > 0
s t e a d y v e l o c i t y
p r o i l e
!
V V V
F
Figure 3.2-2 7elocity profile development for a flow between two parallel plates.
2he velocity profile of the fluid between the parallel plates may be obtained by applying the
momentum balance, which states that
2ime rate of change
of linear momentum 1
within the CV
rate of linear
momentum enters
the CV
rate of linear
momentum exits 8
the CV
sum of external
forces acting on
the CV
9ince the velocity in the x direction vx is dependent on the y direction, we choose the control
volume CV to be Ay as shown in Figure 3.3-3.
3
y
y + y

y x y + y
|

y x y
|
Figure 3.3-3 x--omentum entering and leaving the CV = Ay
Applying the x-momentum balance on the CV yields
t

! Ay vx" 1
y
yx

A
y y
yx
+

A
3ividing the equation by Ay and letting y +, we obtain for constant physical properties

t
v
x

1
+
lim
y
y
y
yx
y y
yx

+

1
y
yx

!3.'-3"
9ubstituting yx 1
y
v
x

into equation !3.'-3" yields a second order partial differential

equation !PDE"

t
v
x

1
'
'
y
v
x

t
v
x

1
'
'
y
v
x

!3.'-)"
where = 4 is the &inematic viscosity of the fluid. :quation !3.'-)" can be solved with the
following initial and boundary conditions;
$nitial condition; t = +, vx 1 + !3.'-)a"
#oundary conditions; y 1 +, vx 1 V and y 1 h, vx 1 + !3.'-)b"
:quation !3.'-)" with the auxiliary conditions !3.)-'a,b" can be solved by the separation of
variables method with the following result
vx 1 V!1
h
y
"

V '

1
1
n
n
exp
,
_

'
' '
h
t
n

sin
,
_

h
y n
2he solution can also be expressed in dimensionless form with vx
<
1
V
v
x
, y
<
1
h
y
, t
<
1
'
h
t
)
vx
<
1 1 y
<

'

1
1
n
n
exp( )
< ' '
t n sin!n y
<
" !3.'-="
2able 3.'-1 lists the "atla# program to plot dimensionless velocity profiles at various
dimensionless times. 2he results are shown in Figure 3.'-).
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
v
x
/V
y
/
h
t*=.01
t*=.05
t*=.1
t*=1
t*=.2
Figure 3.2-4 3imensionless velocity profiles for flow between two parallel plates.
$$$$ Table 3.2-1 "atla# pro%ram to plot vx
<
1 1 y
<

'

1
1
n
n
exp( )
< ' '
t n sin!n y
<
"$$$
yo!=0&0'(&0'(&)'* np=len%t!(yo!)*u=yo!*
t!etav=+&0, &0' &, &- ,.* nt=len%t!(t!etav)*
n=,(-0* ns=n&/n*
!old on
or 0=,(nt
t!eta=t!etav(0)*
or i=,(np
y=yo!(i)*
sum,=(,&0&1n)&/exp(-ns/pi/pi/t!eta)/sin(n/pi/y)2*
u(i)=(,-y)--/sum,1pi*
end
yp=+0 yo! ,.*up=+, u 0.* plot(up3yp)
end
xla#el(2v$x142)*yla#el(2y1!2)* %rid on
=
As time approaches infinity, the system reaches steady state and the summation terms in
equation !3.'-=" become >ero. 2he steady state velocity profile is then
vx
<
1 1 y
<
!3.'-?"
2he steady state solution can also be obtained directly from equation !3.'-)" by setting the
temporal derivative equal to >eo.
'
'
dy
v d
x
1 + !3.'-("
$ntegrating equation !3.'-(" twice, we obtain
vx 1 Ay + B
2he two constants of integration are evaluated from the boundary conditions;
y 1 +, vx 1 V and y 1 h, vx 1 +
2herefore B = V and A = V4h
@ence vx 1 V!1 y4h" vx
<
1 1 y
<
2he shear rate at any position y in the fluid is given as

