Chap2 PDF

1
Chapter 2 Continuous-Wave
Modulation
Analog Modulation is the subject
concerned in this chapter.
Po-Ning Chen@ece.nctu Chapter 2-2
2.1 Introduction
! Analog communication system
" The most common carrier is the sinusoidal wave.
Carrier wave
(Analog)
2
2.1 Introduction
! Modulation
" A process by which some characteristic of a carrier
is varied in accordance with a modulating wave
(baseband signal).
! Sinusoidal Continuous-Wave (CW) modulation
" Amplitude modulation
" Angle modulation
2.1 Introduction
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Baseband signal
Sinusoidal carrier
3
2.2 Double-Sideband with Carrier or simply
Amplitude Modulation
" Two required conditions on amplitude sensitivity
! 1 + k
a
m(t) ! 0, which is ensured by |k
a
m(t)| 1.
" The case of |k
a
m(t)| > 1 is called overmodulation.
" The value of |k
a
m(t)| is sometimes represented by
percentage (because it is limited by 1), and is named (|k
a
m(t)|
"100)% modulation.
! f
c
>> W, where W is the message bandwidth.
" Violation of this condition will cause nonvisualized envelope.
index modulation or y sensitivit amplitude is where
), 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) ( Signal Modulated
) ( Baseband
) 2 cos( ) ( Carrier
a
c a c
c c
k
t f t m k A t s
t m
f A t c
!
!
+ =
=
2.2 Overmodulation
overmodulaion
1 | ) ( | ! t m k
a
4
2.2 Example of Non-Visualized Envelope
2.2 Example of Visualized Envelope
5
2.2 Transmission Bandwidth
[ ] [ ] ) ( ) (
2
) ( ) (
2
) (
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
c c
c a
c c
c
c a c
f f M f f M
A k
f f f f
A
f S
t f t m k A t s
+ + ! + + + ! = "
+ =
# #
$
2W
Transmission bandwidth B
T
= 2W.
! Transmission bandwidth of an AM wave
" For positive frequencies, the highest frequency
component of the AM wave equals f
c
+ W, and the
lowest frequency component equals f
c
W.
" The difference between these two frequencies
defines the transmission bandwidth B
T
for an AM
wave.
6
" The condition of f
c
> W ensures that the sidebands
do not overlap.
2.2 Negative Frequency
! Operational meaning of negative frequency
in spectrum
" If time-domain signal is real-valued, the negative
frequency spectrum is simply a mirror of the
positive frequency spectrum.
" We may then define a one-sided spectrum as
" Hence, if only real-valued signal is considered, it is
unnecessary to introduce negative frequency.
. 0 for ) ( 2 ) (
sided - one
! = f f S f S
7
" So the introduction of negative frequency part is
due to the need of imaginary signal part.
" Signal phase information is embedded in imaginary
signal part of the signal.
phase
m
I
(t)
m
Q
(t)
" As a result, the following two spectrums contain the
same frequency components but different phases
(90 degree shift in complex plane).
f
c
f
c
- f
c
- f
c
) (
c
f f ! " ) (
c
f f + !
) (
c
f f ! "
) (
c
f f + !"
) 2 cos( 2 t f
c
!
) 2 sin( 2 t f j
c
!
8
! Summary
" Complex-valued baseband signal consists of
information of amplitude and phase; while real-
valued baseband signal only contains amplitude
information.
" One-sided spectrum only bears amplitude
information, while two-sided spectrum (with
negative frequency part) carries also phase
information.
2.2 Virtues of Amplitude Modulation
! AM receiver can be implemented in terms of simple
circuit with inexpensive electrical components.
" E.g., AM receiver
)] 4 cos( 1 [ )] ( 1 [
2
) 2 ( cos )] ( 1 [ ) ( ) (
2
2
2 2 2 2
1
t f t m k
A
t f t m k A t s t v
c a
c
c a c
!
!
+ + =
+ = =
9
" The bandwidth of m
2
(t) is twice of m(t). (So to
speak, the bandwidth of m(f)*m(f) is twice of m(f).)
Lowpass filter
" So if 2f
c
> 4W,
) (
2
mean zero is ) ( if
)] ( 1 [
2
) (
)] ( 1 [
2
) (
block DC
3
2
2
2
t m
k A
t m
t m k
A
t v
t m k
A
t v
a c
a
c
a
c
!
+ = !
+ = !
By means of a squarer, the receiver can recover the information-
bearing signal without the need of a local carrier.
10
2.2 Limitations of Amplitude Modulation
(DSB-C)
! Wasteful of power and bandwidth
Waste of power in the information-less with-carrier part.
) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos(
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
carrier with
t f t m k t f A
t f t m k A t s
c a c c
c a c
! !
!
+ =
+ =
! !" ! !# $
2.2 Limitations of Amplitude Modulation
! Wasteful of power and bandwidth
Only requires half of bandwidth after modulation
11
2.3 Linear Modulation
! Definition
" Both s
I
(t) and s
Q
(t) in
s(t) = s
I
(t)cos(2#f
c
t) s
Q
(t) sin(2#f
c
t)

are linear function of m(t).
2.3 Linear Modulation
! For a single real-valued m(t), three types of
modulations can be identified according to
how s
Q
(t) are linearly related to m(t), at the
case that s
I
(t) is exactly m(t):
! (Some modulation may have m
I
(t) and m
Q
(t) that
respectively bear independent information.)
1. Double SideBand-Suppressed Carrier modulation
(DSB-SC)
2. Single SideBand (SSB) modulation
3. Vestigial SideBand (VSB) modulation
12
2.3 DSB-SC and SSB
Type of modulation s
I
(t) s
Q
(t)
DSB-SC m(t) 0
SSB m(t) Upper side band transmission
SSB m(t) Lower side band transmission
) ( t m
) ( t m !
DSB-SC
SSB
SSB
) ( of ansform Hilbert tr ) ( * t m t m =
usb
lsb
, which is used to completely suppress the other sideband.
2.3 DSB-SC
! Different from DSB-C, DSB-SC s(t) undergoes
a phase reversal whenever m(t) crosses zero.
) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f t m t s
c
! =
Require a receiver that can
recognize the phase reversal!
13
2.3 Coherent Detection for DSB-SC
! For DSB-SC, we can no longer use the envelope
detector (as used for DSB-C), in which no local
carrier is required for the receiver.
! The coherent
detection or
synchronous
demodulation
becomes
necessary.
. provided
), ( ) cos(
2
1
'
W f
t m A A
c
c c
LowPass
>
! "
) ( ) cos(
2
1
) ( ) 4 cos(
2
1
) ( ) 2 cos( ) 2 cos(
) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
' '
'
'
t m A A t m t f A A
t m t f t f A A
t s t f A t v
c c c c c
c c c c
c c
! ! "
! " "
! "
+ + =
+ =
+ =
14
" Quadrature null effect of the coherent detector.
! If ! = #/2 or #/2, the output of coherent detector for DSB-
SC is nullified.
" If ! is not equal to either #/2 or #/2, the output of coherent
detector for DSB-SC is simply attenuated by a factor of
cos(!), if ! is a constant, independent of time.
" However, in practice, ! often varies with time; therefore, it is
necessary to have an additional mechanism to maintain the
local carrier in the receiver in perfect synchronization with
the local carrier in the transmitter.
" Such an additional mechanism adds the system complexity of
the receiver.
2.3 Costas Receiver for DSB-SC
! An exemplified
design of
synchronization
mechanism is the
Costas receiver,
where two
coherent
detectors are
used.
In-phase coherent detector
Quadrature-phase coherent detector
15
2.3 Costas Receiver for DSB-SC
! Conceptually, the Costas receiver adjusts the
phase ! so that it is close to 0.
" When ! drifts away from 0, the Q-channel output
will have the same polarity as the I-channel output
for one direction of phase drift, and opposite
polarity for another direction of phase drift.
" The phase discriminator then adjusts ! through the
voltage controlled oscillator.
-pi/2 0 pi/2
) sin(!
) cos(!
2.3 Single-Sideband Modulation
! How to generate SSB signal?
" 1. Product modulator to generate DSB-SC signal
" 2. Band-pass filter to pass only one of the sideband
and suppress the other.
! The above technique may not be applicable to a
DSB-SC signal like below. Why?
SSB
filter filter
16
! For the generation of an SSB modulated signal
to be possible, the message spectrum must have
an energy gap centered at the origin.
! Example of signal with -300 Hz ~ 300 Hz
energy gap
" Voice : A band of 300 to 3100 Hz gives good
articulation
! Also required for SSB modulation is a highly
selective filter
17
! Phase synchronization is also an important
issue for SSB demodulation. This can be
achieved by:
" Either a separate low-power pilot carrier
" Or a highly stable local oscillator (for voice
transmission)
! Phase distortion that gives rise to a Donald Duck voice
effect is relatively insensitive to human ear.
2.3 Vestigial Sideband Modulation
! Instead of transmitting only one sideband as
SSB, VSB modulation transmits a partially
suppressed sideband and a vestige of the other
sideband.
18
SSB
VSB
Still, no information loss in principle.
2.3 Requirements for VSB filter
1. The sum of values of the magnitude response |H(f)| at any
two frequencies equally displaced above and below f
c
is
unity. I.e., |H(f
c
- f)| + |H(f
c
+ f)| = 1 for -f
v
< f < f
v
.
2. H(f - f
c
) + H(f + f
c
) = 1 for -W

< f < W.
f
c
-f
c
So the transmission band of VSB filter is B
T
= W + f
v
.
f

f+f
c
f-f
c
19
2.3 Generation of VSB Signal
! Analysis of VSB
" Give a real baseband signal m(t) of bandwidth W.
! Then,
" Let where
. | | for 0 ) ( and ) ( ) (
*
W f f M f M f M > = = !
, 2 / ] / ) ( 1 )[ ( ) ( j f H f M f M
Q VSB
+ =
). ( ) ( and ,
0 , 0
0 ), 1 , 0 (
, 1
) (
1
*
f H f H
f
f f
f f
f H
j
Q Q v
v
Q
= !
"
#
"
$
%
=
< < ! &
! '
=
The filter is denoted by H
Q
is because it is used to generate s
Q
(t) (cf. slide Chapter 2-23)
2.3 Generation of VSB Signal
1.0
-W
) (
1
) ( f H
j
f L
Q Q
=
). (
) ( ) (
1
) (
1
) (
1
) ( real. is ) (
1
) (
*
*
*
f L
f L f H
j
f H
j
f H
j
f L f H
j
f L
Q
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
! =
! =
"
#
$
%
&
'
! = = ! = ! ( =
2 / ) (
1
1 2 / )] ( 1 [
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
+ = + f H
j
f L
Q Q
20
2.3 How to recover from VSB signal?
( )
( )
( )
). ( ) ( because ), (
)] ( ) ( 2 )[ (
2
1

