Toooot! Vroooom! The urban soundscape in Indonesia.

(Research Notes and

Comments)
Publication: SOJOURN: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia
Publication Date: 01-OCT-0
Author: Colo!bi"n# $ree%
COP&RI'(T )00 Institute of Southeast Asian Stu*ies +IS,AS-
Introduction
In*onesian cities are nois./ At least# the. are nois. co!0are* 1ith cities in its Southeast Asian nei2hbours#
Sin2a0ore an* 3ala.sia# an* the t1o lar2est countries in Asia# In*ia an* China# both of 1hich ha4e e5ercise*
a 0rofoun* cultural influence on In*onesia o4er the centuries/ +)- In this article I 1ill e50lore the soun*sca0e
of In*onesian cities: 6hat are the !ain co!0onents of the soun*sca0e an* ho1 *o resi*ents e50erience
urban soun*s7 The soun*sca0e has chan2e* in the course of histor. throu2h the interconnecte* 0rocesses
of !o*erni8ation an* 2lobali8ation# an* .et# the In*onesian urban soun*sca0e has %e0t its *istincti4e
character/ This article is an atte!0t to see 1hether social scientists can stu*. so!ethin2 as intan2ible as
noise in a !eanin2ful 1a./ The article stan*s in the tra*ition of the stu*. of chan2in2 to1nsca0es or urban
s0ace an* also buil*s on the stu*. of soun*sca0es/ These t1o strea!s of research# on urban s0ace an*
soun*sca0es# see!e* to ha4e i2nore* each other totall./
As a historical-anthro0olo2ical e5ercise# this article encounters both historical an* anthro0olo2ical *ifficulties/
One of the first 9uestions in historical research relates to the a4ailabilit. of sources/ The historical stu*. of
soun*sca0es clearl. suffers fro! a *earth of *ata/ Photos an* all sorts of 1ritten sources +tra4elo2ues#
ne1s0a0ers# an* 2o4ern!ent archi4es- 0ro4i*e infor!ation about the 4isual to1nsca0e 1hile onl. soun*
recor*in2s can 0ro4i*e *irect infor!ation about soun*s fro! the 0ast/ Unfortunatel. no archi4es of these
recor*in2s e5ist in In*onesia to balance the libraries# or*inar. archi4es# an* 0hoto collections/ +:- 6hile
soun*s are occasionall. *escribe* in 1ritten sources an* oral testi!onies# it is *ifficult for the researcher to
en4isa2e ho1 these soun*s resonate* in the 0ast/ (o1 *i* the a8an +3usli! call to 0ra.er- echo in the 0ast#
before lou*s0ea%ers 1ere use* to su!!on the reli2ious to their *e4otions7 6e are fa!iliar 1ith the soun* of
bar%in2 *o2s# but 1hat *i* it reall. soun* li%e in the ti!e of Justus 4an 3auri% +1;<;# 00/ =<->)-# 1ho 2a4e
a four-0a2e *escri0tion of bein2 unable to slee0 in the 6est Su!atran to1n of Pa*an2 on account of the
ho1ls an* 2ro1ls of *o8ens of 2la*a%%ers +%a!0on2 *o2s-7 An* ho1 1ell coul* resi*ents in 3a%assar#
Pa*an2 an* other coastal cities hear 1a4es brea%in2 on the coast# before the rise of !otori8e*
trans0ortation *ro1ne* out the soun*s of the sea7 The e5tensi4e# often ono!ato0oeic 4ocabular. that 1e
use to *escribe soun*s--rattle# clatter# crac%le# clin%# tin%le# rustle# 0ee0# s9uea%# s0lash# bar%# 0urr# roar#
ho1l# an* so on--an* the soun*-i!itatin2 transcri0tions# such as those !a*e b. earl. ornitholo2ists# are at
best an i!0erfect a00ro5i!ation of the e!0irical soun* +Schafer 1<# 00/ 1=-?)-/
Since this article is "ust a 0reli!inar. e50loration of the to0ic of soun*sca0es# I 0refer to circu!4ent the
!etho*olo2ical issue of ho1 an* 1here to collect *ata in s.ste!atic searches@ I ha4e chosen to a00roach
the issue of soun*sca0es 1ith the use of *ata collecte* as a b.-0ro*uct of t1o *eca*es of inter!ittent
research in In*onesia/ +?- This research has co4ere* 4arious to0ics# but ne4er soun*sca0es as such/ The
*ata are therefore ine4itabl. i!0ressionistic# but the. ser4e the 0ur0ose of intro*ucin2 soun* as a 4ali* to0ic
of stu*./
The anthro0olo2ical *ifficult. of this article lies in the 9uestion of 1hat soun*s !ean to the local 0eo0le/
Accor*in2 to !ore than a fe1 anthro0olo2ists# the essence of anthro0olo2ical in9uir. is to un*erstan* the
!eanin2 0eo0le 2i4e to their li4es +or to their natural an* social en4iron!ent- +see# for e5a!0le# 'eert8
1<:@ Or!er 1<<-/ As 0re4iousl. note*# co!0are* to cities in other Asian countries# the !ost salient
feature of In*onesian cities is the noise le4el/ Conse9uentl.# the central 9uestion shoul* be 1hat this noise
!eans to In*onesians/ At this 0oint I !ust a*!it that these cities are onl. nois. to !. outsi*erAs ears/
In*onesians--of *ifferent 2en*er# class# an* a2e 2rou0s--1ho! I as%e* 1hat the. thou2ht of the noise
usuall. ha* *ifficult. un*erstan*in2 the 9uestion/ Noise is a sub"ecti4e notion +Schafer 1<-/ 6hat I
*efine* as nois. 1as not noise to !. interlocutors/ The 9uestion 1as irrele4ant an* therefore fro! a
constructi4ist 4ie1 +Berhoe4en 1<;;- the to0ic of noise is a non-issue/ +=-
