Artificail Retina Using Thin Film Technology

10/13/2014 artificail retina using thin film technology.
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(continued on next page)
A
lt hough liquid cryst al displays
(LCDs) have been available for over
half a cent ury, t hey were always
t aken as niche market product s because
of t heir rat her poor performance: small
viewing angles, long response t ime, and
lack of large-area panels. The sit uat ion has
changed drast ically since t he availabilit y
of t he act ive mat rix (AM) LCDs, specially
t he amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) t hin
film t ransist or (TFT) driven LCDs. For
example, worldwide revenue of t he TFT
LCD improved from about $1 billion in
1989 t o near $110 billion in 2012.
1
The
main producers expanded from Japan t o
t he surrounding Asia Pacific count ries, such
as Sout h Korea, Taiwan, and China. The
shipment of LCD TV unit s from 2011 t o
2012 was predict ed t o increase by 9% t o 225
million unit s.
2
In t he early mass product ion
st age, TFT LCDs were used in high price
product s, such as comput er monit ors, games,
and inst rument s. Lat er on, due t o t he gradual
mat urit y of t he product ion t echnology, TFT
LCDs were applied t o consumer elect ronics,
such as TVs and mobile phones. At t he
same t ime, researchers were invest igat ing
new t ypes of TFTs t o solve some of t he
int rinsic device performance or product ion
problems. Furt hermore, applicat ions of
TFTs beyond pixel driving in t he LCD have
been explored. Therefore, t his is a good
t ime t o review t he hist ory and progress of
t he TFT t echnology as well as t o predict
possible fut ure development t rends.
Pre Mass Production of Large-
Area TFT LCDsBefore 1990
The TFT is a field effect t ransist or (FET).
It s st ruct ure and operat ion principles are
similar t o t hose of t he met al oxide field
effect t ransist or (MOSFET), which is t he
most crit ical device component in modern
int egrat ed circuit s (ICs). The development
hist ories of TFTs and MOSFETs are similar,
as shown in Fig. 1. The met al insulat or
semiconduct or field effect t ransist or
(MISFET) concept ually was born in 1925.
3
The early popular TFT versions were made
of compound semiconduct ors, such as CdS
or CdSe.
4,5
This kind of TFT has a high field
effect mobilit y,
eff
, e.g., > 40 cm
2
/Vs. The
CdSe TFT LCD was first demonst rat ed in
1973.
5
However, mass product ion of t his
kind of LCD on large-area subst rat es has
never been realized. Among many possible
reasons, complicat ions in cont rolling t he
compound semiconduct or t hin film mat erial
propert ies and device reliabilit y over large
areas are oft en discussed.
Thin Film Transistor TechnologyPast, Present, and Future
by Yue Kuo
Fig . 1. History of TFT and IC development.
The breakt hrough in t he field came from
a report in 1979 of t he first funct ional TFT
made from hydrogenat ed amorphous silicon
(a-Si:H) wit h a silicon nit ride gat e dielect ric
layer.
6
Figure 2 shows t he (a) st ruct ure
and (b) t ransfer charact erist ics of t he first
a-Si:H TFT (6). The fabricat ion process
is simple and t he device is st able at room
t emperat ure under at mospheric condit ions.
The composing films were deposit ed by
plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposit ion
(PECVD), which can be easily carried out
on commercial, large-area, low-t emperat ure
glass subst rat es wit h high t hroughput .
The a-Si:H TFT has a
eff
< 1 cm
2
/Vs,
an off current (I
off
) of < 10
-12
Amp, an on-
off current rat io (I
on
/I
off
) of > 10
6
, a t hreshold
volt age (V
t
) of < 3 V, and a subt hreshold slope
(S) of < 0.5 V/dec. These charact erist ics are
good enough for pixel LC swit ching in a
display, which is t ypically operat ed at 120
Hz or less. There are a few drawbacks in
t he a-Si:H TFT device. First , t he mobilit y
is t oo low for high-speed or large-current
applicat ions, such as t he driving circuit of
t he display or t he pixel driving in t he organic
light emit t ing diode (OLED) display. Hence,
t he gat e and dat a signals of t he AM LCD
have t o be supplied by IC chips bonded t o
t he periphery of t he panel. Second, since
a-Si:H is a phot oconduct or, t he TFT has a
large leakage current under light exposure
condit ions. This problem is solved by
covering t he TFT wit h an opaque mat erial.