) ( ) ( and real, is )] ( 1 [ since
, )] ( 1 )[ ( )] ( 1 )[ (
2
1

)] ( 1 )[ ( )] ( 1 )[ (
2
1

) ( ) (
*
*
f L f L f M
f L f L f M
f M f M f L
f L f M f L f M
f L f M f L f M
f M f M
Q Q
Q Q
Q
Q Q
Q Q
VSB VSB
! = ! =
! + + =
= ! ! +
! + + + =
! + ! + + =
! +
"
"
2.3 VSB upper sideband transmission
!
!
"
#
$ %
+ $ +
& + ' ' $ + $ +
+ $ '
(
(
)
*
+ +
& + $ ' ' $ $ + =
!
!
"
#
(
(
)
*
+ $ +
+ $ +
+ +
+ =
$ + + =
+ $ + + = $ + + =
} {
2
)] ( 1 [
} { ) (
} {
2
)] ( 1 [
} { ) (
2
1
2
)] ( 1 [
) (
2
)] ( 1 [
) (
2
1
2 / )] ( ) ( [ ) (
2 / )] ( ) ( [ 2 / )] ( ) ( [ ) (
*
*
*
*
W f f
f f L
W f f W f f f M
W f f
f f L
W f f W f f f M
f f L
f f M
f f L
f f M
f f M f f M f s
f f M f f M f f M f f M f s
c
c Q
c c c
c
c Q
c c c
c Q
c
c Q
c
c VSB c VSB VSB
c c c c DSB
1 1
1 1
) (t m
VSB
) (t s
VSB
21
( )
( )
( )
( ) ) ( ) ( 2
2
1
) (
} { )] ( 1 [ } { )] ( 1 [
2
1
) (
} {
2
)] ( 1 [
} {
2
)] ( 1 [
) (
} {
2
)] ( 1 [
} {
2
)] ( 1 [

) ( ) (
2
1
} {
2
)] ( 1 [
} {
2
)] ( 1 [

} { ) ( } { ) (
2
1
*
*
cont.
c Q c Q DSB
c c Q c c Q DSB
c
c Q
c
c Q
DSB
c
c Q
c
c Q
c c
c
c Q
c
c Q
c c c c c c
f f L f f L f s
W f f f f L W f f f f L f s
W f f
f f L
W f f
f f L
f s
W f f
f f L
W f f
f f L
f f M f f M
W f f
f f L
W f f
f f L
W f f W f f f M W f f W f f f M
+ ! + + + " =
# + ! + ! + + # + + + " =
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
! *
+ ! +
+ + ! #
+ +
" =
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
! *
+ ! +
+ + ! #
+ +
"
+ ! + + =
$
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
! *
+ ! +
+ + ! #
+ +
"
+ # # ! + ! + + ! # # ! ! + =
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
(See next slide.)
. 0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( if
)] ( ) ( )][ ( ) ( [ ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
= =
+ + = +
f F f M f F f M
f F f F f M f M f F f M f F f M
L R R L
R L R L R R L L
} { )] ( 1 [ W f f f f L
c c Q
! + + + 1
} { )] ( 1 [ W f f f f L
c c Q
! + " + " + 1
2
2
2
} { )] ( 1 [
} { )] ( 1 [
W f f f f L
W f f f f L
c c Q
c c Q
! + " + " + +
! + + +
1
1
) (
c Q
f f L +
) (
c Q
f f L + !
1
1
2
2 ) ( ) ( + + ! + +
c Q c Q
f f L f f L
Chapter 2-42
22
( )
!
"
!
#
$
=
+ + % + + =
) ( ) ( ) (
2 ) ( ) (
2
1
) ( ) (
f H f s f s
f f L f f L f s f s
DSB VSB
c Q c Q DSB VSB
( ) 2 ) ( ) (
2
1
) ( + + ! + + = "
c Q c Q
f f L f f L f H
Consequently,
1
) ( f H
1
) (
c
f f H !
-1
) (
c
f f H + !
1
) ( ) (
c c
f f H f f H + ! !
23
1
) ( ) (
c c
f f H f f H + ! !
W f f f H f f H j f H
W f f f H f f H f L
c c Q
c c Q
! + " " = #
! + " " = #
| | for )] ( ) ( [ ) (
| | for ) ( ) ( ) (
2.3 Mathematical Representation of VSB
signal
) ( '
2
1
) (
2
1
) ( ) (
2
1
) (
2
1
2 / )] ( 1 )[ ( ) (
f jM f M
f H f jM f M
f jH f M f M
Q
Q VSB
+ =
! =
! =
). ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ' where f L f jM f H f M f M
Q Q
! = ! =
. )] ( ' [ )] ( ) ( [ ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( '
* * * * *
*
f M f L f jM f L f M j
f L f jM f L f jM f M
Q Q
Q Q
= ! = ! =
= ! ! ! = !
Transform. Hilbert of extension an is This real. is ) ( ' Notably, t m
24
2.3 Application of VSB Modulation
! Television Signals
1. The video signal exhibits a large bandwidth and
significant low-frequency content.
! Hence, no energy gap exists (SSB becomes
impractical).
! VSB modulation is adopted to save bandwidth.
! Notably, since a rigid control of the transmission VSB
filter at the very high-power transmitter is expensive, a
not-quite VSB modulation is used instead (a little
waste of bandwidth to save cost).
VSB Filter for Television Signal Transmissions
55.25 MHz 59.75 MHz
25
! As the transmission signal is not quite VSB modulated,
the receiver needs to re-shape the received signal
before feeding it to a VSB demodulator.
2. In order to save the cost of the receiver (in order to
use envelope detector at the receiver), an additional
carrier is added.
! Notably, additional carrier does not increase
bandwidth, but just add transmission power.
( )
) 2 sin( ) ( '
2
1
) 2 cos( ) (
2
1
1
) 2 sin( ) ( ' ) 2 cos( ) (
2
1
) 2 cos( ) (
t f t m A k t f t m k A
t f t m t f t m k A t f A t s
c c a c a c
c c a c c c
! !
! ! !
"
#
$
%
&
'
+ =
+ =
26
! Distortion of envelope detector
!
!
!
"
#
$
$
$
%
&
+
'
(
)
*
+
,
+ -
'
(
)
*
+
,
+
+
'
(
)
*
+
,
+ =
!" !# $
Distortion
2 2
2
2
LowPass
2
2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2
)) ( ' (
4
1
) (
2
1
1
2
1
) 2 cos( ) 2 sin( ) (
2
1
1 ) ( '
2
1
) 2 ( sin )) ( ' (
4
1
) 2 ( cos ) (
2
1
1 ) (
t m k t m k A
t f t f t m k t m A k
t f t m A k t f t m k A t s
a a c
c c a c a
c c a c a c
. .
. .
The distortion can be compensated by reducing the amplitude
sensitivity k
a
or increasing the width of the vestigial sideband. Both
methods are used in the design of Television broadcasting system.
2.3 Extension Usage of DSB-SC
! Quadrature-Carrier Multiplexing or Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Synchronization is critical in QAM modulation, which is often achieved by a
separate low-power pilot tone outside the passband of the modulated signal.
27
2.4 Frequency Translation
! The basic operation of SSB modulation is simply a
special case of frequency translation.
" So SSB modulation is sometimes referred to as frequency
changing, mixing, or heterodyning.
" The mixer is a device that consists of a product modulator
followed by a band-pass filter, which is exactly what SSB
modulation does.
2.4 Frequency Translation
! The process is named
upconversion, if f
1
+ f
is the wanted signal,
and f
1
f is the
unwanted image
signal.
! The process is named
downconversion, if f
1
-
f is the wanted
signal, and f
1
+ f is
the unwanted image
signal.
28
2.5 Frequency-Division Multiplexing
! Multiplexing is a technique to combine a
number of independent signals into a composite
signal suitable for transmission.
! Two conventional multiplexing techniques
" Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)
" Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
! Will be discussed in Chapter 3.
2.5 Frequency-Division Multiplexing
29
Example 2.1
2.6 Angle Modulation
! Angle modulation
" The angle of the carrier is varied in accordance with
the baseband signal.
! Angle modulation provides us with a practical
means of exchanging channel bandwidth for
improved noise performance.
" So to speak, angle modulation can provide better
discrimination against noise and interference than
the amplitude modulation, at the expense of
increased transmission bandwidth.
30
! Commonly used angle modulation
" Phase modulation (PM)
" Frequency modulation (FM)
y. sensitivit phase is where )], ( 2 cos[ ) (
p p c c
k t m k t f A t s + = !
[ ]
[ ]
y. sensitivit frequency is re whe
, ) ( 2 2 cos
)) ( ( 2 cos ) (
0
0
f
t
f c c
t
f c c
k
d m k t f A
d m k f A t s
!
!
+ =
+ =
" " # #
" " #
! Main differences between Amplitude
Modulation and Angle Modulation
1. Zero crossing spacing of angle modulation no
longer has a perfect regularity as amplitude
modulation does.
2. Angle modulated signal has constant envelope; yet,
the envelope of amplitude modulated signal is
dependent on the message signal.
31
! Similarity between PM and FM
" PM is simply an FM with in place of m(t).
" Hence, the text only discusses FM in this chapter.
!
t
d m
0
) ( " "
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
'
t
f c c FM
d m k t f A t s
0
) ( 2 2 cos ) ( ( ( ) )
)] ( 2 cos[ ) ( t m k t f A t s
p c c PM
+ = !
2.7 Frequency Modulation
! s(t) of FM modulation is a non-linear function of m(t).
! So its general analysis is hard.
! To simplify the analysis, we may assume a single-tone
transmission, where
) 2 cos( ) ( t f A t m
m m
! =
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
!
"
#
$
%
&
=
'
' '
t
f c c
t
f c c
t
i c
d m k t f A
d m k f A d f A t s
0
0 0
) ( 2 2 cos
)) ( ( 2 cos ) ( 2 cos ) (
( ( ) )
( ( ) ( ( )
32
! From the formula in the previous slide,
deviation. frequency the is where
) 2 cos(
) 2 cos(
) ( ) (
m f
m c
m m f c
f c i
A k f
t f f f
t f A k f
t m k f t f
= !
" ! + =
+ =
+ =
#
#
!
"
#
$
%
& '
+ =
!
"
#
$
%
&
( ' + =
!
"
#
$
%
&
=
)
)
) 2 sin( 2 cos
)] 2 cos( [ 2 cos
) ( 2 cos ) (
0
0
t f
f
f
t f A
d f f f A
d f A t s
m
m
c c
t
m c c
t
i c
* *
+ + * *
+ + * !
signal. FM of
index modulation the called often is / where
m
f f ! = "
! Modulation index " is the largest deviation from 2#f
c
t in
FM system.
! As a result,
1. A small " corresponds to a narrowband FM.
2. A large " corresponds to a wideband FM.
[ ] ) 2 sin( 2 cos ) ( t f t f A t s
m c c
! " ! + =
m c c m c i c m c
f f f f t f f f t f f f f f ! " ! + = # + $ % # + = $ # & = & ) 2 cos( ) (
33
2.7 Narrowband Frequency Modulation
[ ]
) 2 sin( ) 2 sin( ) 2 cos(
)] 2 sin( sin[ ) 2 sin( )] 2 sin( cos[ ) 2 cos(
) 2 sin( 2 cos ) (
t f t f A t f A
t f t f A t f t f A
t f t f A t s
m c c c c
m c c m c c
m c c
! " ! !
! " ! ! " !
! " !
# $
# =
+ =
(Often, " < 0.3.)
! Comparison between approximate narrowband
FM modulation and AM (DSB-C) modulation
) ) ( 2 cos(
2
) ) ( 2 cos(
2
) 2 cos(
) 2 cos( )] 2 cos( 1 [
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
t f f
A k
t f f
A k
t f A
t f t f A k A
t f t m k A t s
m
m a
m
m a
c c
c m m a c
c a c AM
! + + + =
+ =
+ =
" " "
" "
"
) ) ( 2 cos(
2
) ) ( 2 cos(
2
) 2 cos(
) 2 sin( ) 2 sin( ) 2 cos( ) (
t f f
A
t f f
A
t f A
t f t f A t f A t s
m c
c
m c
c
c c
m c c c c FM
! ! + + =
! "
#
$
#
$
#
# $ # #
34
! Represent them in terms of their low-pass
isomorphism.
)] 2 sin( ) 2 [cos(
2
)] 2 sin( ) 2 [cos(
2
) 0 ( ) (
~
t f j t f
A k
t f j t f
A k
j A t s
m m
m a
m m
m a
c AM
! !
! !
" +
+ + + =
)] 2 sin( ) 2 [cos(
2
)] 2 sin( ) 2 [cos(
2
) 0 ( ) (
~
t f j t f
A
t f j t f
A
j A t s
m m
c
m m
c
c FM
! !
"
! !
"
# #
+ + + =
! Phaser diagram
)] 2 sin( ) 2 [cos(
2
t f j t f
A
m m
c
! !
"
# #
) 0 ( j A
c
+
)) 2 sin(
) 2 (cos(
2
t f j
t f
A
m
m
c
!
!
"
+
) (
~
t s
FM
)] 2 sin( ) 2 [cos(
2
t f j t f
A
m m
c
! !
"
#
) (
~
t s
AM
. Let
m a c
A k A = !
35
2.7 Spectrum of Single-Tone FM
Modulation
[ ]
[ ] ( ) { }
{ } ) 2 exp( ) (
~
Re
) 2 sin( 2 exp Re
) 2 sin( 2 cos ) (
t f j t s
t f t f j A
t f t f A t s
c
m c c
m c c
!
! " !
! " !
=
+ =
+ =
[ ] ( ) ) 2 sin( exp ) (
~
t f j A t s
m c
! " = #
!
"
#" =
= $
n
nt f j
n c
m
e J A t s
%
&
2
) ( ) (
~
) sin(
) (
! ! jx
n
jn
n
e e x J =
"
#
$# =
kind. first the of function el order Bess nth the is ) ( where !
n
J
(Slide Chapter 1-247)
Modulation
!
!
"
"
!
"
#
$# =
#
$# =
#
# $
$ $
#
# $
$
#
$# =
#
# $
$
$ =
=
%
&
'
(
)
*
=
=
n
m n c
n
t nf f j
n c
ft j
n
nt f j
n c
ft j
nf f J A
dt e J A
dt e e J A
dt e t s f S
m
m
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) (
~
) (
~
) ( 2
2 2
2
+ ,
,
,
-
- -
-
!
36
Modulation
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
!
!
"
#" =
"
#" =
+ + + # # =
# # # + # # =
# # + # =
n
m c m c n
c
n
m c m c n
c
c c
nf f f nf f f J
A
nf f f nf f f J
A
f f S f f S f S
) ( ) ( ) (
2
) ( ) ( ) (
2
) (
~
) (
~
2
1
) (
*
$ $ %
$ $ %
Consequently,
Modulation
! The power of s(t)
" By definition, the time-average autocorrelation function
is given by:
" Hence, the power of s(t) is equal to:
! !
" # $ " # $
+ = + =
T
T T
T
T T
s
dt t s t s
T
dt t s t s E
T
R ) ( ) (
2
1
lim )] ( ) ( [
2
1
lim ) ( % % %
[ ]
[ ]
2 2
) 2 sin( 2 4 cos 1
2
1
lim
) 2 sin( 2 cos
2
1
lim ) (
2
1
lim ) 0 (
2
2
2 2 2
c
T
T
m c
c
T
T
T
m c c
T
T
T T
s
A
dt
t f t f
A
T
dt t f t f A
T
dt t s
T
R
!
+ +
=
+ = =
"
" "
# $ %
# $ % # $ %
& ' &
& ' &
37
Modulation
" The time-average power spectral density of a
deterministic signal s(t) is given by
! From
we obtain:
) ( ) (
2
1
lim ) (
*
2
f S f S
T
f PSD
T
T ! "
=
{ }. | | ) ( of ransform Fourier t the is ) ( where
2
T t t s f S
T
! "1
[ ]
!
"
#" =
+ + + # # =
n
m c m c n c T
nf f f T nf f f T J T A f S )) ( sinc(2 )) ( 2 ( sinc ) ( ) (
2
$
{ }
!
"
#" =
$ % + =
n
m c n c T
T t t nf f J A t s | | ) ) ( 2 cos( ) ( ) (
2
1 & '
[ ]
[ ]
!
!
"
#" =
"
#" =
" $
" $
+ + + # # %
+ + + # # =
=
n
m m c m m c n
k
m c m c k
c
p
T
T
f nf f f p f nf f f p J
kf f f kf f f J
A
f S f S
T
f PSD
) / ) ( sinc( ) / ) ( ( sinc ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
4
lim
) ( ) (
2
1
lim
) (
2
*
2
&
' ' &
For simplicity, assume that 2T increases along the multiple of
1/f
m
., i.e., 2T = p/f
m
, where p is an integer. Also assume that f
c
is
a multiple of f
m
, i.e., f
c
= qf
m
., where q is an integer. Then
m c
nf f +
m c
f n f ) 1 ( + +
m c
f n f ) 1 ( ! +
p
f
nf f
m
m c
+ +
38
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ + + ' ' (
!
"
#
+ + + + + +
$
%
&
' ' + ' ' =
!
"
#
+ + + + +
' ' + + +
+ + ' ' +
$
%
&
' ' ' ' =
)
) )
) )
) )
) )
) )
) )
*
'* =
*
'* =
' '
*
'* =
' '
*
'* =
*
'* =
*
'* =
*
'* =
*
'* =
*
'* =
*
'* =
*
'* =
*
'* =
*
'* =
* +
)] ( ) ( [ ) (
4
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
4
) ( ) ( ) / ) ( sinc( ) (
) ( ) ( ) / ) ( sinc( ) (
) ( ) ( ) / ) ( ( sinc ) (
) ( ) ( ) / ) ( ( sinc ) ( lim
4
) (
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
m c m c
n
n
c
m c
n
n m c q n
n
n
m c q n
n
n m c
n
n
c
k
m c k m m c
n
n
k
m c k m m c
n
n
k
m c k m m c
n
n
k
m c k m m c
n
n
p
c
nf f f nf f f J
A
nf f f J nf f f J J
nf f f J J nf f f J
A
kf f f J f nf f f p J
A
f PSD
, , -
, - , - -
, - - , -
, - -
, - -
, - -
, - -
2.7 Average Power of Single-Tone FM
Signal
" Hence, the power of a single-tone FM signal is
given by:
" Question: Can we use 2$f to be the bandwidth of a
single-tone FM signal?
2

