Many times you will hear helicopter pilots refer to hovering in ground effect as resting on a

cushion of air. Technically speaking, what they are referring to is the extra performance that
hovering in-ground-effect (HIGE) provides versus hovering out-of-ground-effect (HOGE).
Ground effect is defined as a condition of improved performance that results from operating
near a firm surface. A helicopter is normally considered to be in ground effect when it is
hovering less than one-half of its rotor diameter from the ground. However, the amount of
benefit varies as a function of height. A lower hover will generate more efficiency and as the
helicopter climbs the advantage decreases reaching zero about one and one-quarter times the
rotor diameter.
A helicopter requires less power to hover in ground effect for two reasons. The main reason is
the reduced velocity of the induced airflow caused by the ground. (Induced flow is air flowing
down through the rotor system and is also called downwash.) This reduced velocity results in
less induced drag and a more vertical lift vector. As such, the lift needed to sustain a hover can
now be generated with a lower angle of attack in rotor blades, which requires less power.
The second reason has to do with vortices generated at the rotor tips. The close proximity of
the ground forces more air outward and restricts vortex generation. This reduces drag and
increases the efficiency of the outer portion of the rotors.
The maximum benefit is achieved from hovering over a hard surface such as concrete. When a
helicopter hovers over an area such as tall grass or water, energy is absorbed by displacing the
surface, allowing the induced flow to increase, thus reducing the lift vector. This will require the
pilot to add power to maintain that hover height.
When a helicopter is in a high hover, or out-of-ground-effect, it requires a lot more power
because there is no obstruction to slow the induced flow or force it outward. This results in a
more vertical downwash and also allows the formation of stronger rotor tip vortices, reducing
efficiency.
Helicopter pilots need to consider this when making very steep approaches as it has caused
accidents. Typically, what happens is while a pilot is attempting to land, they allow their
airspeed to get too slow and their approach too steep. They then realize they do not have
enough power to slow the descent rate. In this case, the helicopter begins settling from a lack
of available power. This is not the same as an aerodynamic condition called settling with
power, which involves the generation of a vortex ring state (subject of future blog).
The helicopters Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) has both In-Ground-Effect (IGE) and Out-of-
Ground-Effect (OGE) hover charts. This allows the pilot to take the density altitude and gross
weight into account to predict hover performance. It is very important for pilots performing
some missions such as ENG (Electronic News Gathering) or external lift operations to know if
their helicopter can hover out of ground effect. Safe helicopter operations depend on good
performance planning.

The high power requirement needed to hover out of ground effect is reduced when operating in
ground effect. Ground effect is a condition of improved performance encountered when
operating near (within 1/2 rotor diameter) of the ground. It is due to the interference of the
surface with the airflow pattern of the rotor system, and it is more pronounced the nearer the
ground is approached. Increased blade efficiency while operating in ground effect is due to two
separate and distinct phenomena.
First and most important is the reduction of the velocity of the induced airflow. Since the ground
interrupts the airflow under the helicopter, the entire flow is altered. This reduces downward
velocity of the induced flow. The result is less induced drag and a more vertical lift vector. The
lift needed to sustain a hover can be produced with a reduced angle of attack and less power
because of the more vertical lift vector:

The second phenomena is a reduction of the rotor tip vortex:

When operating in ground effect, the downward and outward airflow pattern tends to restrict
vortex generation. This makes the outboard portion of the rotor blade more efficient and reduces
overall system turbulence caused by ingestion and recirculation of the vortex swirls.
Rotor efficiency is increased by ground effect up to a height of about one rotor diameter for most
helicopters. This figure illustrates the percent increase in rotor thrust experienced at various rotor
heights:

At a rotor height of one-half rotor diameter, the thrust is increased about 7 percent. At rotor
heights above one rotor diameter, the thrust increase is small and decreases to zero at a height of
about 1 1/4 rotor diameters.
Maximum ground effect is accomplished when hovering over smooth paved surfaces. While
hovering over tall grass, rough terrain, revetments, or water, ground effect may be seriously
reduced. This phenomena is due to the partial breakdown and cancellation of ground effect and
the return of large vortex patterns with increased downwash angles.
Two identical airfoils with equal blade pitch angles are compared in the following figure:

The top airfoil is out-of-ground-effect while the bottom airfoil is in-ground-effect. The airfoil
that is in-ground-effect is more efficient because it operates at a larger angle of attack and
produces a more vertical lift vector. Its increased efficiency results from a smaller downward
induced wind velocity which increases angle of attack. The airfoil operating out-of-ground-effect
is less efficient because of increased induced wind velocity which reduces angle of attack.
If a helicopter hovering out-of-ground-effect descends into a ground-effect hover, blade
efficiency increases because of the more favorable induced flow. As efficiency of the rotor
system increases, the pilot reduces blade pitch angle to remain in the ground-effect hover. Less
power is required to maintain however in-ground-effect than for the out-of-ground-effect hover.