This light blocking mat erial is also prepared
int o a black mat rix form around all pixels t o
prevent light leakage from adjacent pixels.
Third, t he st abilit y of t he TFT,e.g., t he V
t
shift under ext ensive st ress condit ion, has
been a concern. Many st rat egies, such as t he
applicat ion of a reverse bias volt age, have
been used t o solve t he problem.
The a-Si:H TFT was recognized as t he
most suit able device for large-area AM
LCDs immediat ely aft er it s invent ion.
Almost all major elect ronics companies
in t he world have been involved in R&D
act ivit ies on t his device wit h t he common
goal of realizing mass product ion of high
performance flat panel displays. Figure 3
shows t he common st ruct ure of a TFT LCD.
The major composing element s are t he back
panel, an LC layer, a color filt er front panel,
polarizer layers, a back light , et c.
7
The back
panel cont ains a large number of pixels
connect ed wit h horizont al (gat e) and vert ical
(dat a) lines. Each pixel includes a TFT t o
which a charge st orage capacit or is at t ached.
In t he display area, t he panel size, which
10/13/2014 artificail retina using thin film technology.pdf
The Electrochemical Society Interface Spring 2013 55
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56 The Electrochemical SocietyInterface Spring 2013
Kuo
(continued from previous page)
is t he diagonal dimension of t he panel, is
commonly expressed in t he unit of inches.
Therefore, for t he rest of t his paper, in order
t o mat ch lit erat ure report s, t he size of t he
LCD is shown as inch inst ead of cm
or m. In t he mid-1980s, small size a-Si:H
TFT LCDs, e.g., 5-inch displays, were
available for games and inst rument s. In t he
lat e 1980s, t he Hosiden Company supplied
black and whit e TFT LCD panels t o Apple
Comput ers. However, t he first large-area,
color TFT LCDs, i.e., t he 10.4-inch VGA
(640 x 480 resolut ion) panels, were mass
produced by DTI (Display Technology
Inc.), which was a joint vent ure of IBM
and Toshiba. Around t he same t ime, ot her
companies, such as Sharp, Hit achi, NEC,
Mat sushit a, Sanyo, and ADI int roduced
similar product s. At t he same t ime, some
American and European companies and
universit ies were act ively involved in
R&D act ivit ies and great ly cont ribut ed t o
t he underst anding of t he device physics
and process t echnology. However, few
large-scale product ion facilit ies were built .
Therefore, t he era of mass-product ion of
large-area TFT arrays st art ed about t en years
aft er t he first publicat ion of t he a-Si:H TFT
paper.
F ig . 2. First a-Si:H TFT structure and transfer characteristics.
6
Technology development enabling
t he mass product ion of large-area TFT
LCDs was led by indust ry R&D groups
wit h many universit ies part icipat ing in t he
research act ivit ies. The supply chain for t he
complet e display product ion including LC
mat erials, process equipment s, drivers, and
associat ed mat erials was est ablished during
t his period of t ime. Because t he TFT array
is t he most crit ical part of t he AM LCD,
most R&D effort s were focused on solving
crit ical product ion challenges, such as t he
following.
Identification of the proper TFT
structures.Due t o t he flexibilit y
in t he t hin film deposit ion process,
TFTs can be prepared as various
st ruct ures, e.g., depending on t he
relat ive posit ion of t he gat e and t he
source/drain elect rodes and whet her a
channel passivat ion layer is required.
Based on experiment al result s and
elect rical charact erist ics, e.g., wit h
respect t o
eff
, I
off
, I
on
/I
off
, S, V
t
, and
reliabilit y, invert ed, st aggered bi- and
t ri-layer st ruct ures, as shown in Fig.
4a and 4b, were ident ified as most
suit able for t he a-Si:H TFT. On t he
ot her hand, t he coplanar st ruct ure, as
shown in Fig. 4c, was most suit ed for
t he poly-Si TFT device.