) ( ) ( ) 1 ( 1
2

) ( ) ( ) (
2
) (
2
2
2
2
2
2
c
n
q n n
n c
n
q n n
n
n
c
A
J J
A
J J J
A
df f PSD
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
( + =
"
#
$
%
&
'
+ =
)
) )
*
+
(+ =
+
+
(+ =
( (
+
(+ =
+
+ (
, ,
, , ,
39
Example 2.2
! Fix f
m
and k
f
,
but vary " = $f/f
m
=
k
f
A
m
/f
m
.
Example 2.2
! Fix A
m
and k
f
,
but vary " = $f/f
m

= k
f
A
m
/f
m
.
40
2.7 Spectrum of Narrowband Single-Tone
FM Modulation
.
2 for 0 ) (
2
) (
1 ) (
small, is When
1
0
!
!
"
!
!
#
$
> %
%
%
n J
J
J
n
&
&
&
&
&
2.7 Spectrum of Narrowband Single-Tone
FM Modulation
! This results in an approximate spectrum for
narrowband single-tone FM signal spectrum as
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] ) ( ) ( ) (
4
) ( ) ( ) (
4
) ( ) ( ) (
4
) ( ) ( ) (
4
) (
2
1
2
2
0
2
2
1
2
2
2
m c m c
c
c c
c
m c m c
c
n
m c m c n
c
f f f f f f J
A
f f f f J
A
f f f f f f J
A
nf f f nf f f J
A
f PSD
+ + + ! ! +
+ + ! +
! + + + ! "
+ + + ! ! "
!
#
!# =
$
% % &
% % &
% % &
% % &
41
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] ) ( ) (
16
) ( ) (
4
) ( ) (
16
) ( ) ( ) (
4
) ( ) ( ) (
4
) ( ) ( ) (
4
) (
2 2
2
2 2
2
1
2
2
0
2
2
1
2
m c m c
c
c c
c
m c m c
c
m c m c
c
c c
c
m c m c
c
f f f f f f
A
f f f f
A
f f f f f f
A
f f f f f f J
A
f f f f J
A
f f f f f f J
A
f PSD
+ + + ! ! +
+ + ! +
! + + + ! =
+ + + ! ! +
+ + ! +
! + + + ! =
" "
#
" "
" "
#
" " #
" " #
" " #
) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
2 2
! ! ! !
n n n
n
n
J J J J
" "
= # " =
4
2
c
A
16
2 2
c
A !
4
2
c
A
16
2 2
c
A !
c
f
c
f !
m
f
16
2 2
c
A !
16
2 2
c
A !
42
2.7 Transmission Bandwidth of FM signals
! Carsons rule An empirical bandwidth
" An empirical rule for Transmission Bandwidth of
FM signals
! For large ", the bandwidth is essentially 2$f.
! For small ", the bandwidth is effectively 2f
m
.
! So Carson proposes that:
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
+ ' = + ' (
)
1
1 2 2 2 f f f B
m T
2.7 Transmission Bandwidth of FM signals
! Universal-curve transmission bandwidth
" The transmission bandwidth of an FM wave is the
minimum separation between two frequencies
beyond which none of the side frequencies is
greater than 1% of the carrier amplitude obtained
when the modulation is removed.
[ ]
!
"
#" =
+ + + # # =
n
m c m c n
c
nf f f nf f f J
A
f S ) ( ) ( ) (
2
) ( $ $ %
[ ] ) ( ) (
2
) 2 cos(
c c
c
c c
f f f f
A
t f A + + ! " # # $
43
.
2
01 . 0 | ) ( |
2
: where , 2
max max
!
"
#
$
%
&
> = = '
c
n
c
m T
A
J
A
n n f n B (
0.1
0.3
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
2
4
4
6
8
16
28
50
70
!
max
2n
! !
max max
2 2 n
f
f n
f
B
m
m T
= =
"
. larger a causes smaller a , fixed For
T
B f ! " #
20.0
13.3
8.0
6.0
4.0
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.3
f B
T
! /
2.7 Bandwidth of a General FM wave
! Now suppose m(t) is no longer a single tone but a
general message signal of bandwidth W.
" Hence, the worst-case tone is f
m
= W, and D = $f / W.
! For nonsinusoidal modulation, the deviation ratio D is used
instead of the modulation index ".
! The derivation ratio D plays the same role for nonsinusoidal
modulation that the modulation index " plays for the case of
sinusoidal modulation.
" We can then use Carsons rule or universal curve to
determine the transmission bandwidth B
T
.
44
2.7 Bandwidth of a General FM wave
! Final notes
" Carsons rule usually underestimates the
transmission bandwidth.
" Universal curve is too conservative in bandwidth
estimation.
" So, a choice of a transmission bandwidth in-
between is acceptable for most practical purposes.
Example 2.3
! FM radio in North America requires the
maximum frequency derivation $f = 75 kHz.
" If some message signal has bandwidth W = 15 kHz,
then the deviation ratio D = 75/15 = 5.
" Then
kHz 180
1
1 75 2
1
1 2
Carson ,
=
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ ' =
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ ( =
D D
f B
T
kHz 240 75
5
16 2
max
Curve Universal ,
= = ! = f
D
n
B
T
45
Example 2.3
" In practice, a bandwidth of 200 kHz is allocated to
each FM transmitter.
" So Carsons rule underestimates B
T
, while
Universal Curve overestimates B
T
.
2.7 Generation of FM Signals
! Direct FM
" Carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the
message signal as accomplished using a voltage-controlled
oscillator.
! Indirect FM
" The message is first integrated and sent to a phase modulator.
" So, the carrier frequency is not directly varied in accordance to
the message signal.
46
!
" " d m ) (
[ ]
!
+ = " " # # d m k t f A t s
f c c
) ( 2 2 cos ) (
(See next slide.)
" Frequency multiplier
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ '
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
+ + + =
(
(
)
(
=
t
f c c
t
f c n
n
i
t
f c j
n
n
d m k t f A
d m nk t nf A
d m ik t if A
t s a t s a t s a t v
0
' ' '
0
BandPass
1
0
2
2 1
) ( 2 2 cos
) ( 2 2 cos
) ( 2 2 cos
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
* * + +
* * + +
* * + +
!
(See next slide.)
47
!
!
!
!
!
!
"
!
!
!
!
!
!
#
$
+ + =
+ + =
+ =
+ =
!
)) cos( 10 ) 3 cos( 5 ) 5 (cos(
16
1
) ( cos
)) cos( 3 ) 2 cos( 4 ) 4 (cos(
8
1
) ( cos
)) cos( 3 ) 3 (cos(
4
1
) ( cos
) 1 ) 2 (cos(
2
1
) ( cos
5
4
3
2
x x x x
x x x x
x x x
x x
2.7 Demodulation of FM Signals
! Indirect Demodulation Phase-locked loop
" (Will be introduced in Section 2.14)
! Direct Demodulation
" Balanced frequency discriminator
) (t s
) (
1
t s
) (
2
t s
| ) (
~
|
1
t s
| ) (
~
|
2
t s
) (
~
t s
o
differentiation filters
48
!
!
!
"
!
!
!
#
$
% +
&
'
(
)
*
+
, +
% ,
&
'
(
)
*
+
+ ,
=
elsewhere , 0
2
| | ,
2
2
2
| | ,
2
2
) (
1
T
c
T
c
T
c
T
c
B
f f
B
f f a j
B
f f
B
f f a j
f H -
-
!
!
!
"
!
!
!
#
$
% &
'
(
)
*
+
,
& & &
% +
'
(
)
*
+
,
+ + &
=
elsewhere , 0
2
| | ,
2
2
2
| | ,
2
2
) (
2
T
c
T
c
T
c
T
c
B
f f
B
f f a j
B
f f
B
f f a j
f H -
-
49
2.7 Analysis of Direct Demodulation in
terms of Low-Pass Equivalences
!
"
!
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
+
=
!
"
!
#
$
% +
=
otherwise 0,
2
| | ,
2
4
otherwise 0,
2
| | ), ( 2
) (
~
1
1
T T
T
c
B
f
B
f a j
B
f f f H
f H
,
!
"
!
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
+
= = ,
elsewhere , 0
2
| | ), (
~
2
2
) (
~
) (
~
2
1
) (
~
1 1
T T
B
f f S
B
f a j
f S f H f S
-
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ = ' ) (
~
) (
~
) (
~
1
t s B j
dt
t s d
a t s
T
(
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
'
t
f c c
d m k t f A t s
0
) ( 2 2 cos ) ( ( ( ) )
!
"
#
$
%
&
= '
(
t
f c
d m k j A t s
0
) ( 2 exp ) (
~
) ) *
!
"
#
$
%
&
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
!
"
#
'
(
)
*
+
,
!
"
#
$
%
&
+
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
!
"
#
$
%
&
=
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
-
-
-
t
f
T
f
c T
t
f c T
t
f f c
T
d m k j t m
B
k
aA B j
d m k j A B j
d m k j t m k jA a
t s B j
dt
t s d
a t s
0
0
0
1
) ( 2 exp ) (
2
1
) ( 2 exp
) ( 2 exp ) ( 2
) (
~
) (
~
) (
~
. . / /
. . / /
. . / /
/ !
50
{ }
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ +
'
(
)
*
+
,
+ =
!
"
#
$
%
&
+
'
(
)
*
+
,
+ - =
.
/
0
1
2
3
'
(
)
*
+
,
'
(
)
*
+
,
+ =
=
4
4
4
t
f c
T
f
c T
t
f c
T
f
c T
c
t
f
T
f
c T
c
d m k t f t m
B
k
aA B
d m k t f t m
B
k
aA B
t f j d m k j t m
B
k
aA B j
t f j t s t s
0
0
0
1 1
2
) ( 2 2 cos ) (
2
1
) ( 2 2 sin ) (
2
1
) 2 exp( ) ( 2 exp ) (
2
1 Re
) 2 exp( ) (
~
Re ) (
5
6 6 5 5 5
6 6 5 5 5
5 6 6 5 5
5 !
message. equivalent lowpass the of amplitude the obtain to
used be can detector envelope then , and 1 ) (
2
If W f t m
B
k
c
T
f
>> < !
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ = ) (
2
1 | ) (
~
|
1
t m
B
k
aA B t s
T
f
c T
'
!
"
!
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
, ,
=
otherwise 0,
2
| | ,
2
4
) (
~
2
T T
B
f
B
f a j
f H
-
!
"
!
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
, ,
= = -
elsewhere , 0
2
| | ), (
~
2
2
) (
~
) (
~
2
1
) (
~
2 2
T T
B
f f S
B
f a j
f S f H f S
.
2
Similarly,
!
"
#
$
%
&
!
"
#
$
%
&
' =
!
"
#
$
%
&
' ' =
(
t
f
T
f
c T
T
d m k j t m
B
k
aA B j
t s B j
dt
t s d
a t s
0
2
) ( 2 exp ) (
2
1
) (
~
) (
~
) (
~
) ) * *
* !
51
Po-Ning Chen@ece.nctu Chapter 2-101 Po-Ning Chen@ece.nctu Chapter 2-101
{ }
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ +
'
(
)
*
+
,
- =
=
.
t
f c
T
f
c T
c
d m k t f t m
B
k
aA B
t f j t s t s
0
2 2
2
) ( 2 2 cos ) (
2
1
) 2 exp( ) (
~
Re ) (
/
0 0 / / /
/ !
!
"
#
$
%
&
' = ( ) (
2
1 | ) (
~
|
2
t m
B
k
aA B t s
T
f
c T
)
) ( 4 | ) (
~
| | ) (
~
| ) (
~
2 1
t m aA k t s t s t s
c f o
! = " = #
Final Note: a is a filter parameter of the filters, which can be
used to adjust the amplitude of the resultant output.
2.7 FM Stereo Multiplexing
! How to do Stereo Transmission in FM radio?
" Two requirements:
! Backward compatible with monophonic radio receivers
! Operate within the allocated FM broadcast channels
" To fulfill these requirements, the baseband message
signal has to be re-made.
) 2 cos( ) 4 cos( )] ( ) ( [ )] ( ) ( [ ) ( t f K t f t m t m t m t m t m
m m r l r l
! ! + " + + =
ly. respective s, microphone right and
left by up picked signals message are ) ( and ) ( where t m t m
r l
52
f
m
= 19 kHz
! !" ! !# $ ! ! " ! ! # $
detection coherent For reception monophonic For
) 2 cos( ) 4 cos( )] ( ) ( [ )] ( ) ( [ ) ( t f K t f t m t m t m t m t m
m m r l r l
! ! + " + + =
m
m
m
Demultiplexer in receiver of FM stereo.
53
2.8 Nonlinear Effects in FM Systems
! The channel (including background noise, interference and
circuit imperfection) may introduce non-linear effects on
the transmission signals.
" For example, non-linearity due to amplifiers.
!
!
!
"
!
!
!
#
$
< %
>
& %
=
1 ) ( ,
3
2
1 ) ( ,
3
2
1 | ) ( | ), (
3
1
) (
) (
3
t v
t v
t v t v t v
t v
i
i
i i i
o
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
2.8 Nonlinear Effects in FM Systems
! Suppose
[ ]
!
!
"
!
!
#
$
=
+ =
+ + =
%
t
f
c c i
i i i o
d m k t
t t f A t v
t v a t v a t v a t v
0
3
3
2
2 1
) ( 2 ) (
) ( 2 cos ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
& & ' (
( '
Then
)] ( 2 [ cos
)] ( 2 [ cos )] ( 2 cos[
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
3 3
1
2 2
1 1
3
3
2
2 1
t t f A a
t t f A a t t f A a
t v a t v a t v a t v
c c
c c c c
i i i o
! "
! " ! "
+ +
+ + + =
+ + =
54
( )
( )
! ! ! ! " ! ! ! ! # $ ! ! ! ! " ! ! ! ! # $
! ! ! ! ! ! " ! ! ! ! ! ! # $
W f B
c c
W f B
c c
W f B
c c c c
c c c
c c c c o
T T
T
t t f A a t t f A a
t t f A a A a A a
t t f t t f A a
t t f A a t t f A a t v
2 6
3
1
2 4
2
2
2 2
3
3 1
2
1
3
3
2
2 1
Carson , Carson ,