1
dy
dv
x
1
h
V
2he force to pull the lower plate at velocity V can be evaluated; F 1 A
+ y
yx

1 A
h
V
Fluids are classified as 0ewtonian or non-0ewtonian, depending upon the relation between
shear stress and shear rate. $n 0ewtonian fluids the relation is linear while in non-0ewtonian
fluids, the shear stress is not a linear function of shear rate as shown in Figure 3.'-=.
5 i e l d
s t r e s s
6 ! e a r r a t e

7 d e a l p l a s t i c
8 e a l p l a s t i c
P s e u d o p l a s t i c
9 e w t o n i a n l u i d
: i l a t a n t
Figure 3.2-5 #ehaviors of 0ewtonian and non-0ewtonian fluids.
?
2he slope of the 0ewtonian fluid line is the viscosity. For the non-0ewtonian fluids, the
slope is not constant therefore its value at a given shear rate is called the apparent viscosity.
2he apparent viscosity of a dilatant fluid increases with shear rate while the apparent
viscosity of a pseudo platic decreases with shear rate. 2he ideal or #ingham plastic has a
linear shear stress-shear rate relation for stresses greater than the yield stress. /eal plastic or
*arson fluid also flows with stresses greater than the yield stress. 2he apparent viscosity
however decreases with shear rate and at some point the *arson fluid behaves as a
0ewtonian fluid. @eterogeneous fluids that contain a particulate phase that forms aggregates
at low rates of shear require a yield stress.
#lood is a heterogeneous fluid with the particulates consisting primarily of the red blood
cells. 2herefore blood follows the curve shown for real plastic. At low shear rates, red blood
cells clump together to form aggregates. 2his behavior results in high value of apparent
viscosity. @owever, at shear rate higher than 1++4s, red blood cells do not clump together,
therefore blood behaves as a 0ewtonian fluid with an apparent viscosity of about 3 c.. 2he
properties of blood change rapidly if removed from the system and so it is extremely difficult
to perform experiments on it under laboratory conditions.
3.3 Fully Developed Lainar Flo! in "u#e
e want to develop a relationship for shear stress-shear rate given volume flow rate Q and
pressure drop P across the hori>ontal tube as shown in Figure 3.3-1. e use cylindrical
coordinates with the following assumptions; the length of the tube !L" is much larger than the
tube radius !" !i.e. L4 A 1++" to eliminate entrance effect% steady incompressible and
isothermal flow% one-dimensional flow in the ! direction only, therefore v> 1 v>!r"% and no-slip
boundary condition at the wall.
;
;
8
r
P
;
P
; + ;

r ;
<
P
o
P
<
Figure 3.3-1 Forces acting on a cylindrical fluid element within a tubey.
*onsider the control volume r
'
! shown in Figure 3.=-1. For steady flow, the summation of
the viscous and pressure forces acting on the control volume must be equal to >ero.
PB>r
'
r>'r! PB>8>r
'
1 +
3ividing the equation by the control volume yields

!
P P
! ! !

+
1
r
'
r>
$n the limit when ! +, we obtain the differential equation for the shear stress distribution
(

d!
dP
1
r
'
r> !3.3-1"
9ince r> 1
dr
dv
!
, the right hand side of equation !3.3-1" is a function of r only and the left
hand side of equation !3.3-1" is a function of ! only. 2hey both must be equal to a constant

d!
dP
1
r
'
r> 1
L
P P
L o

2he equation is rearranged to
r> 1
'
r
d!
dP
1
( )
L
r P P
L o
'

!3.3-'"
2he shear stress vanishes at the centerline of the tube and achieves its highest value, w, at the
wall.
w 1 r>Br1/ 1
'

d!
dP
1
( )
L
P P
L o
'

!3.3-3"
:quations !3.3-'" and !3.3-3" are valid for both 0ewtonian and non-0ewtonian fluids since
we has not specified a relationship between the shear stress and shear rate. 9olving equations
!3.3-'" and !3.3-3" for
d!
dP
yields

d!
dP
1
r
'
r> 1

'
w
2herefore r> 1

r
w 1
( )
L
r P P
L o
'

!3.3-)"
$f

r!
1 1 constant, the fluid is a 0ewtonian fluid and is called the viscosity. $f

r!
1
constant, the fluid is a non-0ewtonian fluid and is called the apparent viscosity. e will
follow different procedures to determine a relationship between shear stress and shear rate
depending on whether or not

and r> are &nown directly.