The *ata 0resente* in this article are structure* aroun* four the!es: the soun*s of the street@ the soun*s of
0o1er@ the soun*s of !o*ernit.@ an* the soun*s of inti!ac./ This cate2ori8ation into four the!es 1as !a*e
intuiti4el. an* is not base* on an. for!al criterion/ The four sections 1hich each *eal 1ith one of the
the!es are 0rece*e* b. a theoretical e50loration of the conce0ts of urban s0ace an* soun*sca0es/ Perha0s I
shoul* en* this intro*uction 1ith a 1or* of caution: 1hen I call In*onesian cities nois.# this state!ent is
certainl. not inten*e* as a ne2ati4e 4alue "u*2e!ent/ The soun* le4el of In*onesian cities *i* not elicit a
con*e!nation of the noise# but !erel. e4o%e* in !e a!a8e!ent at an e!0irical 0heno!enon# 1hich is an*
shoul* be# I belie4e# the start of e4er. research/
Space and Sound
A no1 con4entional 1a. to 4ie1 urban s0ace is to consi*er it as a social 0ro*uct# 0ro*uce* b. an*
si!ultaneousl. 0ro*ucin2 social relations +Cefeb4re 1<?@ Ra0o0ort 1<<?@ So"a 1<;=-/ In the 1or*s of A!os
Ra0o0ort +1<<?# 0/ ?-# the built en4iron!ent is Dthe 4isible e50ression of the social !osaic E///@F social
structure an* s0atial structure are closel. relate*D/ The +urban- lan*sca0e is the se*i!ent of historical
chan2es# or Dti!e !ateriali8in2D +Gen*er )00): S10:-/
A *istinction is often !a*e bet1een s0ace as a 0h.sical three-*i!ensional realit. an* the 0erce0tion an* use
of that s0ace/ The 0h.sical s0ace consists of the built en4iron!ent an* other !aterial ob"ects/ 6hen it
co!es to the 0erce0tion of s0ace a finer *istinction is !a*e bet1een a *esi2nerAs !eanin2 an* or*inar.
usersA !eanin2/ DDesi2nersD li%e a*!inistrators an* 0lanners +an* 0erha0s "ournalists an* scholars too-
create a re0resentation of the cit. b. usin2 cate2ori8ations of 0eo0le an* econo!ic functions# statistics#
!aster 0lans# !a0s# an* re2ulations/ This re0resentation of the cit. !a. *iffer 1i*el. fro! the s0ace as
0ercei4e* an* e50erience* b. or*inar. 0eo0le/ The or*inar. 0ersons 1ho use the urban s0ace fro! *a. to
*a. i!bue it 1ith !eanin2 an* s.!bols# an* ha4e a stron2 sense of 0lace +Gen*er )00): S10?@ De Certeau
1<;?# 00/ 5ii-55ii# <1-110@ 'ott*iener an* $ea2in 1<;;@ (ar4e. 1<;<# 00/ )0:-)0?@ Hilian 1<<;@ Hlaufus
)00>@ Cefeb4re 1<?@ Philli0s 1<<># 0/ ?1>@ Ra0o0ort 1<;)# 00/ 1=-:?@ Ra0o0ort 1<<?# 00/ ?:-?@ 6einer
)00)-/
Differences in use# 0erce0tion# an* *esire* chan2es in urban s0ace *o not e5ist onl. bet1een *ifferent
cate2ories of 0eo0le# but also e5ist bet1een the rulers an* the rule*/ In her stu*. of colonial Sin2a0ore#
Gren*a &eoh ar2ues that !ost e5istin2 stu*ies of Asian colonial cities to *ate ha4e 4ie1e* the Asian cit. as
the 0ro*uct of he2e!onic 6estern forces/ Colonial cities# ho1e4er# 1ere Dalso a terrain of *isci0line an*
resistance# E///F the conten*e* ob"ect of e4er.*a. *iscourse in conflicts an* ne2otiations in4ol4in2 both
colonialists an* coloni8e* 2rou0s E///F# each 1ith their o1n 4ersions of realit. an* 0racticeD +&eoh 1<<># 0/
10-/ Colonial 0o1er 1as to a consi*erable e5tent e5ercise* throu2h the *efinition of s0atial relations/ 'rou0s
1hich conteste* colonial 0o1er 1ere stru22lin2 1ith the colonial urban 2o4ern!ent o4er the a00ro0riation of
urban s0ace/ One e5a!0le is the !unici0al 0ers0ecti4e of o4ercro1*e*# unsanitar. housin2 con*itions#
4ersus the 0eo0leAs 0ers0ecti4e of cro1*e*# .et 1ell-structure* sho0-houses in Sin2a0ore +Hon2 an* &eoh
)00:@ Husno )000@ Ra.chau*huri )001@ &eoh 1<<># 00/ 1-)# 1:>-?-/ The 0oints that cities are sites of
conflict an* ne2otiation an* that state 0o1er is e5ercise* throu2h the *efinition of the !eanin2 of urban
s0ace can be a00lie* 1ithout restrictions to conte!0orar. cities/
In the stu*. of urban s0ace# urban s.!bolis!# an* !ental !a0s# soun* is cons0icuousl. absent/ (enri
Cefeb4re +1<?- an* others 1ritin2 on the social 0ro*uction of s0ace ha4e not trie* their han* at soun*/
Soun* is also !issin2 in stu*ies on urban s.!bolis! +for e5a!0le# Nas 1<<:-# althou2h there is clearl. a
0oint to !a%e in this res0ect/ In a**ition to e5a!0les 2i4en belo1# 1e can thin% of sirens# !archin2 ban*s#
an* the tunes 0la.e* earl. in the !ornin2 before office hours or school/ 3ental !a0s +the relationshi0
bet1een a har* 0h.sical s0ace an* a soft 0ercei4e* s0ace- ha4e been e50lore* in the 0ioneerin2 1or% of
He4in C.nch +1<>0-/ C.nch ar2ues that urban resi*ents construct !ental !a0s of the cit. b. 1hich the.
orient the!sel4es/ These !ental !a0s are base* on ele!ents of the 0h.sical en4iron!ent# such as e*2es#
0aths# crossroa*s# an* lan*!ar%s/ Soun*s# ho1e4er# are !issin2 in C.nchAs 1or%# althou2h the. are clearl.