Understanding of basic device physics
and reliability.Modeling and
experiment al work has been carried
out ext ensively on TFTs fabricat ed
from different processes. Influences of
t he semiconduct or band st ruct ure, gat e
dielect ric defect s, int erface densit y of
st at es, et c. on device charact erist ics,
lifet ime, failure mechanism, et c.
were st udied. Solut ions t o t he long-
t erm device st abilit y,e.g., t he driving
met hods and bulk or int erface mat erial
propert ies, were ident ified.
Establishment of basic fabrication
processes and identification of large-
area production equipments.
Unit processes, such as PECVD,
RIE, sput t ering, and lit hography,
and subst rat e t ransfer and cleaning
met hods have been evaluat ed.
All processes were developed t o
sat isfy t he large-area product ion
requirement s, such as high deposit ion
rat e wit h good uniformit y, large et ch
select ivit y, and high st epper resolut ion
and t hroughput . Processes were
opt imized t hrough experiment s for
device performance and st abilit y. The
first generat ion glass subst rat e,e.g.,
30 cm x 40 cm, was used in equipment
design and product ion.
Page 3
Fig . 3. Schematic of a TFT LCD structure.
7
In cont rast t o t he IC indust ry, alt hough
t he general requirement s for t he device
charact erist ics and t hin film mat erial
propert ies have been ident ified in t his period
of t ime, different companies have chosen
TFT st ruct ures and developed t heir own,
cust omized deposit ion and et ching process
versions.
Mass Production and
Technology Advancement
1990 to 2010
Spurred by t he great success of t he
int roduct ion of TFT LCDs t o lapt op
comput ers, t he indust ry has focused it s
effort s on consumer product s, specifically
large-area TVs. For example, 55- t o 65-in
TFT LCD TVs are widely available on t he
market t oday. Most of t hese panels have
very high resolut ion, e.g., HD (1920 x
1080). The 108-in direct -view TFT LCD,
as shown in Fig. 5, was demonst rat ed by
Sharp in 2007.
8
A small share of product s,
e.g., small-size, high-resolut ion displays,
were fabricat ed based on poly-Si TFTs. At
t he same t ime, a number of medical X-ray
imagers were manufact ured based on large-
area a-Si:H TFT arrays. Technologies relat ed
t o t hese product s, such as LC or scint illat ion
mat erials and panel designs, have been
improved accordingly.
During t his period, indust ry act ivit ies
were focused on increasing t hroughput ,
lowering product ion cost , and enlarging
panel size. Product s were dominat ed
by a-Si:H TFTs. For example, t he main
achievement s include t he following.
Enlargement of the glass substrate
size.The glass subst rat e size has
been const ant ly enlarged, i.e., from
t he 1
st
generat ion of 30 cm x 40 cm
t o t he 10
th
generat ion of 2.88 m x 3.15
m. On average, t he subst rat e size was
increased at t he rat e of 30%/yr, which
is consist ent wit h t he growt h rat e of
t he wafer size in t he VLSIC indust ry.
9
It enables t he product ion of t he large-
size TFT array and t he inclusion of
a large number of displays on each
subst rat e, bot h of which lower t he
product ion cost and increase t he
product ion t hroughput . For example,
only t hree pieces of t he 32-in TFT
array can be fabricat ed on each 5
th
generat ion glass subst rat e while six
pieces of t he 65-in TFT array can be
built on each 10
th
generat ion glass
subst rat e. The t hickness of t he glass
subst rat e was reduced wit h t he increase
of t he subst rat e size. However, t he
size of t he glass subst rat e used in t he
indust ry has never been unified.
Evolution of production equipment.
TFT process equipment has evolved
for several generat ions t o adapt t o t he
enlargement of t he glass subst rat e and
t o improve t he process speed,e.g.,
wit h respect t o t he deposit ion rat e and
t he subst rat e handling t ime, and yield,
e.g., for less part icle generat ion and
bet t er surface cleaning.
Simplification of the fabrication
process.The TFT array product ion
t hroughput was improved by reducing
t he number of masking st eps,e.g.,
from seven t o five or four masks,
oft en in combinat ion wit h self-
aligned st ruct ure. At t he same t ime,
Page 4
Kuo
t he apert ure rat io of t he pixel, i.e.,
percent age of t he light t ransmission
area, was increased t hrough t he new
layout design or t he reduct ion of t he
crit ical dimension. The panels power
consumpt ion, bright ness, and cont rast
TFT repair met hod were disclosed,
which was crit ical t o high product ion
yields.