Carson ,
)] ( 3 6 cos[
4
1
)] ( 2 4 cos[
2
1
)] ( 2 cos[
4
3
2
1
)] ( 3 6 cos[ )] ( 2 cos[ 3
4
1
)] ( 2 4 cos[ 1
2
1
)] ( 2 cos[ ) (
+ ! = + ! =
+ ! =
+ + + +
+
"
#
$
%
&
'
+ + =
+ + + +
+ + + + =
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Thus, in order to recover s(t) from v
o
(t) using band-pass filter,
it requires:
2 / ) 2 2 ( 2 / ) 2 4 ( 2 W f f W f f
c c
+ ! + > + ! "
. 2 3 ly, equivalent or W f f
c
+ ! >
The filtered output is therefore:
)] ( 2 cos[
4
3
) (
3
3 1 filtered ,
t t f A a A a t v
c c c o
! " +
#
$
%
&
'
(
+ =
! Observations
" Unlike AM modulation, FM modulation is not affected
by distortion produced by transmission through a channel
with amplitude nonlinearities.
" So the FM modulation allows the usage of highly non-
linear amplifiers and power transmitters.
55
2.8 AM-to-PM Conversion
! Although FM modulation is insensitive to amplitude
nonlinearity, it is indeed very sensitive to phase
nonlinearity.
" A common type of phase nonlinearity encountered in
microwave radio transmission is the AM-to-PM conversion.
" The AM-to-PM conversion is owing to that the phase
characteristic of amplifiers (or repeaters) also depends on the
instantaneous amplitude of the input signal.
! Notably, the nonlinear amplifiers discussed previously will
leave the phase of the input unchanged.
" Often, it requires that the peak phase change for a 1-dB
change in input envelope is less than 2%.
2.9 Superheterodyne Receiver
! A commercial radio communication system
contains not only the transmission but also
some other functions, such as:
" Carrier-frequency tuning, to select the desired
signals
" Filtering, to separate the desired signal from other
unwanted signals
" Amplifying, to compensate for the loss of signal
power incurred in the course of transmission
56
! A superheterodyne receiver or superhet is designed to
facilitate the fulfillment of these functions, especially
the first two.
" It overcomes the difficulty of having to build a tunable highly
selective and variable filter ( rather a fixed filter is applied on
IF section).
heterodyning function
First detector
Example AM Radio FM Radio
RF carrier range 0.535-1.605 MHz 88-108 MHz
Midband frequency of IF section 0.455 MHz 10.7 MHz
IF bandwidth 10 kHz 200 kHz
Second detector
57
2.9 Image Interference
! Fix f
IF
and f
LO
at the receiver end. What is the
f
RF
that will survive at the IF section output?
" Answer:
" Example. Suppose the receiver use 1.105MHz local
oscillator, and receives two RF signals respectively
centered at 0.65MHz and 1.56MHz.
| |
IF LO RF
f f f =
MHz 455 . 0
IF
f
MHz 455 . 0
IF
f
MHz 65 . 0
RF
f
MHz 56 . 1
ce Interferen
f
MHz 105 . 1
LO
f
MHz .455 0
RF LO IF
f f f ! =
MHz .755 1
age Im
= + =
RF LO
f f f
MHz .455 0
ce Interferen Image
= ! =
LO ce Interferen
f f f MHz 665 . 2 = +
LO ce Interferen
f f
Then at the output of the IF section, we respectively obtain:
58
! A cure of image interference is to employ a highly
selective stages in the RF session in order to favor the
desired signal (at f
RF
) and discriminate the undesired
signal (at f
RF
+ 2f
IF
or f
RF
2f
IF
).
2.9 Advantage of Constant Envelope for FM
modulation
! Observations
" For FM modulation, any variation in amplitude is
caused by noise or interference.
" For FM modulation, the information is resided on
the variations of the instantaneous frequency.
" So we can use an amplitude limiter to remove the
amplitude variation, but to retain the frequency
variation, after the IF section.
59
2.9 Advantage of Constant Envelope for FM
modulation
! Amplitude limiter
" Clipping the modulated wave at the IF section
output (almost to the zero axis) to result in a near-
rectangular wave.
" Pass the rectangular wave through a bandpass filter
centered at f
IF
to suppress harmonics (due to
clipping).
" Then the filter output retains the frequency
variation with constant amplitude.
2.10 Noise in CW Modulation Systems
! To simplify the system analysis, we assume:
" ideal band-pass filter (that is just wide enough to pass the
modulated signal s(t) without distortion),
" ideal demodulator,
" Gaussian distributed white Noise process.
! So the only source of imperfection is from the noise.
60
T
B
), ( ) ( ) ( t n t s t x + =
So after passing through the ideal bandpass filter, s(t) is
unchanged but w(t) becomes a narrowband noise n(t).
Hence,
). 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( where t f t n t f t n t n
c Q c I
! ! " =
! Input signal-to-noise ratio (SNR
I
)
" The ratio of the average power of the modulated
signal s(t) to the average power of the filtered noise
n(t).
! Output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR
O
)
" The ratio of the average power of the demodulated
message signal to the average power of the noise,
measured at the receiver output.
61
! It is sometimes advantageous to look at the lowpass
equivalent model.
! Channel signal-to-noise ratio (SNR
C
)
" The ratio of the average power of the modulated
signal s(t) to the average power of the channel noise
in the message bandwidth, measured at the receiver
input (as illustrated below).
! Notes
" SNR
C
is nothing to do with the receiver structure, but
depends on the channel characteristic and modulation
approach.
" SNR
O
is however receiver-structure dependent.
! Finally, define the figure of merit for the receiver as:
C
O
SNR
SNR
= merit of figure
62
2.11 Noise in Linear Receivers Using
Coherent Detection
! Recall that for AM demodulation
" When the carrier is suppressed, linear coherent
detection is used. (Section 2.11)
" When the carrier is additionally transmitted,
nonlinear envelope detection is used. (Section
2.12)
! The noise analysis of the above two cases are
respectively addressed in Sections 2.11 and
2.12.
Coherent Detection
. to d bandlimite ) ( PSD and meam zero with stationary : ) ( W f S t m
M
) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f t m CA t s
c c
! =
) 2 cos( t f
c
!
63
Coherent Detection
! Average signal power
[ ]
[ ]
2
) 2 ( cos
2
1
lim
) ( ) 2 ( cos
2
1
lim
) ( ) 2 ( cos
2
1
lim )] ( [
2
1
lim
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
P A C
dt t f
T
P A C
dt t m E t f A C
T
dt t m t f A C E
T
dt t s E
T
c
T
T
c
T
c
T
T
c c
T
T
T
c c
T
T
T T
=
=
=
=
!
!
! !
" # $
" # $
" # $ " # $
%
%
%
power. message the is ) ( )] ( [ where
2
!
"
= =
W
W
M
df f S t m E P
Coherent Detection
! Noise power in the message bandwidth
0
0
2
) ( WN df
N
df f S
W
W
W
W
w
= =
! !
" "
64
) 2 cos( t f
c
!
Coherent Detection
! Channel SNR for DSC-SC and coherent detection (observed at x(t))
! Next, we calculate output SNR (observed at y(t)) under the condition
that the transmitter and the receiver are perfectly synchronized.
o
c
o
c
C
WN
P A C
WN
P A C
SNR
2
2
2 2 2 2
SC - DSB ,
= =
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
t f t w t f t w t f t m CA
t w t s t x
c Q c I c c
! ! ! " + =
+ =
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) 2 cos( ) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 ( cos ) ( ) 2 ( cos ) (
) 2 cos( )] 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( [
) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
LowPass
2 2
t w t m CA
t f t f t w t f t w t f t m CA
t f t f t w t f t w t f t m CA
t f t x t v
I c
c c Q c I c c
c c Q c I c c
c
+ !
" + =
" + =
= #
$ $ $ $
$ $ $ $
$
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
) ( t w t m CA t y
I c
+ = !
[ ]
[ ]
0
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2 2
SC - DSB ,
2 )] ( [ 4 / ) (
4 / ) (
WN
P A C
t w E
P A C
t w E
t m A C E
SNR
c c
I
c
O
= = = !
)].) ( [ )] ( [ )] ( [ (Recall
2 2 2
t w E t w E t w E
Q I
= =
65
. 1 detection coherent and SC - for DSB merit of Figure = !
Similar derivation on SSB and coherent detection yields the
same figure of merit.
! Conclusions
" Coherent detection for SSB performs the same as
coherent detection for DSB-SC.
" There is no SNR degradation for SSB and DSB-SC
coherent receivers. The only effect of these modulation
and demodulation processes is to translate the message
signal to a different frequency band to facilitate its
transmission over a band-pass channel.
" No trade-off between noise performance and bandwidth.
This may become a problem when high quality
transceiving is required.
2.12 Noise in AM Receivers Using Envelope
Detection
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) ( t f t m k A t s
c a c
! + =
[ ]
mean.) zero ) ( (Assume ) 1 (
2
) 2 ( cos
2
1
lim )) ( 1 ( )] ( [
2
1
lim
2
2
2 2 2 2
t m P k
A
dt t f
T
t m k E A dt t s E
T
a
c
T
T
c
T
a c
T
T T
+ =
+ =
! !
" # $ " # $
%
66
! Hence, channel SNR for DSB-C is equal to:
! Next, we calculate output SNR (observed at y(t)) under the condition that
the transmitter and the receiver are perfectly synchronized.
0
0
2
) ( Also, WN df
N
df f S
W
W
W
W
w
= =
! !
" "
o
a c
C
WN
P k A
SNR
2
) 1 (
2 2
AM ,
+
= !
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( )] ( )) ( 1 ( [
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [
) ( ) ( ) (
t f t n t f t n t m k A
t f t n t f t n t f t m k A
t n t s t x
c Q c I a c
c Q c I c a c
! !
! ! !
" + + =
" + + =
+ =
( )
)] ( ) ( [
2
1
)] ( )) ( 1 ( [
2
1
) ( )] ( )) ( 1 ( [
2
1
) ( ) (
block DC
2 2
LowPass
2
t n t m k A
t n t m k A
t n t n t m k A
t x t y
I a c
I a c
Q I a c
+ =
+ + !
+ + + =
=
envelop detector
x
x
) (
~
)] ( 1 [ if t n t m k A
a c
>> +
(Refer to slide 136.)
67
[ ]
[ ]
0
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2 2
AM ,
2 )] ( [ 2 / ) (
2 / ) (
WN
P k A
t n E
P k A
t n E
t m k A E
SNR
a c a c
I
a c
O
= = = !
1
1 ) 2 ( ) 1 (
) 2 (
2
2
2 2
0
2 2
AM ,
AM ,
<
+
=
+
! "
P k
P k
WN P k A
WN P k A
SNR
SNR
a
a
o a c
a c
C
O
! Conclusion
" Even if the noise power is small compared to the
average carrier power at the envelope detector
output, the noise performance of a full AM receiver
is inferior to that of a DSB-SC receiver due to the
wastage of transmitter power.
Example 2.4 Single-Tone Modulation
! Assume
) 2 cos( )] 2 cos( 1 [ ) (
) 2 cos( ) (
t f t f A k A t s
t f A t m
c m m a c
m m
! !
!
+ = "
=
[ ]
(
)
) 1 (
2 4
0
2
1
) 2 ( cos ) 2 ( cos
) 2 ( cos ) 2 cos( 2 ) 2 ( cos
2
1
lim
) 2 ( cos ) 2 cos( 1
2
1
lim )] ( [
2
1
lim
2
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
2 2
P k
A A k
A
dt t f t f A k
t f t f A k t f
T
A
dt t f t f A k
T
A dt t s E
T
a
c m a
c
c m m a
T
T
c m m a c
T
c
T
T
c m m a
T
c
T
T T
+ = !
"
#
$
%
&
+ + =
+
+ =
+ =
'
' '
( ) *
( ) * ( ) *
+ +
+ + +
+ +
Hence,
68
.
2 / 1
2 /
1