0art of !ental !a0s/
Soun*sca0es beca!e an ob"ect of stu*. throu2h the se!inal stu*ies of !usicolo2ist R/ 3urra. Schafer/
Ph.sical 0ro0erties of soun*s can be *escribe* b. !easurin2 soun*-0ressure le4el +lou*ness-# 0itch# an*
len2th of the soun*# but soun*sca0e stu*ies a** a 0heno!enolo2ical co!0onent to the stu*. of soun*/ (o1
is soun* 0ercei4e* b. the 0eo0le 1ho hear it7 6hat is the !eanin2 of soun*s7 (earin2 a 0leasant soun* can
!a%e 0eo0le feel co!fortable/ On-site in4esti2ations in a Ja0anese cit. 0ar% re4eale*# for instance# that
natural soun*s# li%e trees rustlin2 an* 1ater flo1in2# an* social soun*s# li%e chil*ren 0la.in2# 1ere
a00reciate* +Jian 'e an* (o%ao )00?# )00=@ Ca4an*ier an* Defre4ille )00>: <1)@ &an2 an* Han2 )00=-/ In
the 1or*s of Catherine 'uasta4ino +)00>: <=0-: Dthe i*eal urban soun*sca0e reflects lifeID
3an. soun*sca0e stu*ies ha4e focusse* less on acoustic co!fort# than on noise/ Soun*sca0e stu*ies
t.0icall. *o not e50ress noise si!0l. in ter!s of soun*-0ressure le4el +CAe9#T or CA!a5# e50resse* in
*ecibels-# +>- but as Dun1ante* soun*D/ Ph.sicall. there is no *ifference bet1een soun* an* noise# an* noise
is not necessaril. lou* soun* +Ger2lun*# Cin*4all an* Sch1ela )000# 0/ 4ii@ Schafer 1<# 0/ 1;:-/ 6hat is
consi*ere* noise an* 1hat is 0leasant soun* *iffers fro! culture to culture/ $or instance# *ata 0resente* b.
Schafer *e!onstrate that 0eo0le in *ifferent cities can be !ost anno.e* b. *ifferent soun*s/ In Con*on
0eo0le co!0lain !ost about the noise of traffic# in Chica2o about air-con*itioners# in 3unich about nois.
restaurants# an* in Johannesbur2 about the noise !a*e b. bir*s an* other ani!als/ These co!0laints not
onl. reflect the sub"ecti4e 0erce0tion of soun*s# but also the actual occurrence of soun*s/ Another e5a!0le
of the culturall. e!be**e* 0erce0tion of noise is the fre9uenc. 1ith 1hich car horns are use* at crossroa*s#
ran2in2 fro! )= si2nals 0er hour in Stoc%hol!# 4ia ?>1 in Paris to 11=0 si2nals in Cairo/ The 4ar.in2
fre9uenc. can be inter0rete* as a *ifferent tolerance for car horns# or# to 0ut it *ifferentl.# a *i4er2ent
0erce0tion of the 9uestion 1hether the soun* of a car horn is noise +Schafer 1<# 00/ 1;-;;# 1<>-/ Since
noise is a sub"ecti4e !atter an* *iffers fro! 0lace to 0lace# there is a!0le reason to e50lore the soun*sca0e
of a so far lar2el. i2nore* 0lace: the In*onesian cit./
The fact that noise is sub"ecti4e shoul* not *istract fro! the fact that lou* soun* can ha4e a*4erse effects
on health/ A stu*. of the 6orl* (ealth Or2anisation +Ger2lun*# Cin*4all an* Sch1ela )000- lists as ne2ati4e
conse9uences# a!on2 other thin2s# hearin2 i!0air!ent# an* the *isturbance of rest an* slee0/ Slee0
*isturbance has i!!e*iate effects li%e increase* bloo* 0ressure# increase* heart rate a!0litu*e# increase*
fati2ue# an* a *e0resse* !oo*/ Prolon2e* e50osure to noise can lea* to h.0ertension an* ischae!ic heart
*isease/ Noise e50osure !a. also re*uce hel0ful beha4iour an* increase a22ressi4e beha4iour/
To conclu*e this theoretical fra!e1or%# I ar2ue that a cross-fertili8ation bet1een the current stu*ies of
urban s0ace an* soun*sca0e is *esirable an* 1ill be !utuall. beneficial/ Soun*sca0es a** an i!0ortant
ele!ent to urban s0ace/ Con4ersel.# co!0arati4e stu*ies of soun*sca0es 1hich ta%e 1hole cit. 0o0ulations
as research 0o0ulations 1ithout *ifferentiation can learn fro! stu*ies of s0ace 1hich *o *istin2uish bet1een
*ifferent cate2ories of 0eo0le/ +- The 0erce0tion of urban s0ace# the s.!bolic !eanin2 attache* to
+ele!ents of- the urban s0ace# the conco!itant *ail. use !a*e of the urban s0ace# an*--1e can no1 a**--
the 0erce0tion of soun*sca0es *iffers fro! one ethnic 2rou0 to another# fro! class to class# a2e 2rou0 to
a2e 2rou0# an* 2en*er to 2en*er +Gen*er )00): S10?-S10@ 'oul* an* 6hite 1<<)@ C.nch 1<>0@ Nas
1<<:-/ 6e 1ill no1 turn to the soun*sca0e of In*onesian cities/
The Sounds of the Street
Dail. soun*s in In*onesian cities inclu*e !otori8e* traffic# car horns# a8an# the 4oices of %ene% +fee-
collectors on 0ublic trans0ort- .ellin2 the final *estination to 0eo0le on the 0a4e!ent or callin2 out the ne5t
lan*!ar% to 0eo0le insi*e the buses# the soun*s of a!bulant 4en*ors 1ho each ha4e a reco2ni8able si2nal
+the sate seller !a%in2 one soun*# the ice-crea! 4en*or another# an* so on-# an* the !usic co!in2 fro!