13
Recent ly, a plasma-based,
room-t emperat ure copper et ch process
was developed, which enabled t he
product ion of high-resolut ion, large-
area displays.
14,15
In t he same period of t ime, new TFTs
using delicat e and complicat ed laser
exposure t echniques.
18,19
Funct ional
driver circuit s and even complet e
syst em-on-glass,i.e., including t he
CPU, memories, and I/O circuit s,
have been demonst rat ed.
19
Separat ely, new funct ions or applicat ions
of TFTs have been report ed. For example,
t he a-Si:H TFT has been made int o a
rat io were improved accordingly.
Knowledge of the large-area process
chemistry, physics, and limits.
For example, mat erial propert ies
of t he slight ly N-rich SiN
x
gat e
dielect ric for t he low V
t
a-SiH TFT
was ident ified.
10
This informat ion
could short en t he st art -up t ime of a
new product ion line. In addit ion, t he
complicat ed relat ionship among t he
PECVD process, t he SiN
x
propert ies,
and t he large-area film t hickness
uniformit y were delineat ed using t he
crit ical power concept .
11
This result
det ermined t he pract ical achievable
deposit ion rat e. Separat ely, high et ch
select ivit y bet ween t he n
+
and t he
int rinsic a-Si:H was achieved wit h t he
Cl-based RIE process.
12
This process
increased t he yield and broadened
t he process window of t he bi-layer
TFT. Furt hermore, radiat ion damage
mechanism of t he RIE process and t he
wit h applicat ions beyond pixel driving in t he
LCD panel have been report ed, as shown in
t he following t wo cat egories.
Advancement of Si-based TFT
technology.Alt hough progress
of t he large-area poly-Si TFTs
fabricat ion lags behind t hat of t he
a-Si:H TFT count erpart , t here were
cont inuous effort s in breaking t he
t echnology bot t leneck. For example,
t he convent ional a-Si-t o-poly-Si
cryst allizat ion process was rest rict ed
by t he high t hermal budget or t he long
process t ime. To solve t his problem,
met al-induced cryst allizat ion and
pulsed rapid t hermal annealing
met hods have been int roduced.
16,17
The formers process speed is st ill t oo
slow, e.g., > 10 hours at 500C, and t he
lat t ers grain qualit y can be improved.
On t he ot her hand, report s have
emerged of fabricat ing TFTs on high
qualit y poly-Si t hin films prepared
nonvolat ile memory device using t he
float ing-gat e st ruct ure.
20
Also, TFT-based
chemical, elect rical, opt ical, biological,
and magnet ic sensors or det ect ors have
been demonst rat ed by alt ering t he t ransist or
st ruct ures, composit ion of t he t hin films,
at t ached devices, et c., as shown in Table I.
Alternative semiconductor materials
for TFTs.There are const ant effort s
in searching for new t ypes of TFTs t o
improve performance or t o lower t he
product ion cost s of Si-based TFTs.
For example, alt hough t he a-Si:H TFT
arrays are rout inely manufact ured
at low t emperat ures,e.g., 300C, t he
crit ical st eps are done wit h vacuum
processes,i.e., PECVD, sput t ering,
and RIE. If t hey are replaced wit h non-
vacuum processes, t he product ion cost
may be furt her reduced. On t he ot her
hand, t here is lack of an effect ive
large-area product ion process for t he
high mobilit y wit h good reliabilit y
Fig . 4. TFTs with inverted staggered (a) tri-layer and (b) bi-layer structures, and (c) coplanar structure.
Page 5
qualit y inorganic gat e dielect ric mat erials
are used in most OTFTs. The high mobilit y
OTFT oft en requires a large driving volt age,
e.g., > 60V. There are many research effort s
in solving t hese problems. On t he ot her
hand, t here is great flexibilit y in t ailoring
organic molecules,e.g., including various
funct ional groups t o t he backbone or side
chains, which is desirable for many sensing
and flexible elect ronic applicat ions.