$%

and r> are not &no!n directly

e want to find a general relationship between the shear rate and some function of the shear
stress in terms of the measurable quantities Qmeas., Po PC, L, and . 2hat is;

1
dr
dv
!
1

!r>" !3.3-="
D
e can follow the following procedures to obtain a relationship between the shear rate

and shear stress r>.
1" e calculate the volumetric flow rate from the axial velocity profile as follows.
Qcal 1 '

!
r v
+
" ! rdr
'" e express Qcal in terms of shear rate using integration by part.
d!uv" 1 vdu + udv

v
du =

" !uv d

u
dv
Cet v = v>!r" dv 1 dv>!r"
du 1 rdr u =
'
1
r
'
2herefore Qcal 1 '
'
1
r
'

!
v
+
'

r
+
'
'
1

,
_

dr
dv
!
dr =

r
+
'

,
_

dr
dv
!
dr

3" 0ext, we change the integration variable from r to r> using equation !3.3-)"
r> 1

r
w r =
"

r> dr =
"

dr>
Qcal 1

r!

+
'
'

,
_

"
r!

"

dr> , !0ote;

1
,
_

dr
dv
!
"
Qcal 1
3
3
"

r!

+

'
r!
dr> !3.3-?"
)" e then assume a relationship between

and r> !for example

' 4 1
r!
".
:quation !3.3-?" is then integrated to obtain Qcal. e will accept the assumed
expression between

and r> if Qcal Qmeas. Etherwise step !)" is repeated.

'%

and r> are &no!n directly

2he shear stress and shear rate can be determined using a cup-and-bob or *ouette viscometer.
As the name implies, the *ouette viscometer consists of two concentric cylinders as shown in
Figure 3.3-'. 2he fluid is in the annular gap between the outer cylinder !cup" and the inner
cylinder !bob".
,
T

<
8
i
8
o
Figure 3.3-2 *ouette viscometer.
2he outer cylinder is rotated at a fixed angular velocity !". 2he shearing force is transmitted
to the fluid, causing it to deform or flow. 2he inner cylinder is &ept stationary by a torque !T"
that can be measured by a torsion spring. 2he shear stress at any position r within the gap !i
r o" is determined by a balance of moments on a cylindrical surface 'rL
T = r
!'rL"r
9olving for the shear stress, we have
r
1
L r
'
'
T
!3.3-("
9etting r = i gives the stress on the bob surface !i", and setting r = o gives the stress on the
cub surface !o". $f the gap is small 6i.e., !o i"4o +.+'5, the flow in the annular gap can
be approximated by the flow between two parallel plates. $n this case, an average shear stress
should be used
r
1
'
o i
+

L
'
'
T
where 1 !i 8 o"4' !3.3-D"
2he average shear rate is given by

1
dr
dv

i o
i o

V V

1
i o
o

1
o i
4 1

!3.3-,"
:quations !3.3-D, ," provide the experimental values for the shear stress and the shear rate
that can be fitted by a non-0ewtonian fluid model.
()aple 3.3-1.
+
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
3arby, /., *hemical :ngineering Fluid -echanics, -arcel 3e&&er, '++1, p. ()
1+
2he viscosity of a fluid sample is measured in a cup-and-bob viscometer. 2he bob is 1= cm
long with a diameter of ,.D, and the cup has a diameter of 1+ cm. 2he cup rotates, and the
torque is measured on the bob. 2he following data were obtained;
!rpm" ' ) 1+ '+ )+
T !dyncm" 3.?1+
=
3.D1+
=
).)1+
=
=.)1+
=
(.)1+
=
!a" 3etermine the viscosity of the sample.
!b" Fit the data with the following model equations
1 o 8