sho0s +listen for e5a!0le to $ahres# Ban *e Poel# an* Si*harta )001# trac%s 1# =# <# 1:-/ A!al2a!atin2 1ith
each other these street soun*s are 4er. lou* an* the. are occasionall. au2!ente* b. non-hu!an noise#
such as the *eafenin2 soun* of a tro0ical rainstor! thru!!in2 on a corru2ate* iron roof/ Cities connecte* to
the rail1a. net1or% ha4e the a**itional soun* of trains@ as a 0recaution these trains soun* their siren at
each le4el crossin2/ So!e of these soun*s bear loo%in2 into in !ore *etail/
(orns are one of the !eans of co!!unication bet1een *ri4ers/ Subtle co!!unication bet1een roa* users is
necessar. 1hen usin2 the li!ite* an* cro1*e* s0ace to its best a*4anta2e/ Prece*ence in In*onesian traffic
is not *eter!ine* b. the for!al traffic rules# but b. a hierarch. of si8e an* 1ei2ht/ Soun* hel0s to establish
an* ac%no1le*2e this hierarch. bet1een users/ DIn 2eneralD# 6olfra! Coren8 +)00): ><<- re!ar%s# Da horn
is also use* to force others to !a%e 1a.# an* not onl. in case of e!er2enc.D/
,lectronicall. a!0lifie* 0o0 !usic is o!ni0resent/ Se4eral 6estern artists are 1ell %no1n# but there is also a
li4el. In*onesian 0o0 scene 1hich co!es in t1o 4arieties/ One is calle* Droc% In*onesiaD an* the other
*an2*ut +an erotic !i5ture of In*onesian# In*ian# an* 6estern soun*s an* instru!ents-/ Cou* 0o0 !usic is
co!!on in the not-too-0osh sho00in2 !alls/ 3usic stores as 1ell as other sho0s in these !alls co!0ete
1ith each other in 0lacin2 lou*s0ea%ers in front of their 0re!ises an* 0la.in2 !usic at full 4olu!e/ 3usic is
also 0la.e* in !an. 0ublic trans0ort 4ehicles +cit. buses# close* 0ic%-u0 truc%s# an* 4ans-# but this 4aries
fro! cit. to cit./ Presu!abl. certain local b.-la1s forbi* the use of s0ea%ers in 0ublic trans0ort in so!e
cities/ In Pe%anbaru# b. contrast# the lou*s0ea%ers are 2rotes9ue: a s0ea%er !easurin2 !ore than =0 5 =0 5
=0 c! in a cra!0e* 4an is no e5ce0tion/ The soun* is often co!0letel. *istorte*@ nobo*. see!s to en"o.
the e50erience but the 0assen2ers suffer it stoicall./ $or the *ri4ers the noise so!eti!es 1or%s li%e a
sti!ulatin2 *ru2 an* s0urs the! on to rec%less *ri4in2/
Harao%e is usuall. sun2 in seclu*e* areas# but can also be sun2 in 0ublic/ The &u%i Si!0an Ra.a sho00in2
!all in 3e*an# for e5a!0le# has a %arao%e bar locate* in the 0ublic area/ This !all has a central# o4al-
sha0e* o0en s0ace reachin2 fro! the 2roun* to the to0 floor# 1ith sho0s an* stairs encirclin2 this court/ An
o0en %arao%e bar is locate* on the secon* floor# but its screen an* s0ea%ers are hun2 on the balustra*e of
the thir* floor on the o00osite si*e of the o0en s0ace/ The soun* le4el 0ro*uce* at the thir* floor !ust at
least be enou2h to be clearl. hear* on the secon* floor/ The lou*ness is# ho1e4er# e4en !ore than that
functional re9uire!ent# an* the soun* is au*ible not onl. in the bar# but throu2hout the central court/
An.one can 0ic% u0 the !icro0hone to sin2 her +or so!eti!es his- son2/ Nee*less to sa.# !an. of these
4oices are untraine*# but no enthusiastic sin2er see!s to consi*er this a reason to %ee0 9uiet/
3e*an is ar2uabl. the noisiest cit. of In*onesia/ I!0ortant e50lanator. factors are the 0eculiar 3e*an t1o-
stri%e !otor beca% +0e*icab- an* the air traffic/ Of course# the noise of aero0lanes is hear* in !an. 0laces#
but it is e5tre!el. 0re4alent in 3e*an/ The air0ort of 3e*an 1as built in the 1<:0s an* its noise# es0eciall.