Amorphous and cryst alline met al oxide
TFTs (oxide TFTs), especially t hose based on
ZnO semiconduct or mat erial, have at t ract ed
t remendous at t ent ion in recent years.
23,24
They usually have high field mobilit ies
and can be fabricat ed wit h t he sput t ering
met hod. The complet e oxide TFT can be
poly-Si TFT. If a new t ype of TFT
t hat has t he high mobilit y and can be
fabricat ed wit h a low t hermal budget ,
it can replace t he poly-Si TFT in many
applicat ions.
The organic TFT (OTFT), which is a
p-channel t ransist or, has been proposed as
an alt ernat ive t o t he a-Si:H TFT because
t he polymeric semiconduct or t hin film can
be spin-coat ed, print ed, or cast ed on t he
subst rat e at room t emperat ure wit hout using
vacuum equipment . There are many choices
for organic semiconduct or mat erials, some
of which have been made int o TFTs wit h
higher field effect mobilit ies t han t hat of t he
a-Si:H TFT.
21,22
However, t here exist many
challenges in t his area. To achieve good
TFT charact erist ics, t he organic molecules
need t o be aligned well at t he int erface or
formed int o large, low-defect grains, which
is not t rivial work. Usually, OTFTs made of
small organic molecules, such as pent acene,
have bet t er charact erist ics t han t hose made
of large molecule polymers. The small
organic molecules are deposit ed by t he
vacuum met hod, such as t hermal or e-beam
evaporat ion. The st abilit y of t he OTFT in
t he air is anot her common concern. These
challenges may become more serious when
TFTs are fabricat ed in an array form on t he
large-area subst rat e. Addit ionally, high-
t ransparent when t he source, drain, and
gat e elect rodes are made of ITO or similar
t ypes of t ransparent conduct ors. Many high
mobilit y oxide TFTs have large leakage
current s,e.g., I
off
> 10
10
A. Low values for
I
off
have been obt ained for In- and Ga-doped
ZnO,i.e., IGZO, TFT, which has a mobilit y
about one order of magnit ude larger t han
t hat of a-Si:H TFT. Nevert heless, t his kind
of mobilit y is high enough for some circuit
applicat ions or t o drive t he OLED.
Oxide TFTs are sensit ive t o humidit y,
ambient at mosphere, light , and t he st orage
t ime. These problems could be solved wit h
proper process condit ions and an adequat e
passivat ion (and light blocking) layer.
Oxide TFTs have also been prepared using
t he solut ion spin coat ing met hod but t heir
device charact erist ics are not as good as
t hose prepared from t he sput t er deposit ion
met hod. Since t he doped oxide cont ains
mult iple component s, t he process window
for high performance TFTs can be narrow.
For LCD pixel driving in t he large-area panel,
from process cont rol and cost point -of-view,
it will be a serious challenge t o replace t he
a-Si:H TFT wit h oxide TFT. However, since
Fig . 5. 108-in (93.9 in x 52.9 in) TFT LCD with 1,920 x 1,080 resolution made by Sharp and
demonstrated at the Computer Electronics Show, January 8-11, 2007.
8
Table I. Applications of TFTs in non-LCD applications.
TFTArea Functi ons Pri nci pl es of operati on
Gat e dielect ric pH sensing H
+
adsorpt ion in suspended gat e dielect ric st ruct ure
Memory PZT gat e dielect ric
Semiconduct or Gas sensing H
2
O, alcohols, N
2
O adsorpt ion on semiconduct or layer
IR det ect ion I
d
= f(t emperat ure)
Gat e elect rode Gas sensing H
2
decomposit ion on Pd gat e elect rode
Bio sensing Biomolecule react ion wit h agent s on gat e elect rode
S/D elect rodes Prot ein/DNA analysis Cont act resist ance change due t o biomolecule adsorpt ion
Art ificial ret ina Phot oconduct ivit y change on at t ached a-Si:H layer
X-ray imaging Scint illat or light emission on at t ached diode
LEDs Quant um dot light emission
St ruct ures Phot o sensing I
light
/I
dark
rat io enhanced by split or offset gat e
Memory Float ing-gat e dielect ric
Magnet ic Hall effect s due t o addit ional elect rodes
Page 6
Kuo
oxide TFTs can be used in bot h pixel driving
and periphery drivers, t he panel product ion
cost can be low if reliabilit y is not a concern.