!#ingham .lastic -odel"

and 1 #

n
!.ower Caw -odel"
!c" 3etermine the viscosity of this sample at a cup speed of 1++ rpm in the viscometer using
the above models.
*olution ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9ince !o i"4o 1 !1+ ,.D"41+ 1 +.+', we can use the equation !3.3-D, ," to determine the
shear stress and the shear rate
r
1
L
'
'
T
, and

1
o i
4 1

2he apparent viscosity is determined from

1

r
2able 3.3-1 lists the results from the calculation. 2able 3.3-' lists the "atla# program to fit
data with the #ingham plastic and power law model.
"a#le 3.3-1 Fluid apparent viscosity at different shear rates
!rpm" T !dyncm"

!14s" r
!dyne4cm
'
" !.oise 1 g4cms"
'
)
1+
'+
)+
1++
3?++++
3D++++
))++++
=)++++
()++++
1+.=
'+.,
='.=
1+=
'+,
=')
1=?
1?=
1,1
'3)
3'+
1).D,
(.D?
3.?)
'.'3
1.=3
For the #ingham plastic model, we obtain
!dyne4cm
'
" 1 o 8

1 1)( 8 +.D'(

!14s"
11
For the power law model, we obtain
!dyne4cm
'
" 1 #

n
1 D3.'

+.'3)
At 1++ rpm or

1 =') s
-1
, for the #ingham plastic model
= 1)( 8 +.D'(=') 1 =D+ dyne4cm
'
= =D+4=') 1 1.11 g4cms
For the power law model
1

r
1 D3.'

+.'3)1
1 +.?, g4cms
$$$$$$ Table 3.3-2 "atla# pro%ram to it s!ear stress and s!ear rate data $$$$$$
= Example >&>-,
=
rpm=+- ? ,0 -0 ?0.*
@orAue=+>B >C ?? '? D?./,e?*
ndata=len%t!(rpm)*
8i=)&C1-*8o=,01-*<=,'*
ome%a=rpm/-/pi1B0*
s!ear$rate=ome%a1(,-8i18o)
8ave=(8i+8o)1-*
stress=@orAue1(-/pi/8aveE-/<)
vis=stress&1s!ear$rate
co=polyit(s!ear$rate3stress3,)* tao=co(-)
vis$in=co(,)
x=lo%(s!ear$rate)*y=lo%(stress)*
co=polyit(x3y3,)* n=co(,)
m=exp(co(-))
drate=(s!ear$rate(ndata)-s!ear$rate(,))1-'*
s$rate=s!ear$rate(,)(drate(s!ear$rate(ndata)*
tao,=tao+vis$in/s$rate*vis,=tao,&1s$rate*
vis-=m/s$rate&E(n-,)*
lo%lo%(s!ear$rate3vis32d23s$rate3vis,3s$rate3vis-32(2)
xla#el(26!ear rate (,1s)2)*yla#el(24iscosity (Poise)2)
le%end(2:ata232Fin%!am plastic232Power law2)
%rid on
= Evaluate t!e correlation coeicient
vis$ave=mean(vis)*
6t=(vis-vis$ave)/(vis-vis$ave)2*
tao,=tao+vis$in/s!ear$rate*vis,=tao,&1s!ear$rate*
vis-=m/s!ear$rate&E(n-,)*
6,=(vis-vis,)/(vis-vis,)2*r,=sArt(,-6,16t)*
6-=(vis-vis-)/(vis-vis-)2*r-=sArt(,-6-16t)*
print(2Gorrelation coeicient or Fin%!am plastic = =C&?Hn23r,)
print(2Gorrelation coeicient or Power law = =C&?Hn23r-)
>> e>d,
1'
s!ear$rate =
,0&?D-0 -0&)??0 '-&>')) ,0?&D,)C -0)&?>)'
stress =
,''&C),0 ,B?&'',B ,)0&'>>? ->>&C>B' >-0&??-B
vis =
,?&CCB' D&C'BC >&B>C) -&->>0 ,&'>00
tao =
,?D&->0?
vis$in =
0&C-D0
n =
0&->>D
m =
C>&,)>-
Gorrelation coeicient or Fin%!am plastic = ,&0000
Gorrelation coeicient or Power law = 0&))>C
A crude measure of the how well the data is fitted by an expression is given by the
correlation coefficient r, which is defined as
r =
t
$
$
1
In this expression S
t
=