, discussion previous as procedure similar Following
.
2
) 2 ( cos
1
lim where
2 2
2 2
2
2
AM ,
AM ,
2
0
2 2
m a
m a
a
a
C
O
m
T
m m
T
A k
A k
P k
P k
SNR
SNR
A
dt t f A
T
P
+
=
+
!
"
= =
#
$ %
&
So even if for 100% percent modulation (k
a
A
m
= 1), the figure of merit
= 1/3. This means that an AM system with envelope detection must
transmit three times as much average power as DSB-SC with coherent
detector to achieve the same quality of noise performance.
2.12 Threshold Effect
! What if is violated (in AM modulation
with envelope detection)?
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( )] ( )) ( 1 ( [
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [
) ( ) ( ) (
t f t n t f t n t m k A
t f t n t f t n t f t m k A
t n t s t x
c Q c I a c
c Q c I c a c
! !
! ! !
" + + =
" + + =
+ =
) (
~
)] ( 1 [ t n t m k A
a c
>> +
|
~
| |
~
| |
~
| 2 |
~
| 2 ) ( |
~
|
2 2 ) ( |
~
|
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
n B n B n B n B n B n n B n B
n B n B n B n n B n B n n B n B
I Q I
I I I Q I I Q I
+ ! + + ! + + = + + " <<
+ ! + + ! + + + = + + " >>
69
( )
|) ) (
~
| )) ( 1 ( (
2
1
|) ) (
~
| )) ( 1 ( (
2
1
| ) (
~
| )) ( 1 ( | ) (
~
| 2 )) ( 1 (
2
1
| ) (
~
| )) ( 1 ( ) ( 2 )) ( 1 (
2
1
) ( )] ( )) ( 1 ( [
2
1
) ( ) (
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2
LowPass
2
t n t m k A
t n t m k A
t n t m k A t n t m k A
t n t n t m k A
t x t y
a c
a c
a c a c
a c I a c
Q I a c
+ + !
+ + =
+ + + + !
+ + + + =
+ + + =
=
|] ) (
~
| ) ( [
2
1
block DC
t n t m k A
a c
+ =
. ) (
~
)] ( 1 [ Assume t n t m k A
a c
<< +
!
"
#
<< + +
>> + +
=
| ) (
~
| )] ( 1 [ |, ) (
~
| ) (
| ) (
~
| )] ( 1 [ ), ( ) (
) ( 2
t y
a c a c
a c I a c
[ ]
[ ]
0
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2 2 2
AM ,
4 )] ( [ )] ( [ | ) (
~
|
) (
WN
P k A
t n E t n E
P k A
t n E
t m k A E
SNR
a c
Q I
a c a c
O
=
+
= = !
2
1
) 1 ( 2 ) 2 ( ) 1 (
) 4 (
2
2
2 2
0
2 2
AM ,
AM ,
<
+
=
+
! "
P k
P k
WN P k A
WN P k A
SNR
SNR
a
a
o a c
a c
C
O
70
2.12 Threshold Effect
! Threshold effect
" For AM with envelope detection, there exists a
carrier-to-noise ratio $ (namely, the power ratio
between unmodulated carrier A
c
cos(2#f
c
t) and the
passband noise n(t) ) below which the noise
performance of a detector deteriorates rapidly.
!
!
"
!
!
#
$
<< + =
>> + =
=
| ) (
~
| )] ( 1 [ if ,
4
| ) (
~
| )] ( 1 [ if , 2
2
2
0
2 2
2
0
2 2
AM ,
t n t m k A P k
WN
P k A
t n t m k A P k
WN
P k A
SNR
a c a
a c
a c a
a c
O
%
%
0
2
0
2
4 2
2 /
WN
A
WN
A
c c
= = !
2.12 General Formula for SNR
O
in Envelope
Detection
! For envelope detector, the noise is no longer additive; so
the original definition of SNR
O
(which is based on additive
noise) may not be well-applied.
! A new definition should be given:
" Definition. The (general) output signal-to-noise ratio
for an output y(t) due to a carrier input is defined as
)] ( [ Var
2
t y
s
SNR
o
O
=
alone. noise of presense the in
) ( to equal is ) ( and )], ( [ )] ( [ where t y t y t y E t y E s
o o o
! =
) ( ) ( t y s t y
o o
+ =
71
O
in Envelope
Detection
! s
o
is named the mean output signal.
! Var[y(t)] is named the mean output noise power.
! Example. y(t) = A + n
I
(t), where n
I
(t) is zero mean..
!
"
#
= =
= $ + =
)] ( [ )] ( [ Var )] ( [ Var
)] ( [ )] ( [
2
t n E t n t y
A t n E t n A E s
I I
I I o
)] ( [
2
2
t n E
A
SNR
I
O
= !
This somehow shows the backward compatibility of the new
definition.
O
in Envelope
Detection
! Now for an envelope detector, the output due to a carrier
input and additive Gaussian noise channel is given by:
) ( )) ( ( ) (
2 2
t n t n A t y
Q I
+ + =
pdf with d distribute Rayleigh is ) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
t n t n t y
Q I o
+ = !
. 0 for
2
exp ) (
2
2
2 ) (
!
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
( = y
y y
y f
N N
t y
o
) )
pdf with d distribute Rician is ) (t y !
)]. ( [ where , 0 for
2
exp ) (
2 2
2 0 2
2 2
2 ) (
t n E y
Ay
I
A y y
y f
N
N N N
t y
= !
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
' +
( = )
) ) )
I
0
( ) = modified Bessel function of
the first kind of zero order.
72
). 4 /( ) 2 /( and / by taking
, ) (
4
exp ) exp(
) 2 (