High mobilit y oxide TFT is also useful in
many non-display applicat ions.
Future TFT Development
TrendsAfter 2010
Since most of t he TV market in t he world
is st ill occupied by CRTs, t here is plent y
of growt h space for TFT LCDs. Therefore,
displays will be t he main driving force for
t he advancement of t he TFT t echnology
in t he foreseeable fut ure. Alt hough t he
performance of current TFT LCDs is
sat isfact ory for most consumers, t he
product ion cost s can be furt her reduced. For
t he TFT array fabricat ion part , t his means
a cont inuous push for higher yield and
t hroughput . The current t rends in reducing
t he masking st eps, short ening each unit
t he ot her hand, wit h proper t ailoring
of t he subst rat e mat erial or st ruct ure,
a-Si:H, poly-Si, or oxide TFTs may
be made int o flexible elect ronics wit h
high reliabilit y.
Integrated circuits.Inst ead of
compet ing wit h single cryst al Si
based ICs on a small die size, TFTs
can be made int o logic, memory, and
I/O circuit s int egrat ed wit h sensors,
imagers, displays, et c. on large
subst rat es. However, since t he circuit
requirement s are more st ringent t han
t hose of t he pixel wit h respect t o
densit y, defect s, int erconnect ions,
et c., t he manufact uring challenges
will reside wit h process yield and
economy. Poly-Si or oxide TFTs
are necessary for high speed and
low power consumpt ion circuit
applicat ions.
Sensors, detectors, LED, etc.TFTs
of various st ruct ures and composing
mat erials can be easily modified or
Addit ionally, organic and oxide TFTs
have been st udied as possible alt ernat ives
for Si-based TFTs for lowering product ion
cost s or for improving carrier mobilit y. In
t he near fut ure, advances in TFT t echnology
will probably st ill be driven by t he LCD
indust ry. However, new TFT product s in
t he areas of flexible elect ronics, int egrat ed
circuit s, sensors, et c. may be realized
once out st anding challenges are resolved.
In summary, t he TFT is a versat ile solid
st at e t ransist or configurat ion t hat can be
applied t o a wide range of product s wit h
few const raint s on subst rat e size or mat erial
choice.
About the Author
Yue Kuo is t he Dow Professor of Chemical
Engineering, wit h a joint appoint ment in
Elect rical Engineering, Mat erials Science,
and Engineering, at Texas A&M Universit y,
where he est ablished t he renowned Thin
Film Nano & Microelect ronics Research
Laborat ory in 1998. Previously, he spent
process t ime, widening process windows,
and eliminat ing sources of cont aminat ion,
will cont inue. The cost , yield, and reliabilit y
of t he large-area array process will det ermine
if oxide TFT can replace a-Si:H TFT for
LCD applicat ions.
It is difficult t o predict in which areas or
product s, i.e., beyond LCDs, TFTs will have
big impact in t he fut ure. However, all new
development s will be based on t he unique
charact erist ics of TFTs. For example, TFTs
can be fabricat ed on various t ypes of rigid
or flexible subst rat es, i.e., t here is no need
for an (expensive) single cryst al wafer.
There is no limit t o t he size or mat erial
propert ies of t he subst rat e as long as it can
st and t he fabricat ion process environment .
In addit ion, TFTs can be made from a
wide range of semiconduct or and dielect ric
mat erials. The st ruct ure and shape of t he
TFT are also adjust able. Furt hermore, TFTs
can have low or high field effect mobilit ies,
e.g., from < 1 t o > 600 cm
2
/Vs, depending
on t he mat erial, st ruct ure, and fabricat ion
process. The following are some key impact
areas for TFTs.
Flexible electronics.TFTs formed
on bendable subst rat es, e.g., polymers
or met als, can be used in displays,
imagers, art ificial prost hesis,
inst rument s, et c. Depending on t he
specific applicat ion, t he requirement
for t he mobilit y may be low or high.
There are many demonst rat ions t hat
TFTs can be successfully fabricat ed
on large, flexible subst rat es using t he
vacuum or non-vacuum processes.