%
i
i
& &
1
'
" ! is the spread of the data around the mean & of the
dependent variable and S =

%
i
i i
y &
1
'
" ! is the sum of the square of the difference between
the data (Y
i
) and the calculated value (y
i
).
Figure 3.3-3 shows a plot of viscosity versus flow rate for the #ingham plastic and the .ower
law models. 2he #ingham plastic model fits the data better as evident by its higher
correlation coefficient !1.+" in comparison with that !+.,,3D" of the .ower law model.
13
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
0
10
1
10
2
Shear rate (1/s)
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

(
P
o
i
s
e
)
Data
Bingham plastic
Power law
Figure 3.3-3 #ehavior of non-0ewtonian fluid.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.4 "he +agan-Poiseuille (,uation
e now consider the case of a 0ewtonian fluid flowing through a capillary. 2he shear rate-
shear stress relation

!r>" 1

r!
is substituted into equation !3.3-?" to obtain
Q 1
3
3
"

r!
r!

+
3
dr> 1
3
3
"

"
r!

+
)
1
3
3
"

)
)
"

Q 1

)
3

w 1

)
3
( )
L
P P
L o
'

1
( )
L
P P
L o

D
)

2he velocity profile inside the capillary can also be obtained by integrating equation !3.3-'"

r> 1
dr
dv
!
1
( )
L
r P P
L o
'

!3.3-'"
1)
r> 1
dr
dv
!
1
( )
L
r P P
L o
'

!3.3-'"

!
v
!
dv
+
1
( )
L
P P
L o
'

rdr
v! =
( )
L
P P
L o
)
'

1
1
]
1

,
_

'
1

r
()aple 3.4-1.
1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fou are as&ed to measure the viscosity of an emulsion, so you use a tube flow viscometer
similar to that shown below, with the container open to the atmosphere.
!
<
I
P
o
P
<
2he length of the tube is 1+ cm, its diameter is ' mm, and the diameter of the container is 3
in. hen the level of the sample is 1+ cm above the bottom of the container the emulsion
drains through the tube at a rate of 1' cm
3
4min, and when the level is '+ cm the flow rate is
3+ cm
3
4min. 2he emulsion density is 1.3 g4cm
3
. hat can you tell from the data about the
viscous properties of the emulsionG
*olution ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
:quation !3.3-3" provides a relation between the wall shear stress and the pressure drop
across the tube
w 1 r>Br1/ 1
'

d!
dP
1
( )
L
P P
L o
'

!3.3-3"
1
3arby, /., *hemical :ngineering Fluid -echanics, -arcel 3e&&er, '++1, p. D+
1=
2his equation is valid for any 0ewtonian or non-0ewtonian fluid. Po is essentially the
pressure at the bottom of the container and PC is the ambient pressure Patm. 2herefore
Po PC 1 'h
2he wall shear stress is then given by
w 1
L
'hd
)

where d is the inside diameter of the tube.

hen h 1 1+ cm, w1 1
" 1+ "! ) !
" ' . + "! 1+ "! ,D+ "! 3 . 1 !
1 ?3.( dyne4cm
'
hen h 1 '+ cm, w' 1
" 1+ "! ) !
" ' . + "! '+ "! ,D+ "! 3 . 1 !
1 1'(.) dyne4cm
'
$f the fluid is a 0ewtonian fluid then
Q 1

)
3

w
so that
1
'
Q
Q
1
1
'
(
(

1 '
From experimental data
exp
1
'

,
_

Q
Q
1
1'
3+
1 '.=
2herefore the viscosity at high shear rate is smaller than that at lower shear rate. 2he
emulsion is a shear thinning liquid.
1?