2
exp
) ( )] ( [
0
2 2 2 2
0
0
2
2
2 / 3
0
2 0 2
2 2
2
2
0
) (
WN A A Ay u
du u I
u
u
dy
Ay
I
A y y
dy y yf t y E
N N
N
N N N
t y
= = =
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' ' =
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
& +
' =
=
(
(
(
)
)
)
* + *
+
+
+
*
* * *
( )
( )
.
2 2
3
2
exp 2
) 2 /( by taking , exp 2
2
exp ) ( )] ( [
0
1 ) 2 / 3 (
2 2
0
2
0
2
2
2
2
0
) (
!
" "
"
" "
" "
N N
N
N N
N N
t y o
dz z z
y z dz z z
dy
y y
dy y yf t y E
o
=
#
$
%
&
'
(
) =
* =
= * =
#
#
$
%
&
&
'
(
* = =
+
+
+ +
,
*
,
, ,
Appendix 4 Confluent Hypergeometric
Functions
! The Kummer confluent hypergeometric function is a
solution of Kummers equation
! For b % 0, -1, -2, ., the Kummer confluent hypergeometric
function is equal to
1
F
1
(a;b;x).
complex , for 0 ) (
2
2
b a ay
dx
dy
x b
dx
y d
x = ! ! +
.
1 ) (
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (
where ,
! ) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ; ; (
function tric hypergeome d Generalize
0 0 2 1
2 1
!
"
#
=
$ + + =
% =
&
'
=
a
k a a a a
k
x
b b b
a a a
x b a F
k
k
k k q k k
k p k k
q p
!
!
!
"
"
. / ) 0 ( ' and 1 ) 0 ( conditions boundary with b a y y = =
73
A4.2 Properties of the Confluent
Hypergeometric Function
) ; ; ( ) ; ; ( ) exp( . 5
4
1
; 1 ;
2 2
) 2 / (
) ( ) exp( . 4
. as 2
2 2
) 1 (
2
exp ) ; 1 ; 2 / 1 ( . 3
. 1 ) ; 1 ; 1 ( 2.
. 0 as 1 ) ; ; ( . 1
1 1 1 1
2 1 1
0
0
2 2 1
2 0 1 1
1 1
1 1
u F u F u
b
m
F
b
m
du u I u b u
x
x
x
xI
x
I x
x
x F
x x F
x x
b
a
x b a F
m
m
! ! = " !
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
-
.
/
= !
0 1 2
)
)
*
+
,
,
-
.
)
*
+
,
-
.
+
)
*
+
,
-
.
+ 3
)
*
+
,
-
.
! = ! !
! = !
1 + 2
4
0
!
5 6 5 5 6
7
O
in Envelope
Detection
! Hence,
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
- - =
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
- =
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
.
- =
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
- - =
-
/
0
1 2
3
1 1 2
3
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
; 1 ;
2
1
2
; 1 ;
2
3
) exp(
2
; 1 ;
2
3
) 4 ( 2
) 2 / 3 (
) exp(
) 2 (
) (
4
exp ) exp(
) 2 (
)] ( [
1 1
1 1
1 1 2 / 3 2 / 3
0
0
2
2
2 / 3
F
F
F
du u I
u
u t y E
N
N
N
N
By Property 4
By Property 5
74
O
in Envelope
Detection
! As a result,
! Similarly, we can obtain:
. 1
2
; 1 ;
2
1
2
)] ( [ )] ( [
2
2
1 1 !
"
#
$
%
&
'
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
' ' = ' =
N
N o o
A
F t y E t y E s
.
.
/
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
- - - + =
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
- - -
'
'
(
)
*
*
+
,
- - =
2
2
2
1 1 2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1 2
2
1 1
2
2
; 1 ;
2
1
4 2
1 2
2
; 1 ;
2
1
4 2
; 1 ; 1 2 )] ( Var[
N N
N
N N
N
A
F
A
A
F
A
F t y
.
/
.
.
.
/
.
.
By Property 2
O
in Envelope
Detection
! This concludes to:
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
!
!
!
"
!
!
!
#
$
%
+ & +
& +
' %
& +
&
(
=
& & & +
& & &
=
0 as ,
) 2 / 1 ( ) 1 (
4
1 ) 2 / 1 (
as ,
/ 2 ) 1 (
4
1 / 2
2
where ,
; 1 ; 2 / 1 ) 1 (
4
1 ; 1 ; 2 / 1
) (
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
2
1 1
)
) )
*
)
)
* ) )
*
* )
+
)
) )
*
)
N
O
A
F
F
SNR
75
!
"
#
$
% $
=
&
!
&
"
#
$
'
% $
(
&
&
!
&
&
"
#
$
+ ' +
% $ ' +
=
0 as , 91 . 0
as ,
0 as ,
4 16
as ,
0 as
) 2 ( ) 1 ( 16
as ,
4
) (
2
2
2
2
) )
) )
)
*
*)
) )
)
) * )
*)
) *)
*
)
O
SNR
(Continue from the previous slide.)
O
in Envelope
Detection
! P k SNR
a O
2
AM ,
=
( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
es. approximat limiting two the and
; 1 ; 2 / 1 ) 1 (
4
1 ; 1 ; 2 / 1
of Curve
2
1 1
2
1 1
! !
"
!
# # # +
# # #
=
F
F
SNR
O
! P k SNR
a O
2
AM ,
2 =
0.1
1
10
100
1000
0.1 1 10 100
76
O
in Envelope
Detection
! Remarks
" For large carrier-to-noise ratio $, the envelope detector
behaves like a coherent detector in the sense that the output
SNR is proportional to $.
" For small carrier-to-noise ratio $, the (newly defined) output
signal-to-noise ratio of the envelope detector degrades faster
than a linear function of $ (decrease at a rate of $
2
).
" From threshold effect and the general formula for
SNR
O
, we may see that the envelope detector favors a
strong signal. This is sometimes called weak signal
suppression.
2.13 Noise in FM Receivers
! To simplify the system analysis, we assume:
" ideal band-pass filter (that is just wide enough to pass the
modulated signal s(t) without distortion),
" ideal demodulator,
" Gaussian distributed white Noise process.
! So the only source of imperfection is from the noise.
77
. ) ( 2 ) ( where )], ( 2 cos[ ) (
0
!
= + =
t
f c c
d m k t t t f A t s " " # $ $ #
( )
( ) )] ( 2 cos[ )] ( ) ( [ sin ) ( )] ( ) ( cos[ ) (
)] ( 2 sin[ )] ( ) ( sin[ ) (
)] ( 2 cos[ )] ( ) ( cos[ ) (
)] ( ) ( ) ( 2 cos[ ) ( )] ( 2 cos[
)] ( 2 cos[ ) ( )] ( 2 cos[ ) (
2 2 2
t t f t t t r t t t r A
t t f t t t r
t t f t t t r A
t t t t f t r t t f A
t t f t r t t f A t x
c c
c
c c
c c c
c c c
! " # $ # $
# " # $
# " # $
# $ # " # "
$ " # "
+ % + % + =
+ % %
+ % + =
% + + + + =
+ + + =
!
"
#
$
%
&
' +
'
+ =
'
)] ( ) ( cos[ ) (
)] ( ) ( sin[ ) (
tan ) ( ) ( where
1
t t t r A
t t t r
t t
c
( )
( )
( *