at a nearb. hos0ital# 1as an i!0ortant reason to consi*er !o4in2 it farther out/ The local a*!inistrators
solicite* the o0inion of J/P/ Thi"sse# the hea* of the National Plannin2 Office# on this 0ro0osal to !o4e the
air0ort/ Thi"sse# ho1e4er# felt that this urban facilit. shoul* be 1ithin the !unici0al boun*aries an* that in
the D1in*lessD EsicF tro0ics# a run1a. nee* not necessaril. create lar2e 4olu!es of noise/ +;- The airfiel* has
re!aine* in the sa!e location e4er since/ The subse9uent e5ten*in2 of the run1a. to acco!!o*ate lar2er
aircraft# cou0le* 1ith a bi2 increase in air traffic# has contribute* to an increase in the noise/ Si!ultaneousl.#
the air0ort has 2ra*uall. co!e closer to the urban centre as the centre an* the cit. as a 1hole ha4e
e50an*e* out1ar*s/ ,s0eciall. 1hen one has a *o!icile un*er the fli2ht 0ath# the noise of the air0ort
*ro1ns out all other soun*s# 1orst of all *urin2 the occasional ta%e-off of a "u!bo "et/
One reason 1h. the citi8ens of 3e*an an* other In*onesian cities !a. not be o4erl. anno.e* b. the traffic
is the fact that the soun* is continuous/ At least# this e50lanation is su22este* b. the fin*in2 of Ca4an*ier
an* Defre4ille +)00>- that soun* source characteristics influence the a00raisal of the soun*sca0e/ A
continuous hi2h soun*-0ressure le4el# such as at a roa* full of traffic# is consi*ere* less *isturbin2 than
un0re*ictable# isolate* soun* e4ents# such as a car 0assin2 a 0ar%/ Inci*entall.# anec*otal su00ort for this
fin*in2 is 0ro4i*e* b. the fa!ous Dutch no4elist Si!on Best*i"%# 1ho alle2e*l. s1itche* on the 4acuu!
cleaner 1hen he 1rote# in or*er not to be *isturbe* b. other soun*s/ If Ca4an*ier an* Defre4ille are correct#
the aero0lanes ta%in2 off in 3e*an shoul* be 0ercei4e* as noisier than the traffic# e4en thou2h the soun*-
0ressure le4el 0ro*uce* b. 0lanes in )? hours is far less than that 0ro*uce* b. the roa* traffic/ As Stansfel*
et al/ +)00=: 1<?)- conclu*e* in a cross-cultural stu*.: DSchools e50ose* to hi2h le4els of aircraft noise are
not health. e*ucational en4iron!entsD/
A rare instance 1hen 0eo0le *i* critici8e the noise co!es fro! colonial ti!es/ In 1<:=# the local *ail. in
Suraba.a co!0laine* about the street noise/ The 1orst noise 1as cause* b. !otori8e* ric%sha1s +beca%-:
D/// noisier than an aero0lane fl.in2 lo1 ri2ht o4er the roof# !ore tre!en*ousl. nois. than a ra!shac%le
truc% roarin2 0ast the front 2aller.# an* ra2in2 !ore *e4ilishl. than a tro0ical thun*erstor!# it is an ur2ent
i!0erati4e that this infernal 0la2ue be brou2ht to an en*# as this trial is at o**s 1ith e4er. notion of
ci4ili8ationD +<- +Soerabaiaasch-(an*elsbla* )> $ebruar. 1<:=-/ It is si2nificant that this co!0laint# 1hich
1ent unhear*# 1as 4oice* b. a ,uro0ean an* not an In*onesian/ It is also si2nificant that the cri-*e-coeur
*ates bac% se4en *eca*es# 1hen street noise 1as less continuous an* consiste* !ore of soun* e4ents/
The Sin2a0orean 'o4ern!ent has *one !ore to re*uce street noise/ $or!er Pri!e 3inister Cee Huan &e1
recalle* ha4in2 to *eal 1ith noise 0ollution fro! 4ehicles# 0ile-*ri4in2 on construction sites# lou*s0ea%ers
fro! o0en-air entertain!ent# an* tele4ision sets an* ra*ios/ Cee# a fir! belie4er in the !alleabilit. of
societ.# clai!s to ha4e re*uce* the noise 0ollution throu2h ne1 re2ulations/ DNoisiest an* !ost *an2erous
1as the custo! of firin2 crac%ers *urin2 the Chinese Ne1 &ear season/ E///F I sto00e* this a2e-ol* Chinese
tra*ition of firin2 crac%ers# !a%in2 it an offenseD +Cee )000# 00/ 1;01-1;;1-/ The co!0arison 1ith
Sin2a0ore shoul* not be inter0rete* as 0roof that In*onesiaAs little nei2hbour acts !ore *ecisi4el.# but
su22ests a2ain that so!eho1 In*onesians *o not 9uic%l. consi*er street soun*s noise/
The Sounds of Power
R/ 3urra. Schafer re!ar%e* that noise e9uals 0o1er/ $or instance# in the nineteenth centur.# the rail1a.s
1hich use* 6attAs stea! en2ine !aintaine* their nois. clan%# a2ainst the in4entorsA o1n 1ish to eli!inate it/
The rail1a. o1ners li%e* the soun*# because it i!0resse* b.stan*ers/ In the 1<0s A!erican car
!anufacturers a*4ertise* 1ith the noise !a*e b. their cars +Schafer 1<# 00/ ># ;:-/
Barious e5a!0les in In*onesia also *e!onstrate the 0oint that the 0ro*uction of lou* soun* can be a sho1
of force/ In*onesian sol*iers often sin2 an* *ance in 0ublic s0aces after ha4in2 fulfille* a !ission# or 1hen
the. are about to set off on a !arch/ This ha00enin2 has been a 1ell-%no1n 0heno!enon in ,ast Ti!or#
Aceh an* other *o!estic battle2roun*s/ I obser4e* this sin2in2 in Ja%arta on In*e0en*ence Da.# )00?#
1hen ar!.# air force# na4.# an* 0olice troo0s 1ere %illin2 ti!e 1hile 1aitin2 to 0ara*e in front of the
0resi*ential 0alace/ ,ach troo0 ha* a lea* sin2er 1ho 1oul* sin2 a line# 1hich the troo0 either then re0eate*
or ans1ere*/ The sin2in2 of the 4arious forces# all *resse* in 2ala unifor!s# assu!e* the for! of a
co!0etition# li%e stu*entsA clubs challen2in2 each other at a stu*ent union/ The i!0ression of a stu*ent
union 1as reinforce* b. a troo0 of fe!ale sol*iers sin2in2 in hi2h 0itche* 4oices acco!0anie* b. 0ri!#
conceite* bo*. !o4e!ents/
In election ca!0ai2ns in In*onesia# 0olitical 0arties hol* rallies *urin2 1hich their a*herents ri*e throu2h
to1ns on !otorc.cles# !a%in2 as !uch noise as 0ossible 1ith an o0en silencer +%nal0ot-/ 'rou0s of !as%e*
!otorc.clists re!o4e the silencers an* ren*er the air horren*ous 1ith their noise/ The 0olice !a%e no
atte!0t to u0hol* the la1 in this res0ect +Coren8 )00): ><<-/ 6hen this t.0e of beha4iour e!er2e* in the
earl. 1<;0s# local ne1s0a0ers *i* not consi*er it a nuisance at all/ On the contrar.# the use of noise 1as
0raise* as so!ethin2 creati4e an* e4en as an art for! +Pur1anto )00=# 0/ )1)-/
Soun* also 0la.e* a role *urin2 the )00? 0resi*ential election ca!0ai2n/ Can*i*ates toure* the countr.