Nevert heless, t he major challenge is
reliabilit y, especially det eriorat ion
of t he device charact erist ics wit h
respect t o t he bending curvat ure and
frequency. Organic TFTs may be more
advant ageous t han inorganic TFTs
due t o t heir flexible morphology. On
connect ed t o ot her devices t o det ect
or generat e changes of chemical,
biological, opt ical, magnet ic,
radioact ive, and ot her propert ies
t hrough cont rolling t he t ransport of
charge carriers, emission of phot ons,
et c. The device can be embedded in
solid, liquid, or gaseous environment s.
Alt hough t his area has been
explored for many years, more new
applicat ions can st ill be discovered
wit h t he inclusion of nanodot s or
one-dimensional nanomat erials (i.e.,
nanowires) in t he st ruct ure.
Summary
The hist ory of TFT development is as old
as t hat of t he modern MOSFET. In spit e of
early demonst rat ions of funct ional devices
and product s, t he t echnology enjoyed great
success only aft er t he first report of a-Si:H
TFTs prepared by t he PECVD process.
Fabricat ion of large-area TFT arrays on low
t emperat ure subst rat es has evolved wit h a
high t hroughput but at low cost . In t he past
20 years, t here have been great advances in
TFT device physics, mat erial propert ies, and
fabricat ion processes. The worldwide TFT
LCD market has grown t o about $110 billion
in 2012. The current TFT applicat ion is
mainly for pixel driving in large-area LCDs.
The TFT archit ect ure has also been used in
product s such as medical X-ray imagers and
mobile consumer goods.
Indust ry R&D act ivit ies have been
aiming at improving t he cost , yield, and
t hroughput of large-area panels. Academic
research in many universit ies has helped
in t he underst anding of mat erial propert ies
responsible for t he TFT performance as well
as t he underlying chemist ry and physics of
t he fabricat ion processes. At t he same t ime,
a large number of new applicat ions in non-
LCD areas have been report ed.
t wo decades in indust ry R&D at IBM T.
J. Wat son Research Cent er and in Silicon
Valley. His honors include Fellow of The
Elect rochemical Societ y, Fellow of IEEE,
t he ECS Elect ronics and Phot onics Award,
t he Dist inguished Research Achievement
Award of Associat ion of Former St udent s
of Texas A&M Universit y, IBM awards,
honorary professorships, plenary/keynot e/
invit ed speeches, and numerous most -
cit ed, downloaded, and highlight ed papers.
His t wo-volume TFT book is popular in
universit ies and indust ry. His research
has result ed in many world records and
breakt hroughs on TFTs and ULSICs wit h a
broad impact on indust ry. He has served as
an Associat e Edit or for ECS journals and is
now t he Technical Edit or for t he Technical
Int erest Area of Elect ronic and Phot onic
Devices and Syst ems for t heECS Journal of
Solid State Science and Technologyand ECS
Solid State Letters. He received his Dr. Eng.
Sci. from Columbia Universit y. He may be
reached at yuekuo@t amu.edu.
References
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The following volumes are sponsored by ECS, and published by John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. They should be ordered from: ECS, 65 South Main St., Pennington, NJ
08534-2839, USA orwww.electrochem.org/dl/bookstore.htm.
Uhlig's Corrosion Handbook (3
rd
Edition)
by R. Winston Revie (2011)
1288 pages. ISBN 978-0-470-08032-0
Modern Electroplating (5
th
Edition)
by M. Schlesinger and M. Paunovic (2010)
736 pages. ISBN 978-0-470-16778-6
Fuel Cells: Problems and Solutions
by V. Bagotsky (2009)
320 pages. ISBN 978-0-470-23289-7
Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
by M. E. Orazem and B. Tribollet (2008)
524 pages. ISBN 978-0-470-04140-6
Fundamentals of Electrochemical Deposition
(2
nd
Edition)
by M. Paunovic and M. Schlesinger (2006)
373 pages. ISBN 978-0-471-71221-3
THE ELECTROCHEMICAL SOCIETY
MOnOgRAPH SERIES
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(2001).
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Zhao, R. Li, D. Cha, A. Amassian,
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ECS Members will receive a discount. All prices subject to change without notice.
Fundamentals of Electrochemistry (2
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Edition)
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Edition)
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10/13/2014 artificail retina using thin film technology.

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