)) ( sin( ) ( ) (
)) ( cos( ) ( ) (
!
"
#
=
=
t t r t n
t t r t n
Q
I
$
$
( )
)] ( 2 cos[
)] ( 2 cos[ )] ( ) ( [ sin ) ( )] ( ) ( cos[ ) ( ) (
Limiter
2 2
2
t t f A
t t f t t t r t t t r A t x
c
c c
! "
! " # $ # $
+ % &
+ ' + ' + =
) ( ' 2 ) (
~
Output )) ( 2 cos( ) ( Input t aA t s t t f A t s
o c
! ! " = + =
Recall on slide 94, we have talked about the Balanced
Frequency Discriminator, whose input and output satisfy:
Next, the signal will be passed through a Discriminator.
78
[ ] [ ] ) ( exp ) ( ' ) (
~
) (
~
) (
~
1
t j B t aAj t s B j
dt
t s d
a t s
T T
! " ! " + =
#
$
%
&
'
(
+ =
[ ] [ ] ) ( exp ) ( ' ) (
~
) (
~
) (
~
2
t j B t aAj t s B j
dt
t s d
a t s
T T
! " ! " # # =
$
%
&
'
(
)
# # =
) ( ' 2 | ) (
~
| | ) (
~
| ) (
~
2 1
t aA t s t s t s
o
! = " = #
Specifically, with : have we )), ( exp( ) (
~
t j A t s ! =
dt
t t t r A
t t t r
t d
aA t aA t v
c
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
- +
-
+
= =
-
)] ( ) ( cos[ ) (
)] ( ) ( sin[ ) (
tan ) (
2 ) ( ' 2 ) (
tor discrimina the through passing after Thus,
1
. /
. /
.
0
( )
( )
( )
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' +
' '
'
(
(
)
*
' +
'
+
,
,
,
,
,
-
.
$
$
%
&
(
(
)
*
' +
'
+
+ =
2
2
)] ( ) ( cos[ ) (
' )] ( ) ( cos[ ) ( )] ( ) ( sin[ ) (

)] ( ) ( cos[ ) (
' )] ( ) ( sin[ ) (
)] ( ) ( cos[ ) (
)] ( ) ( sin[ ) (
1
1
) ( ' 2 ) (
t t t r A
t t t r t t t r
t t t r A
t t t r
t t t r A
t t t r
t aA t v
c
c
c
/ 0
/ 0 / 0
/ 0
/ 0
/ 0
/ 0
/
79
Assumption 1: A
c
>> r(t) with high probability.
Assumption 2: 2aA = 1/(2#).
We then make the following assumption (to simplify the derivation).
( )
( )
( )
( )
) ( 2 ) ( 2
' )] ( ) ( sin[ ) (
1
) ( 2
' )] ( ) ( sin[ ) (
) ( '
' )] ( ) ( cos[ ) ( )] ( ) ( sin[ ) (