2i4in2 0resentations/ 6hen a local ne1s0a0er in Gali co!0are* the 0resentations b. Susilo Ga!ban2
&u*ho.ono an* 3e2a1ati# one of the 0oints on 1hich the can*i*ates 1ere "u*2e* 1as the 9ualit. of the
soun*-s.ste! use*/ &u*ho.onoAs 1as the better +(en% Schulte Nor*holt# 0ersonal co!!unication-/
Soun* can be !ore than a !anifestation of 0o1er@ it can also beco!e the casus belli in a 0o1er conflict/
The to1n of 3ena*o has a !i5e* Christian-3usli! 0o0ulation/ In the last *eca*e# 1hen co!!unal 4iolence
relate* to reli2ious *i4ersit. 1as rife throu2hout In*onesia# 3ena*o re!aine* 0eaceful# 0artl. because the
Christian !a"orit. is so o4er1hel!in2 that the reli2ious balance is clear to all 0arties an* therefore
unconteste*/ (o1e4er# the a8an 1as a sli2ht irritation to the Christian 0o0ulation an*# in res0onse# the
Protestant churches be2an to broa*cast 0o0ular tunes fro! s0ea%ers hun2 fro! church to1ers/ These tunes
ha* no reli2ious or 0olitical !essa2e@ their function 1as !erel. Dto !a%e soun* tooD +Da4i* (enle.# 0ersonal
co!!unication-/
The Sound of Modernity
The transition for! a rural to an urban lifest.le# the In*ustrial Re4olution an* the in4entions of electric
trans!ission an* a!0lification of soun* ha4e all resulte* in an increase in soun*-0ressure le4el +Schafer
1<-/ The 0rocess of !o*erni8ation has elicite* ne1 techni9ues# 1hich 0ro*uce soun*s of such a 4olu!e
the. 1oul* be consi*ere* noise 0ollution in ,uro0e/ In In*onesia these soun*s are often e4aluate*
0ositi4el./ As !entione* abo4e# all cities bu88 1ith the soun* of !otori8e* traffic an* horns# but it is
es0eciall. in rural areas that the lou* soun*s are seen as 0art of !o*ernit./
The noise of !otorcars is# for e5a!0le# the ulti!ate soun* of !o*ernit. for the Sa%ai# an in*i2enous 0eo0le
li4in2 in the islan* of Su!atra/ In the late 1<=0s# a roa* 0enetrate* their forest en4iron!ent for the first
ti!e an* the net1or% has been e50an*in2 e4er since/ 3an. 2rou0s ha4e left the forest an* ha4e chosen to
li4e alon2 the roa*# because si!0l. seein2 the cars 0ass b. 2i4es the Sa%ai the feelin2 that the. are
beco!in2 !ore 0ro2ressi4e or *e4elo0e* +beco!in2 *e4elo0e* is a %e. 4alue in In*onesian societ.#
internali8e* b. al!ost e4er.bo*.-/ Nathan Porath +)00): ;>- has *e0icte* the ne1 soun*sca0e: The soun*
of an en2ine has beco!e 0art of the en4iron!ental soun*sca0e an* in local oral-art 2enres is referre* to
ono!ato0oeicall. as buA*eAu! *eAu! +4roo! 4roo!-/ A co!!on !es!eri8in2 soun* 0attern is the lou*
traffic soun*s of hootin2 truc%s an* their en2ines follo1e* b. a su**en !o!ent of h.0notic silence/ A
0assin2 !otorbi%e 0ierces the silence# but as the soun* of its !otor *i!inishes in the *istance# the 0eace is
utterl. shattere* b. the resu!0tion of acceleratin2 truc%s/ 6hile 1or%in2 in the sa!e area# I hear* non-
Sa%ai 0eo0le use an ono!ato0oeia to i!itate the unfa!iliar soun* of s0i%e* t.res--ne1l. constructe* roa*s
can be 4er. sli00er.--%ere%e-%ere%e-%ere%/
In the !i*-1<;0s# the soun* of !o*ernit. 1as "ust startin2 to 0enetrate the s!all 4illa2e in 6est Ja4a
1here I 1as *oin2 fiel*1or% +stu*.in2 a2ricultural e5tension- at the ti!e/ This 4illa2e 1as still so!e1hat
isolate*/ A *irt roa* connecte* it to the as0halte* sub*istrict +%eca!atan- roa* an* it ha* no re2ular 0ublic
trans0ort/ The a*!inistration ha* recentl. 0ro4i*e* the 4illa2e 1ith a blac%-an*-1hite tele4ision so that the
2o4ern!ent 0ro0a2an*a an* infor!ation 0ro2ra!!es 1oul* reach these 4illa2ers too/ The tele4ision 1as
0o1ere* b. a 0ortable batter.# 1hich ha* to be re0lace* *ail./ Rechar2e* batteries 1ere brou2ht to the
4illa2e fro! the sub-*istrict ca0ital o4er the *irt roa*/ ,4er. e4enin2 the 4illa2ers con2re2ate* aroun* the
tele4ision to 1atch an* to sociali8e/ The 4olu!e 1as al1a.s lou*# but in the course of the e4enin2# as the
batter. ran out# the screen 2re1 0aler an* 0aler an* the soun* *ie* a1a./
At one 0oint# the 0ortable batter. 1as also use* *urin2 a rat hunt/ Rats 1ere !a%in2 holes in the *i%es
bet1een the 0a**ies# threatenin2 the irri2ation s.ste!# an* one *a. the 4illa2ers 1ere !obili8e* to