' )] ( ) ( sin[ ) (
1 ) ( ' ) ( 2
2
t n t m k
t t t r
A
t m k
A
t t t r
t
A
t t t r t t t r
A
t t t r
t t v
d f
c
f
c
c
c
! !
" # !
" #
"
" # " #
" #
" !
+ =
$ + =
$
+ %
&
&
'
( $ $
$
)
)
*
+ $
, + %
We then obtain the desired additive form.
Omit the 2nd term by Assumption 1.
There is however one problem remaining, i.e., n
d
(t) depends on
the message signal !(t)!
Assumption 3: &(t) - !(t) is uniformly distributed, and is
independent of m(t) and r(t).
The above assumption is true for any deterministic !(t)!
It has been shown that Assumption 3 is justifiable for high
carrier-to-noise ratio (or equivalently, under Assumption 1).
dt
t dn
A dt
t t dr
A
t n t n t m k t v
Q
c c
d d f
) (
2
1 )] ( sin[ ) (
2
1
) ( where ), ( ) ( ) (
!
"
!
= = + #
) ( ) ( 8. : 6.2 Table f fG j t g
dt
d
! 2 "
) (t n
Q
c
A
f j
f H
!
!
2
2
) ( =
) (t n
d
80
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
f S
A
f
f S
A
f j
A
jf
f S f H f H f S
Q Q Q d
N
c
N
c c
N N
=
!
= ! = "
!
"
!
#
$
%
= &
otherwise , 0
2
| | ,
) (
0 2
2
T
c
N
B
f N
A
f
f S
d
Bandwidth W < B
T
/2
that is just enough
to pass m(t).
) ( ) ( ) ( t n t m k t v
o f o
+ !
!
"
!
#
$
%
= &
otherwise , 0
| | ,
) (
0 2
2
W f N
A
f
f S
c
N
o
!
"
!
#
$
<
+ + %
=
otherwise , 0
2 / | | for
), ( ) (
) (
T
c N c N
N
B f
f f S f f S
f S
Q
2
3
0 2
2
0 2
3
2
)] ( [
c
W
W
c
o
A
W N
df f
A
N
t n E = = !
"
#
Observation from the above formula:
. the named is This power. noise Decreasing
2 / power carrier increasing system, FM an In
2
effect quieting noise !
c
A
81
). ( provided ,
2
3
3
2
)] ( [
3
0
2 2
2
3
0
2 2
FM ,
t r A
W N
P k A
A
W N
t m E k
SNR
c
f c
c
f
O
>> = = !
), ( ) ( ) ( As t n t m k t v
o f o
+ !
. ) ( 2 ) ( where )], ( 2 cos[ ) (
0
!
= + =
t
f c c
d m k t t t f A t s " " # $ $ #
We next turn to SNR
C,FM
.
. 2 / is ) ( signal modulated the in power average
2
c
A t s !
.
2
is bandwidth message the in power noise Average
0
0
WN df
N
W
W
=
!
"
.
2
2 /
0
2
0
2
FM ,
W N
A
W N
A
SNR
c c
C
= = !
) 1 ( 2
1
1 2
1
1 2 . 2
. Hence,
. ratio Deviation 1.
. increasing increasing , fixed For :
Carson ,
2
FM ,
FM ,
2 / 1
FM ,
FM ,
+ =
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ ' =
(
(
'
=
)
D W
D
DW
D
f B
D
SNR
SNR
W
P k
W
f
D
SNR
SNR
B W
T
C
O
f
C
O
T
Remarks
.
3
2
2
3
2
2
0
2
3
0
2 2
FM ,
FM ,
W
P k
WN
A
W N
P k A
SNR
SNR
f
c
f c
C
O
= = !
| ) ( | max t m k f
f
= !
82
2.13 Summary
! Specifically,
" for high carrier-to-noise ratio $ (equivalently to the
assumption made in Assumption 1), an increase in
transmission bandwidth B
T
provides a corresponding
quadratic increase in figure of merit of a FM system.
! So, there is a tradeoff between B
T
and figure of merit.
! Notably, figure of merit for an AM system is
nothing to do with B
T
.
Example 2.5 Single-Tone Modulation
! m(t) = A
m
cos(2#f
m
t)
! Then we can represent the figure of merit in terms of
modulation index (or deviation ratio) " as (cf. slide 2-63):
! In order to make the figure of metric for an FM system to
be superior to that for an AM system with 100%
modulation, it requires:
.
2
3
2
3
) 2 / ( 3 3
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
FM ,
FM ,
! =
"
= = = #
W
f
W
A k
W
P k
SNR
SNR
m f f
C
O
471 . 0
3
2
3
1
2
3
2
= > ! " # #
83
2.13 Capture Effect
! Recall that in Assumption 1, we assume A
c
>> r(t).
! This somehow hints that the noise suppression of an FM
modulation works well when the noise (or other unwanted
modulated signal that cannot be filtered out by the bandpass or
lowpass filters) is weaker than the desired FM signal.
! What if the unwanted FM signal is stronger than the desired FM
signal.
" The FM receiver will capture the unwanted FM signal!
! What if the unwanted FM signal has nearly equal strength as the
desired FM signal.
" The FM receiver will fluctuates back and forth between
them!
2.13 FM Threshold Effect
! Recall that in Assumption 1, we assume A
c
>> r(t)
(equivalently, a high carrier-to-noise ratio) to simplify '(t)
so that the next formula holds.
! However, a further decrease of carrier-to-noise ratio will
break the FM receiver (from a clicking sound down to a
crackling sound).
! As the same as the AM modulation, this is also named the
threshold effect.
.
2
3
3
0
2 2
FM ,
W N
P k A
SNR
f c
O
=
84
! Consider a simplified case with m(t) = 0 (no message
signal).
) ( )] ( cos[ ) ( 2
) ( ' ) ( )] ( sin[ ) ( ' )] ( cos[ ) ( ' ) (
)] ( cos[ ) (
)] ( sin[ ) (
tan
) ( ' ) ( 2
2 2
2
1
t r t t r A A
t t r t t r A t t t r A
dt
t t r A
t t r
d
t t v
c c
c c
c
+ +
+ +
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
(
)
*
+
,
+
= =
-
.
. . . .
.
.
/ 0
To facilitate the understanding of clicking sound
effect, we let r(t) = ( A
c
, a constant ratio of A
c
.
2
)] ( cos[ 2 1
)] ( cos[
) ( ' ) ( ' ) ( 2
! " !
! "
!" # $
+ +
+
= = %
t
t
t t t v
) ( '
1 )] ( cos[ 2 1
)] ( cos[
) ( ' ) ( ' ) ( 2
2
t
t
t
t t t v !
"
"
" ! "
" !
"! # $
%
&
+ +
+
= = '
1 but 1 and , ) ( say, time, at the Then ! > ! " " # $ t
Thus a sign change in &(t) will cause a spike!
Notably, when ( = 0 (no noise), the output equals m(t)
= 0 as desired.
85
2
)] sin( cos[ 2 1
)] sin( cos[
) cos( ) ( ' ) ( 2 ) sin( ) (
! " !
! "
!" # " " $
+ +
+
= = % =
t
t
t t t v t t
05 . 1 = !
05 . 0 = !
5 = !
2.13 Numerical Experiment
ratio. noise carrier to the is
2 /
and
2
,
2
3
and
2
,
4
3
) ( provided ,
2
3
0
2
3
2
3
0
2 2
3
0
2 2
FM ,
N B
A B
f
W
B
A k f
A
P
W N
f A
t r A
W N
P k A
SNR
T
c T T
m f
m c
c
f c
O
= = !
"
#
$
%
&
'
=
= ! =
!
=
>> =
( (
! Take B
T
/(2W) = 5.
" The average output signal power is calculated in the
absence of noise.
" The average output noise power is calculated when
there is no signal present.
86
2.13 Numerical of the
formula in slide 2-156
! Curve I: The average noise
power is calculated assuming an
unmodulated carrier.
! Curve II: The average noise
power is calculated assuming a
sinusoidally modulated carrier.
" As text mentioned, for $ <
11 dB, the output signal-to-
noise ratio deviates
appreciably from the linear
curve.
" A true experiment found that
occasional clicks are heard at
% around 13 dB, only slightly
larger than what theory
indicates.
The deviation of
curve II from
curve I shows that
the average noise
power is indeed
dependent on the
modulating signal.
2.13 How to avoid clicking sound?
For given modulation index (or deviation ratio) " and message
signal bandwidth W,
1. Determine B
T
by Carsons rule or Universal curve.
2. For a specified noise level N
0
, select A
c
to satisfy:
. 20
2
y, equvalentl or dB 13
2
log 10
0
2
0
2
10
! !
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
N B
A
N B
A
T
c
T
c
87
2.13 Threshold Reduction
! After our learning
that FM
modulation has
threshold effect,
the next question
is naturally on
how to reduce
the threshold?
2.13 Threshold Reduction
! Threshold reduction in FM receivers may be
achieved by
1. negative feedback (commonly referred to as an
FMFB demodulator), or
2. phase-locked loop demodulator.
! Why PLL can reduce threshold effect is not covered in
this course. Notably, the PLL system analysis in
Section 2.14 assumes noise-free transmission.
88
) (t v ) (t x
. ) ( 2 ) ( where )], ( 2 cos[ ) (
0
!
= + =
t
f c c
d m k t t t f A t s " " # $ $ #
. ) ( 2 ) ( where )], ( 2 cos[ 2 ) (
0
!
= + =
t
f vco vco vco vco
d m k t t t f t s " " #$ % % #
)] ( ) 1 ( ) ( 2 cos[
)] ( 2 cos[ )] ( 2 cos[ 2 ) ( ) (
Bandpass
t t f f A
t t f t t f A t s t s
vco c c
vco vco c c vco
! " #
! # ! #
$ + $ %
+ + =
). ( at centered , ) 1 ( as wide as
passband smaller a have ly conceptual can filter bandpass the Thus,
vco c T
f f B ! !"
. ) 1 ( deviation frequency new The
original new
f f ! " = ! #
noise. e input whit the as level noise
same the with white treated be can output Mixer at the noise The
)] ( 2 cos[ ) ( 2 ) ( ) (
!
+ = t t f t w t s t w
vco vco vco
" #
!
"
#
$
%
&
' ' +
' '
+ ' =
' = = =
+ (
+ + ' + =
'
)] ( ) 1 ( ) ( cos[ ) (
)] ( ) 1 ( ) ( sin[ ) (
tan ) ( ) 1 ( ) ( and
, ) 1 ( )] ( [ )] ( [ )] ( [ where
)], ( 2 cos[
)] ( 2 cos[ ) ( )] ( ) 1 ( 2 cos[ ) (
1
0
2 2 2
'
Limiter
'
t t t r A
t t t r
t t
N B t n E t n E t n E
t t f
t t f t r t t f A t x
c
T Q I
c
c c c
) * +
) * +
) * ,
*
, -
+ - ) * -
y. probabilit higer with holds ) ( ) ( ) ( of condition the
same, the remains and smaller, is )] ( [ )] ( [ Since
2 2
2 2
t n t n t r A
A t n E t n E
Q I c
c Q I
+ = >>
=
Experiments show that an FMFB receiver is capable of realizing a
threshold extension on the order of 5~7 dB.
89
2.13 Threshold Reduction of an FMFB
receiver
! To sum up:
" An FMFB demodulator is essentially a tracking
filter that can track only the slowly varying
frequency of a wideband FM signal (i.e., the
message signal part), and consequently it responds
only to a narrowband of noise centered about the
instantaneous carrier frequency.
2.13 Pre-Emphasis and De-emphasis in FM
! Recall that the noise PSD at the output shapes like a bowel.
! So if we can place more signal power at low frequency, a
better noise performance should result.
90
! In order to produce an undistorted version of the original
message at the receiver output, we must have:
! This relation guarantees the intactness of the message power.
! Next, we need to find H
de
(f) such that the noise power is
optimally suppressed.
. for 1 ) ( ) ( W f W f H f H
de pe
! ! " =
! Under the assumption of high carrier-to-noise ratio, the
noise PSD at the de-emphasis filter output is given by:
!
"
!
#
$
%
=
otherwise , 0
| | , | ) ( |
) ( | ) ( |
2
2
2
0
2
W f f H
A
f N
f S f H
de
c
N de
o
!
"
= #
W
W
de
c
df f H
A
f N
2
2
2
0
| ) ( | power noise Average
91
! Since the message power remains the same, the
improvement factor of the output signal-to-noise ratio after
and before pre/de-emphasis is:
! !
!
!
!
" "
"
"
"
= = =
W
W
de
W
W
de
W
W
W
W
de
c
W
W
c
df f H f
W
df f H f
df f
df f H
A
f N
df
A
f N
I
2 2
3
2 2
2
2
2
2
0
2
2
0
| ) ( | 3
2
| ) ( |
| ) ( |
Example 2.6
Pre-emphasis filter De-emphasis filter
). 2 /( 1 where ,
) / ( 1
1
) ( and ) / ( 1 ) (
0
0
0
Cr f
f f j
f H f f j f H
de pe
! =
+
= + =
. | | for 1 2 and Assume W f fCr r R ! << << "
92
Example 2.6
)] / ( tan ) / [( 3
) / (
) / ( 1
3
2
| ) ( | 3
2
0
1
0
3
0
2
0
2
3
2 2
3
f W f W
f W
df
f f
f
W
df f H f
W
I
W
W
W
W
de
!
!
!
!
=
+
= = "
#
#
With f
0
= 2.1 KHz and W = 15 KHz, we obtain I = 22 = 13 dB.
A significant noise performance improvement is therefore obtained.
! Final remarks:
" The previous example uses a linear pre-emphasis
and de-emphasis filter to improve the noise.
" A non-linear pre-emphasis and de-emphasis filters
have been applied successfully to application like
tape recording. These techniques, known as Dolby-
A, Dolby-B, and DBX systems, use a combination
of filtering and dynamic range compression to
reduce the effects of noise.
93
2.14 Computer Experiments: Phase-Locked
Loop
! Phase-locked loop
. ) ( 2 ) ( where )], ( 2 sin[ ) (
0
1 1
!
= + =
t
f c c
d m k t t t f A t s " " # $ $ #
. ) ( 2 ) ( where )], ( 2 cos[ ) (
0
2 2
!
= + =
t
v c v
d v k t t t f A t r " " # $ $ #
m
k
!
( )
)], ( sin[
2
)] ( ) ( sin[ )] ( ) ( 4 sin[
2
)] ( 2 cos[ )] ( 2 sin[
) ( ) ( ) (
Low Pass
2 1 2 1
2 1
t
A A k
t t t t t f
A A k
t t f A t t f A k
t r t s k t e
e
v c m
c
v c m
c v c c m
m
!
! ! ! ! "
! " ! "
#
$ + + + =
+ % + =
=
m
k
!
Loop filter = low pass filter + filter h()).
). ( ) ( ) ( where
2 1
t t t
e
! ! ! " =
. ) ( )} ( { ) ( Also,
LowPass !
"
" #
# = $ $ $ d t h e t v
94
!
" = " =
t
v e
d v k t t t t
0
1 2 1
) ( 2 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( # # $ % % % %
!
!
"
" #
"
" #
# # =
# # =
# =
$
% % % & '
&
% % % '
&
'
& &
d t h k
dt
t d
d t h e k
dt
t d
t v k
dt
t d
dt
t d
e
v
v
e
) ( )] ( sin[ 2
) (
) ( )} ( { 2
) (
) ( 2
) ( ) (
0
1
LowPass
1
1
. 2 / where
0 v c v m
A A k k k =
( )
( )du u h u k t
du ds s u h s k du
du
u d
du
du
u d
t
t
e
t
e
t
t
e
e
!
! ! !
!
" =
" " =
=
#
$
$ "
0
0 1
0
0
0
1
0
) ( * )] ( sin[ 2 ) (
) ( )] ( sin[ 2
) (
) (
) (
% & %
% &
%
%
%
The previous formula suggests an equivalent analytical model for PLL.
When !
e
(t) = 0, the system is said to be in phase-lock.
In this case, !
1
(t) = !
2
(t) or equivalently, k
v
v(t) = k
f
m(t).
When !
e
(t) is small (< 0.5 radians), the system is said to be in near
phase-locked.
In this case, we can approximate sin[!
e
(t)] by !
e
(t); hence, a linear
approximate model is resulted.
!
95
Linearization approximation model for PLL.
!
We can transform the above time-domain system to its
equivalent frequency domain to facilitate its analysis.
Linearization approximation model for PLL.
) ( ) ( ) ( 2 1
1
) ( ) ( ) ( 2 ) (
) (
) ( )] ( ) ( [
) (
) (
) (
0 0
0
2 2 1 1
f H k jf
jf
f G f H k
f G f H f k f
f
f f f
f
f
f
e e
e
e e
+
=
+
=
! + !
!
=
! + ! " !
!
=
!
!
#
#
) (
2
f !
) (
1
f !
) ( f H
) ( f G
f j
f G
! 2
1
) ( =
) ( f
e
!
96
2.14 Experiment 0: First-Order PLL
. 1 ) ( = f H
) / ( 1
) / (
) (
) (
0
0
1
k f j
k f j
f
f
e
+
=
!
!
A parameter k
0
controls both the loop gain and bandwidth of the
filter. In other words, there is no why of adjusting loop gain
without changing the filter bandwidth.
2.14 Experiment 1: Second-Order
Acquisition PLL
model. linear PLL using and ) /( 1 ) ( jf a f H + =
2
2
0 0
2
2
0 0 1
) / ( ) / ( 2 1
) / (
) ( ) (
) (
)) /( 1 ( ) ( ) (
) (
n n
n
e
f jf f jf
f jf
a k jf k jf
jf
jf a k jf
jf
f H k jf
jf
f
f
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
+
=
!
!
"
. ) 4 /( factor damping and frequency natural where
0 0
a k ak f
n
= = !
97
2.14 Experiment 1: Second-Order
Acquisition PLL
Herz. ) 2 /( 1 Take ! =
n
f
Fast response but require
longer time to stablelize
Slow response but quick
stablelizatoin.
2.14 Experiment 2: Phase-Plain Portrait
model. PLL nonlinear using and ) /( 1 ) ( jf a f H + =
!
!
"
!
!
#
$
=
=
damping) (critical
2
1
Herz
2 2
50
Take
%
&
n
f
Hz.
2 2
50
where ), cos(2 ) ( Let
! !
! = =
m m m
f t f A t m
!
!
"
" #
"
" #
# # =
# # =
$ $ $ % &
$ $ $ %
%
&
%
&
d t h t f
k
A k
d t h
dt
t d
k dt
t d
k
e m
m f
e
e
) ( )] ( sin[ ) 2 cos(
) ( )] ( sin[
) (
2
1 ) (
2
1
0
1
0 0
98
Phase-Plane Portrait
) (t
e
!
) (
2
1
0
t
dt
d
k
e
!
"
Initial value
Remarks on the previous figure
! Each curve corresponds to different initial frequency error
(i.e., boundary condition for the differential equation).
! The phase-plane portrait is periodic in !
e
(t) with period 2#,
but the phase-plane portrait is not periodic in d!
e
(t)/dt.
! There exists an initial frequency error (such as 2 in the
previous figure) at which a saddle line appears (i.e., the
solid line in the previous figure).
! In certain cases, the PLL will ultimately reach an
equilibrium (stable) points at (0,0) or (2#,0).
! A slightest perturbation to the saddle line causes it to
shift to the equilibrium points.
99
2.15 Summary and Discussion
! Four types of AM modulations are introduced
" (expensive) DSB-C transmitter + (inexpensive) envelope
detector, which is good for applications like radio
broadcasting.
" (less expensive) DSB-SC transmitter + (more complex)
coherent detector, which is good for applications like limited-
transmitter-power point-to-point communication.
" (less bandwidth) VSB transmitter + coherent detector, which
is good for applications like television signals and high speed
data.
" (minimum transmission power/bandwidth) SSB transmitter +
coherent detector, which is perhaps only good for
applications whose message signals have an energy gap on
zero frequency.
! FM modulation, a representative of Angle
Modulation
" A nonlinear modulation process
" Carsons rule and universal curve on transmission
bandwidth
100
2.15 Summary and
Discussion
! Noise performance
I. Full AM (DSB-C) with
100 percent modulation
II. Coherent DSB-SC &
SSB
III. FM with " = 2 and 13
dB pre/de-emphasis
improvement
IV. FM with " = 5 and 13
dB pre/de-emphasis
improvement
Threshold effect
! Normalized transmission bandwidth in the previous figure
AM, DSB-SC SSB FM("=2) FM("=5)
B
n
2 1 8 16
f
B
f W
f B
W
B
B
T T T
n
!
=
!
!
= = "
/
/
urve UniversalC ,
4 2! = 2 . 3 5! =
(Refer to slide 85.)
101
! Observations from the figure
1. SSB modulation is optimum in noise performance
and bandwidth conservation in AM family
2. FM modulation improves the noise performance of
AM family at the expense of an excessive
transmission bandwidth.
3. Curves III an IV indicates FM modulation offers
the tradeoff between transmission bandwidth and
noise performance.

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