era*icate the rats/ It 1as a cheerful occasion# es0eciall. as the chil*ren *ro4e the rats fro! the holes an*
the a*ults# !en an* 1o!en# beat the rats to *eath/ ,ach *o8en rat tails 1as re1ar*e* 1ith a s!all a!ount
of !one./ In or*er to fire u0 the cro1*# a 2rou0 of !usicians 0la.e* a s!all bonan2 +an instru!ent
consistin2 of a ro1 of in4erte* bron8e bo1ls- an* a 4iolin an* san2/ The sin2in2 1as !ore li%e ra0# an* I
recall ho1 the sin2erJra00er !a*e "o%es about the funn. forei2n anthro0olo2ist as I entere* the fiel*s/ The
!usic an* sin2in2 1ere reinforce* b. a lou*s0ea%er an* the batter.# 1hich ha* been carrie* out to the
fiel*s/
Po0 !usic +*an2*ut# roc% In*onesia# an* 6estern 0o0- is an i!0ortant si2n of !o*ernit./ As !entione*
0re4iousl.# 0o0 !usic is 0art of the urban bac%2roun* in sho00in2 !alls an* 0ublic trans0ortation# but at
ti!es it ac9uires a !ore 0ro!inent 0lace/ In 1<<0# for e5a!0le# I atten*e* a roc% concert in the to1n of
Pa*an2/ It 1as a free concert 1ith a line-u0 of !ore or less fa!ous artists/ The e4ent 1as s0onsore* b. a
ci2arette co!0an.# 'u*an2 'ara!# 1hich 0ro!ote* its 0ro*uct b. *istributin2 free 0ac%s/ 3ost of the
au*ience li%e* the entertain!ent# but# for once# foun* the 4olu!e unbearable/ 3an. 0eo0le bro%e the filters
off the free ci2arettes an* use* the! as i!0ro4ise* 0rotecti4e ear0lu2s/ These ear0lu2s for!e* a 0ractical
solution to a 0ractical 0roble!# but the hi2h 4olu!e 1as not con*e!ne* in !oral ter!s/
The Noise of Intimacy
At the en* of this article it 1ill co!e as no sur0rise that inti!ate !o!ents are also acco!0anie* b. noise/
One such !o!ent 1as a 1e**in2 that I obser4e* in &o2.a%arta in )00?/ The !arria2e bet1een a 0rofessor
at the Uni4ersitas 'a*"ah 3a*a an* his ne1 1ife 1as celebrate* at the rectorAs office# an ele4ate*
cere!onial buil*in2/ A lon2 flo1 of 2uests atten*e* this occasion an* the. 1ere 1elco!e* at the *oor of the
rectorAs office b. a fe!ale sin2er/ The 4olu!e of the s0ea%ers 1as so lou* that her 4oice coul* be hear*
throu2hout !ost of the ca!0us/
At so!e *istance fro! the rectorAs office lies an o0en-air s0orts co!0le5 1here .oun2 lo4ers !eet/ Go.s ri*e
aroun* 1ith their 2irls on the 0illion an* 0ar% b. the roa*si*e +the roa*s 1in* bet1een the s0orts fiel*s an*
there is also a har*ene* "o22in2 trac%-/ (i*in2 behin* the !otorc.cle or sittin2 on the unlit "o22in2 trac%#
the lo4ers en"o. so!e 0ri4ac./ This bu**in2 ha00iness is acco!0anie* b. the soun* of !otors co!in2 an*
2oin2# 1hile t1o roa*s carr.in2 0lent. of throu2h-traffic 0ass b. the si*e of the co!0le5/ Another 0o0ular
!eetin2 0lace all o4er In*onesia is the roa*si*e foo* stall/ (ere the traffic noise is e4en 1orse/
Noise is not !erel. tolerate* as an ine4itable fact of life# it reall. is not 0ercei4e* as an issue at all/ At least
this is the i!0ression I ha* in 3e*an# 1hich is# as !entione*# the noisiest cit. in In*onesia/ At ni2ht# one of
the !ain sho00in2 streets# Hesa1an# is close* to traffic in or*er to create an area of foo* stalls/ This lar2e
o0en-air foo* 0la8a is 1ell-or2ani8e*# 1ith clean tables# a s.ste! of 0a.!ent in cou0ons# an* a free %arao%e
screen 1ith s0ea%ers at !o*erate 4olu!e/ Unfortunatel.# the area is also the heart of the 0ro*uction of
e*ible bir*sA nests/ The to0 floors of !ost buil*in2s ha4e o0en 0i0es for the s1allo1s to nest in# 1hile other
buil*in2s ha4e been erecte* es0eciall. for this 0ur0ose/ +10- S0ea%ers s0e1 out lou* electric s9ueals in
i!itation of the s1allo1sA shrie%s in or*er to attract e4en !ore bir*s/ The coinci*ence of an entertain!ent
*istrict 1ith electricall. a!0lifie* screeches is not 0oor s0atial 0lannin2# but a !atter of !utual irrele4ance/
Conclusion
In this article I ha4e *iscusse* noise as a salient feature of the In*onesian urban soun*sca0e/ The ai! of
this article 1as to intro*uce soun*sca0es as a 4ali* an* fascinatin2 research to0ic# usin2 an anthro0olo2ical-
historical !etho*olo2./ The article is !o*est in its a!bitions for three reasons/ $irstl.# the article is biase*--
restricte* to noise--i2norin2 other ele!ents in the soun*sca0e/ Secon*l.# the historical e4i*ence is
i!0ressionistic# *ra1n lar2el. fro! the 0ast t1o *eca*es an* occasionall. su00le!ente* 1ith chance
fin*in2s of 1ritten historical infor!ation/ Thir*l.# the article fails to 0ro4i*e an e!ic *efinition of the
soun*sca0e/ 6hat the article has achie4e*# I ho0e# is to 0ro4i*e an acoustic 0anora!a of the In*onesian
cit./ An a2en*a for follo1-u0 research !ust inclu*e ob"ecti4e soun* le4el !easure!ents# the s.ste!atic
anal.sis of the !eanin2 of noise an* soun* in 2eneral# the *ifference bet1een cities# the *ifference bet1een
0eo0le fro! 4arious ethnic 2rou0s# social classes an* 2en*er# an* the 0ossibl. *ifferent tolerance le4els for
noise in 0ublic an* 0ri4ate *o!ains/
I lea4e it to others to atte!0t the stu*. of s!ell-sca0es/
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NOT,S
+1/- This article is a chan2e*# e50an*e*# an* theoreticall. fra!e* 4ersion of a research note 0ublishe* in the
$estschrift for Prof Taufi% Ab*ullah/ I a! 4er. 2rateful to the anon.!ous re4ie1ers of this article# 1ho ha4e
*ra1n !. attention to the e5tensi4e literature on soun*sca0es/
+)/- This co!0arison is base* on i!0ressionistic e4i*ence collecte*--De50erience*D is 0erha0s a better
1or*--*urin2 selecti4e 4isits to these countries/ It 1oul* be 1orth1hile to atte!0t to substantiate or refute
this co!0arison b. use of the !easure!ents of the soun* le4el/
+:/- To listen ho1 such an archi4e !a. soun*# 2o to A!ericaAs Recor*e* Soun* (erita2e Pro"ect# +retrie4e*
Dece!ber )00=-/
+?/- See for e5a!0les of so0histicate* !easure!ents of soun*sca0es the 1or% of Jian 'e an* (o%ao +)00?#
)00=-@ Ca4an*ier an* Defre4ille +)00>-@ an* &an2 an* Han2 +)00=-/
+=/- 3. 0oint that noise is not a si2nificant issue is un*erscore* b. a CD 1ith the soun*sca0e of urban
In*onesia +$ahres# Ban *e Poel# an* Si*harta )001@ I 1oul* li%e to than% Re!co Raben for *ra1in2 !.
attention to this CD an* len*in2 !e his co0.-/ The CD contains nine soun* co!0ositions b. .oun2
In*onesian !usicians# 1ho 1ere ins0ire* b. an iron1or%s# the crunchin2 of 0a0er# the sho4in2 aroun* of
chairs an* so on/ The CD also contains four trac%s recor*e* in the streets of Ja%arta# Go2or# Tan2eran2# an*
Ge%asi/ T1o 0oints are 1orth notin2 here: first# the street soun*s are ne4er nois. +no selection of 0articular
nois. thin2s 1as !a*e- an*# secon*# the initiati4e of recor*in2 the soun*sca0e 1as ta%en b. t1o ,uro0eans#
not b. In*onesians/ It is also si2nificant that in a list of noise abate!ent le2islation in fift. cities in Asia#
Africa# an* Catin A!erica# the onl. In*onesian cit. !entione*# &o2.a%arta# is one of the fe1 +ten- cities
1ithout an. le2islation in this res0ect/ Note# thou2h# that the absence of le2islation !i2ht be cause* b. the
real 9uietness of &o2.a%arta an* not b. *isre2ar* of the noise +Schafer 1<# 00/ 1<1-<?-/
+>/- $or an e50lanation of this 4ariable# see Ger2lun*# Cin*4all an* Sch1ela )000# 00/ 4ii-4iii-/
+/- Of course# I *o not 1ish to state that no soun*sca0e stu*. has e4er loo%e* at *ifferences 1ithin a
0o0ulation# but the 1or%s consulte* for this article focus on *ifferences bet1een cities rather than 1ithin
urban 0o0ulations +1ith the 0artial e5ce0tion of Jian 'e an* (o%ao )00?-/
+;/- Cetter Gur2e!eester to (oof* De0arte!ent Ber%eer# ,ner2ie en 3i"n1e8en +Af*elin2 Gur2erlucht4aart-#
3e*an 1-?-1<?<# no/ 1?=?@ an* letter A/J/ Palin2 to 6ali Ne2ara# 3e*an )1--1<?;# no/ :0=<# Arsi0 Ga2ian
U!u! Pe!erintah Hota 3e*an +3e*an !unici0al archi4e-/
+</- Ca1aaii2er *an een 4lie2!achine# *ie 0al o4er her *a% 4lie2t# 2e1el*i2er ru!oeren* Ea neolo2is!F *an
een aftan*sche 4rachtauto# *en*eren* lan2s *e 4oor2aleri" en helscher ra8en* *an een tro0ische
on1eersbui# 1or*t bet *rin2en* noo*8a%eli"% *at aan *e8e infernale 0laa2 een ein*e %o!t# 1ant *e8e
be8oe%in2 is in stri"* !et el% be2ri0 4an ci4ilisatie/
+10/- These buil*in2s ha4e neither *oors nor 1in*o1s@ the. onl. ha4e outsi*e 1alls 1ith *o8ens of holes/
$ree% Colo!bi"n is Assistant Professor at the De0art!ent of Social an* Cultural Anthro0olo2. of the BU
Uni4ersit. in A!ster*a!# The Netherlan*s/